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Mindfulness-Bases Programs for PreK-12 Students: A Research Brief

Mindfulness-Bases Programs for PreK-12 Students

A Research Brief

Executive Summary

Mindfulness practice is associated with a number of positive outcomes for young people. As a result, the number of PreK-12 school-based mindfulness training programs and associated studies of them has greatly increased.1 Preliminary findings indicate that certain kinds of mindfulness training appear to reduce students’ psychological distress, enhance their well-being, and improve their classroom readiness by improving their attention, executive function, and self-regulation. Additionally, mindfulness training may amplify the impacts of social and emotional learning (SEL) programs and, when combined with yoga practices, may improve young students’ physical health. Notably, these benefits have been documented for heterogeneous student populations, suggesting that mindfulness training may have broad applications in school settings.

This research brief summarizes key findings associated with the impact of mindfulness training  on school-aged children and young people. It also presents overviews of the most prominent PreK-12 school-based mindfulness programs and evidence of their associated outcomes. Although a greater research base is needed before substantive conclusions can be drawn, early results indicate that mindfulness training in schools may contribute to positive youth development both within and beyond the classroom.

The use of mindfulness training in school settings is not without criticism, however. The three most common complaints are that mindfulness practices (1) cannot be adequately secularized; (2) may not be appropriate for students who have experienced trauma; and (3) may be misappropriated for behavioral control.

Introduction

Definitions of mindfulness vary; however, a commonly accepted description of mindfulness is “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment.”2 Notably, mindfulness is more than focused concentration. It includes “an internal stance of positive regard and openness to things as they are” and is “a way of being in the world with kindness and compassion toward oneself and others.3

Research shows that mindfulness can be practiced and improved with training. The purpose of mindfulness training is to provide practitioners with skills to cope with stress and accept present-moment circumstances. Researchers have found that regular practice of mindfulness exercises affects the brain’s neural structures[1] , which can result in long-term benefits.4

Over the past two decades, scientific research on the impact of mindfulness practices on children and youth has significantly increased,5 and early results indicate a number of positive outcomes. For example, a recent meta-analysis of the impact of mindfulness practices on youth in a variety of settings found significant improvements across a number of domains, including enhanced emotion and behavioral regulation; reduced symptoms of stress, depression, and anxiety; and improved attention and cognitive functioning.6

Given these positive outcomes, researchers have recently begun to explore whether mindfulness training may be of value to young people in school settings in particular. Mindfulness trainings for students typically focus on the regular practice of mindfulness-based exercises. These practices are often contextualized within broader lessons about related topics, such as neuroscience and social and emotional learning programs (SEL). Preliminary findings suggest that mindfulness training in schools may be effective in helping students cultivate the social and emotional health they need to effectively engage in the classroom, develop the cognitive capacities they need to learn, and attain the overall health and well-being they need to thrive. Indeed, although more research is needed before substantive conclusions can be drawn, mindfulness training in schools may be an important component of positive youth development.

Recent findings in the field of positive psychology indicate that well-being and ill-being do not function as two poles of the same continuum; in other words, the absence of distress does not necessarily indicate greater well-being and vice versa.7 Rather, well-being and ill-being are more accurately addressed as two “separate-yet-associated...continua.”8 Researchers postulate that in order to support optimal functioning among young people, both of these conditions must be attended to. Mindfulness may be able to do just that. Early research indicates that mindfulness training may lesson young people’s psychological distress while also supporting the development of their overall well-being. Notably, these benefits have been documented for heterogeneous student populations, suggesting that mindfulness training may have broad applications in school settings.9

The American practice of mindfulness emerges from Buddhist spiritual traditions. Thus, the primary critique of the use of mindfulness practices in public schools is that, given their origins, mindfulness practices cannot be adequately secularized and therefore infringe upon religious freedom. Critics sharing this opinion tend to agree that while public school teachers should be allowed to teach their students about mindfulness (e.g., its relationship to contemplative traditions; emerging scientific data about its impact), they should stop short of asking students to engage in the practices themselves.10

Other critics express concern about the potential impact that practicing mindfulness may have on students with trauma experience. They argue that if teachers are not appropriately trained, asking students to “pay close, sustained attention to their internal experience” during mindfulness practices may require students to “come into contact with traumatic stimuli—thoughts, images, memories, and physical sensations that may relate to a traumatic experience,” and, without proper support, could “aggravate and intensify symptoms of traumatic stress, [and] in some cases even lead to retraumatization—a relapse into an intensely traumatized state.”11 Notably, there is little data to support or refute this concern, but given the prevalence of childhood trauma, it warrants consideration. According to a study conducted by the National Survey of Children’s Health, almost half of all children in the United States have experienced serious childhood trauma.12 Thus, it is likely that few if any classrooms are immune from its effects.

