[page 411] Like other civilizations, Tibet has belles-lettres (kāvya). Yet, despite much recent study of Tibetan literature and culture, the prevailing view continues to be that Tibet never developed a genre of literature whose primary purpose is aesthetic enjoyment (Hoffman: 193-212; Snellgrove and Richardson: 59-63; Stein: 251-252; Tucci: 94-96). The purpose of this essay is to show that the Tibetans, as inheritors of Indian literary culture, produced numerous works in an ornate style meant to be appreciated as displays of verbal virtuosity. While in general it cannot be denied that Tibetan culture is pervaded by Buddhist thought and sensibilities, it is going too far to contend that there is no literature outside of religion.

Most of the authors in the Tibetan belles-lettres tradition strove to give their readers pleasure from their craft of style, and in addition impart religious instruction and moral edification through their choice of subject matter (often the life of the Buddha, jātaka stories, avadānas, etc.). Yet there is at least one work with aesthetic pleasure as its raison d'être: the eighteenth-century Tibetan novel gZhon nu zla med kyi gtam rgyud ("The Tale of the Incomparable Prince"), by mDo mkhar zhabs drung Tshe ring dbang rgyal (1697-1763). Because the novel's use of ornate poetry and prose to tell a fictional story in a Buddhist context can only be understood within the context of Tibetan belles-lettres a brief history of that genre precedes our discussion of the novel.[page 412]

There are two traditions of Tibetan artistic composition: literature in an indigenous stylistic genre, and literature (kāvya, snyan ngag) that follows a canon of expression derived from Indian stylistic prescriptions (alaṃkāraśāstra) (see van der Kuijp and R. Jackson, in this volume).

The Tibetan term snyan ngag is used with two closely related but distinct meanings: it signifies both the science of poetics (alaṃkāraśāstra), and the products of the poetic process—belles-lettres itself (kāvya) (KJG: 5; SKK, vol. 2: 298; Klong rdol: 391; Smith, vol. 3: 1; Tucci: 626). Indo-Tibetan poetics is devoted solely to the mechanics of composition; its primary concerns are the components of literature, such as comparative structures or figures of speech (alaṃkāra). Poetics describes the expressive apparatus that gives rise to aesthetic pleasure through a systematization of the figures, their relationship to content, and their poetic application (Gerow: 14).

The foundation of the study of poetics in Tibet can be attributed to Sa skya Paṇḍita [or Paṇ chen] Kun dga' rgyal mtshan (1181-1251), and his nephew and successor 'Phags pa 'gro dgon chos rgyal Blo gros rgyal mtshan (1235-1280) (BG: 57). These early Sa skya masters set the course for the later development of literature in Tibet through commissioning translations of the major Sanskrit works on poetic theory, and the poetry and dramas which make up almost the entire contents of the sGra mdo and sKye rabs sections of the canon (Smith: 6; Tucci: 104).

The Sa skya masters were interested in poetics as part of the process of propagating Buddhism in Tibet rather than as art for art's sake. These scholars wanted to maintain the accuracy of doctrine ('dzin), preserve it in its purity and entirety (skyong), and spread it to others (spel). In addition, expertise in composition was required in order to structure clear explanations of doctrine ('chad), to dispute with opponents (rtsod), and to compose lucid treatises (rtsom). Thus, every composition necessitated a knowledge of poetics (KJG: i-ii).

To aid in the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet Sa skya Paṇḍita wrote works on composition, prosody and lexicography.1 His primer on composition, the mKhas pa rnams 'jug pa'i sgo, drew heavily upon the Kāvyādarśa of Daṇḍin.2 Through Sa skya Paṇḍita's work, and later translations and commentaries on Daṇḍin, the[page 413] Kāvyādarśa became the authoritative manual on the composition of belles-lettres in Tibet. In addition, at the request of the Sa skya ruler dPon chen Shākya bzang po and 'Phags pa, Shong ston rDo rje rgyal mtshan, his disciple dPang Lo tsā ba Blo gros brtan pa (1276-1342), and the Nepalese pandit Lakṣmīkara translated various works that became the basis for all future Tibetan work on poetics.3

Other early Sa skya writing, while not composed with the intention of influencing Tibetan literary style, had considerable impact on the thematic content of belles-lettres. Pithy expositions of ethical issues often included a brief exposition of the Indian epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. The Rāmāyaṇa was used more frequently, for the story could illustrate lay ethics compatible with Buddhism.4 The most influential Tibetan account of the Rāmāyaṇa is found in dBus pa dMar ston chos rgyal's commentary on the Sa skya legs bshad. Most later commentaries and independent works on the epic follow his version of the stories.5

Traditional Buddhist themes were of course the subjects of full-length Tibetan poetic compositions and used as illustrations in poetic manuals. In the rTag tu ngu yi rnam thar, rJe Tsong kha pa (1357-1419), the founder of the dGe lugs pa school, composed an elegant rendering in verse of the story of the bodhisattva Sadāprarudita found in the eight-thousand-line Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (Conze: 277-299). Later writers, notably Jo nang Tāranātha Kun dga' snying po (1575-1634), 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa (1648-1721) and the second Paṇ chen Blo bzang ye shes dpal bzang (1663-1737) used themes from the avadānas in their poetic writing.

