The growing increase in interest and participation of the community in meditation and mindfulness has resulted in a significant increase in university research. To date, more than 380 peer-reviewed research studies on the Transcendental Meditation technique have been published in over 160 scientific journals (TM website). In 1980 only a few studies were published on Mindful-Based-Stress-Reduction, one of the most popular mindfulness type programs, while in 2013, 543 were published.

Research on mindfulness and meditation took a leap forward with the introduction of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) which showed that new neural pathways grow and change the size and structure of the brain (called neuroplasticity) during meditation.

Studies have shown that in long term meditators, the cortical regions which process sensory input were thicker and that meditation increased brain activity areas involved with learning and memory processes, emotional regulation, self-reflection and perceptiveness.

Two meta-studies have summarised the results of several years of meditation and mindfulness research: “What are the Benefits of Mindfulness?” (Davis and Hayes, 2012) and “Brief Summary of Mindfulness Research” (Flaxman and Flook, 2012). Among the health and social benefits they describe was lower blood pressure, reduced stress, less heart disease, reduced recurrence of cancer, fewer headaches, better sleep, slowing of the aging process and bolstering the immune system. Recent research showed that meditation can lengthen the telomeres in chromosomes which helps overcome the negative effects of stress and aging (Blackburn & Epel, 2017). Social benefits include improved interpersonal interactions such as trust, self-esteem, life satisfaction, reduced alcohol and drug abuse, and less crime.

Reb and Choi (2014) summarized results the impact of mindfulness on the workplace which showed an improvement in job satisfaction, reduced employee turnover and absenteeism, and improved workplace learning. An eight-week program that taught meditation to 178 workers showed significant reduction in the meditating group on measures of strain and depression (Manocha et al, 2011). Davidson et al (2003) reported increased happiness, energy and engagement, decreased anxiety and activity increased in the left prefrontal cortex after an eight week mindfulness-meditation program.

Nurses reported greater relaxation, self-care and improvement in work and family relations after meditation training (Shapiro et al, 1998). Kirk et al (2011) found expert meditators were twice as likely to make economically rational decisions and reduce negative emotional responses compared to a control group. The ability to learn, improve memory, achieve faster reaction times, and increase mental and physical stamina and performance in school was improved through the regular practice of meditation (Reb & Choi, 2014).

Concerns have been expressed regarding weaknesses in methodology including small sample sizes, lack of random samples, poor use of controls, and use of self-report as measures of improvement (Ospina, et al, 2007, Horgan, 2013). There is also criticism about mindfulness training being conducted superficially or including people who were not ready psychologically. Andresen (2000) noted that meditation has been linked to adverse side effects for some people including depression, suicidal impulses, insomnia, nightmares, and anxiety.  While there is greater awareness that mindfulness-meditation training is not suitable for some people, and the need for more rigorous research, there is substantial evidence of the positive benefits of mindfulness.

Universities, therefore, have an important role in monitoring the quality of research on mindfulness and meditation, to verify or not their benefits, and to define the conditions and elements needed for effective teaching and practice.

There has been a significant increase in higher education activity in teaching of mindfulness. In addition to the popularity of mindfulness and its possible benefits in reducing lifestyle illnesses, an additional factor has been the growing number of mental health problems of students (James, 2017). The Higher Education Funding Council of the United Kingdom has reported the increase of student mental health problems has increased from 8,000 in 2002/2003 to 18,000 in 2102/13.

The 2016 UCLA Higher Education Research Institute survey of freshmen nearly 12 percent of students indicated they are frequently depressed. According to the data gathered by the Center for Collegiate Mental Health at Penn State University from 139 institutions, 26 percent of students who sought help said they had intentionally hurt themselves; 33.2 percent had considered suicide with the numbers of students increasing each year.

To respond to this growing interest and health problems in the community and students, a number of universities, have started mindfulness centers including the University of Southern California, the University of California at San Diego and Irvine and the University of Massachusetts.

Buckingham University in the UK has defined its vision to be a positive-health university with mindfulness central to this vision. Maharishi International University, which started over 30 years ago, has been dedicated to the science and practice of Transcendental Meditation.

The University of North Carolina, Harvard University, Duke University, University of Minnesota, UCLA, University of Pennsylvania, Elon University, University of Virginal, Cambridge University, and University of Iowa are some of the universities currently running programs for students, the community, and workplaces. A number degree courses in health, education and business have included elements of mindfulness in their teaching curriculum. Most of these programs focus on the reduction of stress and the improvement of health and psychological wellbeing of the individual.

While a number of university executive education programs include mindfulness presentations and practices, only a few have made mindfulness a core ingredient in their programs or offer specific course on mindfulness. Atlantic University, however, runs a Mindful Leadership program.

In summary, meditation and mindfulness, has resulted in considerable benefits for personal health and wellbeing, performance, learning, engagement and job satisfaction. These benefits are confirmed by physiological improvements in brain, heart, and cell functioning. There has been an increase in universities and colleges conducting mindfulness research and training programs for the health of community and individuals and a smaller number of programs for the workplace and leaders.  

A major problem for lack of wider adoption is that for people who lead busy, action-oriented lives, mindfulness and meditation can be considered a waste of time. The traditional slogan in business of ‘Don’t just sit there: Do something!’ is opposite of the mindfulness state of “Just don’t do something: Sit there”. Taking time out to be in a passive mindful state appears contrary to the drive to be as productive and cost efficient as possible.  