Finally, some critics express concern that mindfulness practices will be used as another form of classroom behavioral control. They suggest that teaching students to bolster self-control of “negative” behaviors through mindfulness training runs the risk of obfuscating and thus passively reinscribing the circumstances that may have triggered those behaviors in the first place. In other words, emphasis is inappropriately placed on “how [students] react, not the conditions to which they react.”13

Despite these criticisms, the impact of mindfulness programs in schools remains a growing area of research. Although this research is still preliminary, the empirical data and qualitative information collected thus far are encouraging.

Key Findings

Mental Health and Well-Being Benefits

Studies of mindfulness programs in schools reveal that mindfulness education reduces negative influences on mental health while promoting positive facets of mental health. For example, studies suggest that mindfulness may lead to less rumination and fewer intrusive thoughts,[2] 14 reduced anxiety,15 reduced depression,16 and reduced stress among students.17 Mindfulness education may also lead to increased well-being18 and improved states of mind.19 Additionally, mindfulness education is associated with an enhanced sense of calm,20 greater self-compassion[3] ,21 and greater self-care.22

These psychological benefits may directly impact students’ capacities to learn. Indeed, research reveals that students’ mental health is intimately linked with their academic achievement. A study of 155 K-12 students indicated that students with emotional or behavioral disorders experienced “large academic achievement deficits across all content areas.”23 Similarly, a 20-year longitudinal study of 205 urban school children found that mental health issues that appeared in childhood tended to “undermine academic competence by adolescence.”24 By comparison, a study of a universal mental health program implemented in 96 schools in Australia found that at the end of the two-year trial, students who participated in the program at high-implementing schools were between 2.6 and 6.2 months ahead of their peers in academic achievement.25

Scientists postulate that these results may be due, at least in part, to the ways in which stress impacts students’ capacities to learn. When individuals experience moderate to high levels of emotional arousal (e.g., anxiety), their bodies produce high levels of the stress hormones norepinephrine and cortisol. These hormones can inhibit hippocampal activation [4] and, as a result, limit new learning.26

Mindfulness programs on the other hand may help students cultivate psychological states conducive to learning. Studies of adults engaged in mindfulness practices found positive impacts on emotional processing, including for example, reduced emotional reactivity to unpleasant stimuli, a swifter return to baseline after experiencing stress, and fewer self-reported challenges in emotion regulation.27 The same study found that adult practitioners’ experiences of negative affect were both less frequent and less severe.

While outcomes based on adults cannot be generalized to young people, early investigation into the impact of mindfulness on children’s mental health is promising. For example, researchers at Columbia University and the University of Wisconsin–Madison conducted a meta-analytic review of the studies on mindfulness meditation with youth and found that not only does mindfulness meditation have a significant, positive effect on young people’s mental health, this effect might be the practice’s biggest outcome. According to the researchers, “mindfulness most robustly addresse[s] symptoms of psychopathology, with nearly twice the general effect size found for these measures compared to other outcome types.”28

Classroom Readiness

For example, in a recent meta-analysis of the impact of mindfulness training on children and youth across a variety of settings, researchers concluded that mindfulness practices “directly increase” young people’s attention,29 and other early studies suggest that mindfulness training may positively impact executive function development in young people.30

Executive function skills include a series of distinct yet interrelated mental processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, and complete tasks. These skills include inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. [5] A growing body of research shows that executive function skills are critical to the positive development of children and adolescents31 and  provide an essential foundation for school success. Indeed, early research suggests that executive functions may be more predictive of academic performance than general levels of intelligence.32 Additionally, a longitudinal study that tracked 1,000 children from birth to 32 years of age found that high levels of executive function in childhood were associated with positive outcomes in adulthood, including better physical health, greater monetary wealth, reduced dependence on substances, and less criminal involvement with the law. These effects remained stable even after researchers controlled for participants’ socioeconomic status and intelligence.33 Moreover, the same researchers examined a cohort of 500 sets of twins from age 5 to age 12 and found similar patterns emerge: the sibling who displayed less self-control at age 5 was significantly more likely to take up smoking, perform poorly in school, and engage in antisocial behaviors by age 12, despite researchers controlling for shared environmental influences and differences between siblings’ intelligence levels.34