After the mid-fifteenth century the adaptation of Indian themes and styles into Tibetan literature slowed. There were no new developments until renewed contact between India and Tibet in the sixteenth century revived interest in the study of Sanskrit stylistics (Tucci: 13-14, 137).

The study of poetics was formalized in Tibet under the fifth Dalai Lama, Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho (1617-1682). He established a government school for lay and ecclesiastic officials where all would-be government officials were required to master the rules of poetics (Shakabpa: 123; Smith, vol. 3: 9), and he was an author and patron of literature (Tucci: 146). Although some scholars have said that a number of the works attributed to the fifth Dalai Lama and his regent sDe srid Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho[page 414] were written by others (Smith, vol. 3: 19),6 we can safely say that the fifth Dalai Lama and his court presided over a period of cultural efflorescence.

In the eighteenth century a new phase of poetic scholarship began with Si tu Paṇ chen Chos kyi 'byung gnas (1700-1774), and his main student of poetics, Khams sprul bsTan 'dzin chos kyi nyi ma (1730-1779).7 These two scholars were the chief representatives of a new school analyzing poetry in terms of three qualities: (1) the body (lus) or subject matter (brjod bya), (2) ornamentation (rgyan) as the employment of the canons of kāvya, and (3) the life (srog) or aim (don) which is the intent (dgong, gshad 'dod), or motivation (brjod 'dod). This threefold analysis contrasts with an earlier systematization found in the fifth Dalai Lama's work dByangs can dgyes pa'i glu and the treatises of his followers. This school discusses only two categories: the subject matter and the figures of speech. The dispute over which system to follow resulted in two separate traditions of commentarial literature on poetics.8

It is within the context of the eighteenth-century belles-lettres that we can examine the poetic work of one of the great men of Tibetan letters, mDo mkhar zhabs drung Tshe ring dbang rgyal.9 His mixed poetry and prose novel, gZhon nu zla med kyi gtam rgyud ("The Tale of the Incomparable Prince"), is an illustration of the fully developed kāvya style in Tibet.

Tshe ring dbang rgyal clearly intended gZhon nu zla med to fit into the Indo-Tibetan poetic tradition: the style and virtually all the thematic influences on the novel are of Indian origin. A synopsis of the plot of the novel will help contextualize our subsequent detailed discussion of work's style and content.

The king and queen of a kingdom find that they are unable to have a child. Their ministers advise them to make offerings to the gods and ask for progeny as a boon. In response to their prayers, the couple has a miraculous son, Prince gZhon nu zla med.

After much controversy, the elders of the realm decide to bring up the prince in a secular fashion. They plan for him to rule the[page 415] realm rather than take up a religious life. When it is time for the prince to marry, the only suitable girl is Yid 'ong ma, a princess already betrothed to the vicious, unprincipled Prince Lha las phul byung. Prince gZhon nu zla med attempts to win the princess by diplomacy, and, failing that, by subterfuge. A clever kidnap attempt fails, and Yid 'ong ma and Prince gZhon nu zla med's best friend, dPa' bo srid pa gzhon nu are taken captive by their enemy, Prince Lha las phul byung.

While Prince gZhon nu zla med gathers a large army and prepares to rescue them, Yid 'ong ma is forced to marry the evil lHa las phul byung. But, she tricks him into postponing the marriage's consummation. dPa' bo srid pa gzhon nu convinces his captors that he has turned traitor and joined their cause. He then causes dissension in the court and seriously weakens the defenses of the enemy kingdom.

Prince gZhon nu zla med's army arrives and wins a bloody battle. The prince is united with Yid 'ong ma but doubts her virtue. Finally he is convinced of her purity and they are happily married.

Meanwhile, Prince gZhon nu zla med's father has fallen in love with a lower class girl. To obtain her, the king promises that if she bears a son the boy will inherit the kingdom. The main queen, the court, and all the upper nobility are aghast but powerless to intervene. The new queen, mDzes sdug me tog, conceives and delivers a boy. Prince gZhon nu zla med and Yid 'ong ma return and befriend the child.

When Yid 'ong ma goes to visit her parents, Prince gZhon nu zla med is made regent until his younger half-brother comes of age. He attempts to rule the realm religiously by perfecting the practice of charity. The prince's charity nearly bankrupts the realm and the old king must quell the unrest led by mDzes sdug me tog's father.

The second queen has become infatuated with Prince gZhon nu zla med. But when he rejects her amorous advances, she fears that he will expose her impropriety. Playing into her father's plans, mDzes sdug me tog convinces the old king to banish the prince. gZhon nu zla med's loyal friend dPa bo srid pa gzhon nu follows him into exile.

Yid 'ong ma returns from her journey and finds her husband gone. Although the court tries to dissuade her, she decides to follow[page 416] her husband into exile. She loses her way in the forest, where her maidservants are devoured by wild animals. She gives up hope, but finally manages to join the two men in religious retreat in the forest hermitage.