Integrating mindfulness into the activity of the flow state may result in wider appeal and additional benefits beyond individual health and wellbeing.

Flow relates to the movement of energy at physical, psychic and spiritual levels. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1990), Professor of Psychology at Claremont Graduate University, defines flow at the psychic level as “the mental state of operation in which a person performing an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energised focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the activity”. He considers flow as the optimal human experience.

The Killingsworth and Gilbert study (2010) mentioned earlier found that the greatest moments of happiness occur when we are in the present, immersed in the task—in flow. During these times of being fully in the moment, we experience a state of complete contentment. According to an international Gallup survey, between 15% and 20% of adults claim to experience flow every day. Another 60% report being intensely involved in what they do anywhere from once every few months to at least once a week (Csikszentmihalyi, 2004). Studies confirm flow is a universal state across a wide range of activities such as elite and non-elite sport, aesthetic experiences, literary and scholarly writing, creative, and a wide range of social and work activities

Phil Jackson (1995), ex-basketball coach of the Chicago Bulls and LA Lakers and winner of six national basketball championships, describes the flow state: “All of us have had flashes of this sense of oneness—making love, creating a work of art—when we’re completely immersed in the moment, inseparable from what we’re doing. This kind of experience happens all the time on the basketball floor; that’s why the game is so intoxicating. But if you’re really paying attention, it can also occur while you’re performing the most mundane tasks.”

Csikszentmihalyi’s studies (1997) have clarified characteristics of the flow state and conditions that help bring it about. He describes the following nine components:

1. A balance of challenging activity and skill
2. Merging of action and awareness
3. Concentration on the task at hand
4. Loss of self-consciousness, a sense of a separate self disappears
5. Altering of time, including time standing still
6. A clear, purposeful goal
7. Unambiguous feedback
8. A sense of both control and spontaneity
9. Autotelic experience: the activity has no purpose other than itself

Research studies have shown the greater time a person spends in flow, the greater self-esteem they experience (Wells, 1988). An investigation into flow in the workplace found that employees experiencing high levels of flow were more flexible and adaptable in the workplace and more likely to seek opportunities for action (Ceja & Navarro, 2011).  A study by Fulgar and Kelloway (2009) showed a significant positive relationship between flow experience and positive mood, and that tasks requiring complex skill, expressing creativity and resolving problems lead to a more frequent experience of flow.

Studies have found that the flow experience has a direct positive impact on job satisfaction, performance, engagement and motivation (Chui & Lee, 2012, Lee, 2004, Bryce & Hayworth, 2002, Bason & Frane, 2004). The Swedish-owned company, Green Cargo, moved from a long history of losing money to a profitable company in 2004, one year after introducing new work practices based on flow principles (Ceja & Navarro, 2017).

Several studies have linked flow to commitment and achievement during high school (Carli, et al, 1988). In studies of two university courses, flow predicted semester end performance (Engeser, et al, 2005).

Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi (2009) state that flow can occur through structuring the external environment and activities that provide challenging, meaningful tasks with clear feedback that match a person’s skills. Csikszentmihalyi (1990), however, indicates that some individuals are less capable of experiencing flow because of their inability to manage their attention. Some are unable to hold attention on one thing because their attention is dispersed and fragmented by external stimuli. Others limit their ability to experience flow because of excessive concentration on one’s self through continual doubt and uncertainty or excessive self-centred preoccupation on personal desires and self-interest. Fragmented, self-conscious or self-interested attention lack sufficient control of psychic energy to enter flow.

Lee (2005) examined the relationships of motivation and flow experience to academic procrastination in 262 Korean undergraduate students and showed that high procrastination was associated with lack of self-determined motivation and low incidence of flow state.

Two studies based on interviews with elite swimmers, showed that optimal performance, or “flow,” states reveal similar characteristics to mindfulness and acceptance states. In flow experiences, the elite swimmers were especially mindful and accepting of their bodily sensations. In the second study, mindfulness, integrated into the skills training program for seven young elite golfers, contributed to performance improvement in competition. Participants improved the efficacy of their routines by getting more relevant internal and external information (Bernier et al, 2009).

Research (Kee & Wang, 2008) into the relationship between mindfulness and flow in student athletes found that athletes in a high mindfulness group scored significantly higher in the flow components of challenge-skill balance, clear goals, concentration, control over their actions, and loss of self-consciousness as compared to athletes in a low mindfulness group.

Csikszentmihalyi (1993) provides an overall summary of the consequences of flow as: greater creativity, peak performance, talent development, improved productivity, greater self-esteem, stress reduction and psycho-therapeutic healing. There is evidence that greater skill in mindfulness improves the likelihood of flow and performance. Yet as Faria (2017) indicates flow and mindfulness have been studied individually and have led to positive outcomes; however, they have yet to be linked in academic research.

In higher education teaching, there is regular reference to flow theory and application in psychology, sport, music and education but currently few university courses or programs are dedicated to flow theory or practice. Most initiatives to teach flow theory and practice come from outside higher education in programs such as Kotler’s Flow Genome Project (2014), and Meloncilli’s (2017) and Marelisa’s (2017) programs.