Notably, executive function skills are “present at birth in rudimentary forms” and “undergo rapid development congruent with brain growth” during childhood and adolescence.35 This development can be positively impacted by environmental enrichment; thus, scientists are currently exploring whether mindful awareness practices support executive function development.36 Thus far, the data is promising;37 early research suggests that mindfulness training may lead to improvements in students’ working memory and capacity to plan and organize38 and cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control.39

Mindfulness training also appears to help students’ cultivate greater self-regulation, 40 which, like attention and executive functions, significantly influences academic achievement.41 In one study, researchers examined 510 fifth- through eighth-grade students and found that measures of students’ self-regulation “predicted longitudinal changes in report card grades better than did IQ.”42 The benefits of early self-regulation also appear to persist across time. For example, researchers at Stanford University found that individuals who were better able to delay gratification in childhood achieved higher SAT scores as adolescents and were perceived by their parents to be “significantly more attentive, competent, planful, and intelligent” as well as “better in self-control...and more able to cope maturely with stress.”43

While the exact mechanisms by which mindfulness training supports executive function development remains unknown, researchers offer a two-fold hypothesis.44 First, neuroimaging studies of adults have led scientists to speculate that these improvements may be due to increased activation in the prefrontal cortical regions of the brain[6] —the regions most associated with attention and executive function. In other words, mindfulness practices may help strengthen the regions of the brain associated with “explicit” or “top-down” cognitive self-regulatory processes.45 Second, researchers suggest that the emphasis mindfulness practices place on developing attitudes of openness and nonjudgmental curiosity may teach students to respond to stimuli in “cognitively non-elaborative” and “emotionally non-reactive” ways and, in so doing, “calm [implicit or] bottom-up processes (e.g., emotional/stress arousal) that often interfere with sustained attention and reflection.” 46

Social and Emotional Learning Benefits

For example, a 2015 study of 99 fourth- and fifth-graders compared a stand-alone SEL program with one called MindUP that incorporates mindfulness training. Children who received training in the mindfulness-based SEL program scored significantly higher in executive function, including response inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, than those in the standalone SEL program. They also demonstrated improved emotional control, decreased aggression, and significant improvements in well-being and prosocial behavior[7] . Their math grades, the only subject for which grades were provided, also tended to increase at a rate higher than their peers in the control group. Notably the effect size was greater than in studies of SEL programs without mindfulness (according to a 2011 meta-analysis), which further suggests mindfulness training adds value to SEL programs.47

These results are of particular note because an extensive body of research reveals that SEL programs lead to positive benefits for students across their lifetimes. For example, a recent meta-analysis found that SEL programs lead to improvements in students’ social and emotional competencies as well as their attitudes about themselves, others, and school more generally. SEL programs are also associated with reductions in student conduct issues as well as increases in students’ prosocial behaviors. Additionally, students who participate in SEL programs increase their academic performance by an average of 11 percent.48

The prospect of enhancing SEL’s positive effects by incorporating mindfulness-based practices  has proved exciting for scientists and educators alike. Although research on SEL and mindfulness training program integration is preliminary, there are aspects of each that point to the capacity for mutual enrichment. Specifically, researchers hypothesize that the practice-based approach used within mindfulness training programs may provide a useful complement to the emphasis placed on skill-building within SEL programs. Indeed, researchers hypothesize that with sustained practice mindful states can transform into mindful traits or[8]  “enduring characteristics of an individual that are an automatic way of being, often occurring without conscious intention or effort.”49 In other words, mindfulness-based training may help students cultivate dispositions that make it more likely that the skills they learn in SEL programs are accessible in times of stress.50

Yoga Training May Benefit Health

A systematic review found that yoga may enhance children’s motor performance and cardiorespiratory health, while decreasing children’s resting heart rate, cortisol levels, and symptoms related to childhood-asthma.51 The review also found evidence of yoga’s positive impact on children’s musculoskeletal systems, including enhancing children’s flexibility and strength.52

Moreover, the physical benefits of yoga may bolster the psychological benefits of mindfulness in programs that incorporate both. For example, studies suggest that yoga programs in schools lead to improvements in students’ mental health, as evidenced by reductions in students’ anger and anxiety53 as well as negative affect.[9] 54 Students who participate in yoga training may also experience fewer maladaptive responses to stress, including for example, rumination, intrusive thoughts, and emotional arousal.55 Preliminary research also reveals that yoga may benefit students’ well-being by improving their emotional balance56 and self-esteem.57