After Prince gZhon nu zla med fulfills the terms of his exile, he decides to return to civilization to share the joy of his spiritual knowledge. En route, he saves dPa' bo srid pa gzhon nu's life by making a salve from the marrow of his own bones. This selfless act brings the prince to the spiritual plane of a bodhisattva. He preaches the Buddhist message to his family and court. His friends, family, and former enemies are all brought to happiness.

The two major thematic sources of material for this novel are the Rāmāyaṇa and the corpus of avadāna literature.10 These have approximately equal importance as a source for themes, plot and metaphors. The plot of gZhon nu zla med is clearly indebted to the Rāmāyaṇa. Yid 'ong ma's capture by the evil prince and the subsequent questioning of her virtue parallel the trials of Sītā. dPa' bo srid pa gzhon nu's destruction of the enemy is modeled after Hanuman's assistance to Rāma. His later devotion to his ruler in exile is an adaptation of the role of Lakṣmaṇa. The sub-plot of the second queen mDzes sdug me tog, the forest exile, and the glorious return of the prince also reflect the Rāma story.

The second half of the novel focuses upon the religious conscience and actions of the prince. Here the author drew heavily from the avadāna literature. His generosity, to the point of giving away parts of his realm, and his healing of a wounded follower by sacrificing his own body, are common themes in Buddhist jātakas. In addition, many minor incidents and images show clear links to the avadānas.

The novel gZhon nu zla med is meant to "accord with the texts of epic drama (mahākāvya, snyan ngag chen po)" (ZZ: 533). According to the canons of Daṇḍin's poetics, an epic must produce an understanding of all four aims of life: virtue or duty (dharma, chos), wealth and power (artha, nor), love and pleasure (kāma, 'dod pa), and renunciation and liberation (mokṣa, thar pa) (Kāvyādarśa, I: 14-15; Warder, vol. 1: 170). Tshe ring dbang rgyal indicates in the novel's colophon the specific sections of his work that illustrate these aspects of human experience (ZZ: 528-531). The love story and war[page 417] in the first half of the novel portray the three mundane facets of human experience. The second half of gZhon nu zla med is devoted to a poetic description of renunciation and liberation from cyclic existence.

An epic must have more than vague references to these four aims: it must portray life by describing the following topics: cities, oceans, mountains, seasons, moonrise, sunrise, sport or play in a garden, park, or water, festivals of lovemaking and drinking, frustration due to separation from a lover, weddings, the birth and maturation of a prince, political debate or counsel, embassies or emissaries, expeditions, battles and war, and the triumph of a hero (Kāvyādarśa, I: 16-17; Warder, vol. 1: 171). Again, Tshe ring dbang rgyal takes pains to leave no doubt that he covered all of these topics: in the colophon he lists point by point how he treated each one (ZZ: 529-531).

In the novel's colophon Tshe ring dbang rgyal states that he also followed all Daṇḍin's stylistic prescriptions for a work of poetry. The first chapter of the Kāvyādarśa describes the types and general qualities of kāvya literature (Kāvyādarśa, I: 31). Following these prescriptions we label gZhon nu zla med a standard campū: a mixed verse and prose composition. Prose conveys the plot, short descriptions, and brief dialogues. In contrast, poetry is employed for lengthy speeches, longer descriptive passages, and recapitulations of prose. The meter of the verses varies from seven to twenty-one syllables per foot, with nine- or eleven-syllable feet most common. The usual length of a verse is four feet, but three, six or even more feet to a verse are occasionally found.

Tshe ring dbang rgyal follows the second chapter of the Kāvyādarśa very closely. He employs all the poetic ornaments, or figures of speech (alaṃkāra, rgyan). Indeed, he borrows many metaphors from other works of Indian kāvya. For example, the loving affinity of the moon and night lilies (Newman: 393) can be found in Āryaśūra's Jātakamālā (IX: 47), and a swoon compared to a vine or tree cut down at its root (Newman: 483) appears in the Jātakamālā (IX: 47).11

Tshe ring dbang rgyal's novel gZhon nu zla med kyi gtam rgyud is a Tibetan work with strong roots in the Indian belles-lettres tradition. Although Tshe ring dbang rgyal's composition is a campū[page 418] and his themes are from the avadānas and the Rāmāyaṇa, the novel is more than a transposition of Indian poetry and poetics into Tibetan. While it fulfills all the requirements of the genre, gZhon nu zla med kyi gtam rgyud transforms traditional themes into a new and creative work.

This novel continues to be the most popular work of Tibetan fiction. gZhon nu zla med has a religious theme, but it is a work meant for enjoyment. Tshe ring dbang rgyal defends his composition with the rationale that poetry has long been used to sweeten the taste of what might otherwise be didactic works (ZZ: 531-532; 'Jam mgon kong sprul, vol. 2: 296-297). This Tibetan work is an excellent example of kāvya used to describe human experience in beautiful language that only secondarily aims to edify the reader.

Āryaśūra See Speyer, J.S.

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