Yoga programs are also associated with improved classroom readiness. Students who participate in yoga training either within school settings or in after-school programs experience enhanced concentration and greater abilities to function under pressure,58 demonstrate enhanced memory,59 and tend to enact fewer disruptive behaviors in school.60

The physical health benefits students experience as a result of yoga training may positively impact their academic achievement. Studies suggest that exercise is positively associated with students’ capacities to learn. For example, researchers at Appalachian State University and the University of North Carolina at Greensboro conducted a meta-analytic review of the impact of physical education on students’ cognitive performance and found that exercise is positively correlated with students’ IQ, academic achievement, and academic readiness.61 Similarly, a cross-sectional study conducted by the California Department of Education examined more than one million students and found a strong, positive association between students’ physical fitness and their academic performance.62 And a cross-sectional study of students in Iceland revealed that physical activity combined with students’ body-mass index explains up to 24 percent of variance in students’ academic achievement.63 The strongest impacts were found among interventions that prioritized sustained aerobic activity. According to researchers, “physical activity predicts higher academic performance, but physical education with insufficient levels of activity does not.”64

Studies Confirm Findings

Students themselves report a number of positive outcomes of mindfulness training in school. For example, qualitative research reveals that students report experiencing improved classroom readiness from mindfulness training, as evidenced by improved focus,65 increased concentration,66 and enhanced academic performance.67 Students also report improvements to their mental health, including reduced stress,68 increased capacity to cope with negative thinking, and enhanced self-awareness.69 Additionally, students attest to greater emotion regulation,70 reduced emotional reactivity,71 and fewer impulsive and negative reactions.72

Finally, many students report enhanced well-being as a result of mindfulness training. Specifically, students say they notice experiencing more relaxation and calm,73 as well as greater abilities to “be present” and enjoy life.74

Top Mindfulness-Based Programs for Students

The following list provides a brief overview of the most prominent, empirically-supported mindfulness-based programs designed for PreK-12 school settings. Additionally, the impacts of each program in seven separate domains are described. These domains include: Mindfulness; Mental Health; Physical Health; Social and Emotional Competence (SEC); Well-Being; Classroom Skills; and Academic Achievement.

Transcendental Meditation

Transcendental meditation (TM) uses an eyes-closed, sitting meditation technique that is practiced twice a day for 15-20 minutes. The TM technique is designed to cultivate a state of “restful alertness” and requires neither mental effort nor the modification of one’s physiological processes, such as the rate of one’s breathing. While the TM technique originates from ancient Vedic approaches to health, it does not require practitioners to subscribe to specific belief systems.101

Traditionally, transcendental meditation is taught in one-on-one settings and each practitioner is offered personalized instruction.102 While there are no formal TM-based curricula for K-12 students, the impact of transcendental meditation on students in school settings has been examined in four studies.103 The following table summarizes findings:

Transcendental Meditation
DomainVariable Associated Study
MindfulnessN/AN/A
Mental HealthReduced anger among female students (not male students)Barnes et al., 2003
Reduced state anxietySo  et al., 2001

Physical Health

Improved systolic blood pressure levels

Barnes et al., 2004

Barnes et al., 2001

Improved diastolic blood pressureBarnes et al., 2001
Social and Emotional CompetencyN/AN/A
Well-BeingN/AN/A
Classroom  SkillsFewer absentee periodsBarnes et al., 2003
Fewer rule infractions

Barnes et al., 2003

Fewer days suspendedBarnes et al., 2003
Improved field independenceSo  et al., 2001
Improved fluid intelligenceSo  et al., 2001
Improved inspection timeSo  et al., 2001
Increased creativitySo  et al., 2001
Academic AchievementN/AN/A

The Compassionate Schools Project (CSP)

This project involves a partnership between scholars at the University of Virginia (UVA) and the Jefferson County Public Schools in Louisville, Kentucky to conduct the most comprehensive study ever undertaken of a 21st century health and wellness curriculum in an elementary or secondary school setting.104 Written by scholars at UVA, the curriculum is designed for students in grades K-5 and integrates mindfulness, movement, SEL, health and nutrition education, and compassion training. It includes 38 50-minute lessons taught year-round as part of health and physical education from kindergarten through fifth grade in participating schools. Thus, students who begin the project as kindergarteners receive the program for six years.Throughout the program, students learn to “cultivate focus, resilience, empathy, connection, and well-being as the basis for academic and personal success.”

CSP’s study involves 45 elementary schools in Louisville—a total of 20,000 children. Indeed, the research aims to have “a major impact on children’s education nationwide in terms of academic performance, physical education, character development, and child health policies due to its extraordinary scale.”

The study is currently in its sixth year and early results indicate significant positive effects.

Kindness Curriculum

This curriculum, which is available for free from the Center for Healthy Minds at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, is designed for preschoolers and includes a total of twenty-four 20-30 minute lessons. The students begin the curriculum by planting seeds in a “kindness garden.” They use this experience as an ongoing metaphor for developing a positive classroom culture. Students then learn and practice a variety of skills including self-awareness, conflict resolution, emotion regulation, forgiveness, and gratitude. To conclude, students take a broader perspective and learn about taking care of animals, plants, and the world.75

The authors of the curriculum—which include renowned psychologist Richard Davidson, a leading expert on the neuroscience of emotion—recommend that teachers of this curriculum begin their own mindfulness practice if they haven’t already. The Center for Healthy Minds provides teachers with resources for several popular mindfulness modalities, but doesn’t offer its own teacher training.

The Kindness Curriculum has been examined in one empirically-based study, which showed that it increased students’ Mental Health through enhanced cognitive flexibility and improved students’ Social and Emotional Competency, as indicated by students’ increased social competence, prosocial behavior, and emotion regulation. The curriculum also led to improvements in students’ Classroom Skills, as demonstrated by students’ increased inhibitory control and capacity to delay gratification, as well as improvements to students’ Academic Achievement.76

MindUP

This program includes a 15-lesson curriculum that draws upon research in neuroscience, mindfulness, SEL, and positive psychology. The curriculum is modified for three different sets of grade-levels, including K-2, 3-5, and 6-8. The lessons can be divided into 10- to 15-minute segments easily implemented in classes throughout the school day. The curriculum also includes extension activities and suggestions for how to integrate the lessons with the core curricula.77

The 15 lessons are divided into four main units: (1) Getting Focused teaches students how the brain works and introduces them to mindfulness; (2) Sharpening Your Senses incorporates mindfulness practices based on the primary senses and teaches students how to use these practices to calm their minds and focus their attention; (3) It’s All about Attitude teaches students how to cultivate a positive mindset and how to relate well with others; and (4) Taking Action Mindfully helps students put their practices into action by performing random acts of kindness and working with their peers to plan a social action project.

MindUp is a product of The Goldie Hawn Foundation and was written in collaboration with neuroscientists, behavioral psychologists, educators, and researchers in the field of SEL.78 The curriculum is available to the public for purchase.

The Goldie Hawn Foundation offers a number of resources for individual schools and school districts that want to implement MindUP. Additionally, they offer a series of optional support services for prospective teachers, including in-service teacher trainings, online resources, and mentorship programs. Teachers and schools can also become accredited in the MindUP program by using a predesigned kit to evaluate the program and its implementation. Individuals at The Goldie Hawn Foundation review the results and offer additional recommendations and, if necessary, supplementary coaching.79

MindUP has been evaluated in three empirical studies.80 The following table summarizes the findings:

MindUP
DomainVariableAssociated Study
MindfulnessIncreased mindfulnessSchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Mental HealthReductions in depressive symptomsSchonert-Reichl et al., 2015

Physical Health

N/AN/A
Social and Emotional CompetencyIncreased empathySchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Increased perspective takingSchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Increased social responsibilitySchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Increased prosocialitySchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Increased peer acceptanceSchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Well-BeingIncreased optimismSchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Increased positive affectde Carvalho et al., 2016
Reduced negative affectde Carvalho et al., 2016
Classroom SkillsEnhanced executive functionsSchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Increased emotional control

de Carvalho et al., 2016

Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015

Enhanced school self-conceptSchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Improved working memoryThierry et al., 2016
Improved capacities to plan and organizeThierry et al., 2016
Academic AchievementIncreased math performanceSchonert-Reichl et al., 2015
Increased vocabulary and literacy skillsThierry et al., 2016

Calm Classroom

This program includes a series of scripted practices for students in grades K-12, each of which is approximately three minutes in length. The practices are designed for easy integration with the school day. Calm Classroom suggests that teachers use three practices per day.

The practices are grouped into three distinct programs based on students’ developmental levels: (1) pre-kindergarten and kindergarten; (2) elementary and middle school; and (3) high school. Each program includes audio recordings and written scripts for each practice, which include practices that emphasize breathing, stretching, focusing, and relaxation techniques. Program materials provide guidance for teachers on how to introduce Calm Classroom to students, implement the practices, and engage students with leadership opportunities. Additionally Calm Classroom offers two-hour in-person and online courses to help teachers implement the program effectively in their classrooms and a day-long “train the trainer” certification program for school district staff wanting to facilitate teacher training courses in their own schools.

Calm Classroom is the product of an organization of the same name founded by mindfulness and yoga practitioners Jai and Joy Luster. The curriculum is available to the public for purchase.

Calm Classroom is currently being examined in three studies that focus on students in kindergarten through eighth grades. Preliminary results suggest that the corresponding programs increase students’ Mental Health, as evidenced by reductions in student stress, and improve students’ Academic Skills, as shown through increased classroom engagement and reduced behavioral misconduct.81

Mindful Schools

This program offers two mindfulness-based curricula for students: one designed for elementary school students and one designed for middle and high school students. The curricula include 16-18 lessons that can be completed in 10–15 minutes or lengthened through the use of extension activities and journal prompts. Students learn a variety of traditional mindful awareness exercises, such as: the body scan; mindful eating, drinking, and walking; and breathing practices. Students also learn to develop an open and curious relationship to their thoughts and feelings, compassion for themselves and others, present-moment awareness, and gratitude practices.82

The program’s curricula are available only to teachers who have enrolled in Mindful Schools’ teacher professional development courses, which range from a six-week introductory course to a year-long certification program. Much of the coursework can be done online and thus is widely available to teachers across the country.  

Mindful Schools has been examined in one study, which showed the course increased students’ Classroom Skills by increasing attention, self-control, and classroom participation and improved students’ Social and Emotional Competency through increased respect for others.83

Mindfulness in Schools Project (MiSP)

This UK-based non-profit organization founded by three classroom teachers and mindfulness practitioners Richard Burnett, Chris Cullen, and Chris O’Neil offers two mindfulness-based curricula for students—one called Paws b is designed for students aged 7-10 years and the other called .b  [pronounced dot-be] is designed for students aged 11-18.

The Paws b curriculum includes a series of 12 30-minute lessons and uses both formal and informal practices to help students cultivate mindful rather than reactive responses to their present moment experiences. In addition to classroom work, students are invited to complete optional mindfulness-based tasks at home and to use CDs or MP3 recordings to establish home-based mindfulness practices.84 

The .b curriculum includes one introductory lesson and nine 40- to 60-minute content-based lessons. The curriculum is adapted from Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn’s Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program (MBSR). Each lesson is designed to introduce distinct mindfulness skills, including:  learning to train one’s attention by anchoring it in the body; cultivating an attitude of kindness and curiosity; recognizing worry; responding rather than reacting to whatever arises; moving mindfully; relating to one’s thoughts with compassion; befriending difficult emotions; and savoring or “taking in” the good things in life.85

MiSP offers a four-day training course for individuals interested in teaching the curricula. Those who complete the training receive a membership to the MiSP Teachers’ Network as well as supplemental materials to help teach the program, including, for example, teachers’ notes on each lesson, Powerpoint slides for each lesson, and digital animations of the some of the core practices. To qualify for the four-day course, prospective teachers must complete an eight-week secular mindfulness course and have a personal mindfulness practice for at least six months.

The Paw b curriculum has been evaluated in one empirical study, which showed the course improved students’ Mental Health by decreasing negative affect and increased students’ Classroom Skills through enhanced metacognition.86

The .b curriculum has been evaluated in five empirical studies.87 The following table summarizes the findings:

.b

Domain

Variable

Associated Study

Mindfulness

 N/A

N/A

Mental Health

Fewer depressive symptoms

Kuyken et al., 2013

Less stress

Kuyken et al., 2013

Greater capacity to manage stress

Volanen et al., 2015

Better able to cope with difficult emotions

Volanen et al., 2015

Physical

Health

 Better sleep

Volanen et al., 2015

Social and

Emotional

Competency

 

Improved relationships with friends

Volanen et al., 2015

Improved relationships with family members

Volanen et al., 2015

Well-Being

Increased well-being

Kuyken et al., 2013

Classroom Skills

 

Improved concentration

Volanen et al., 2015

Academic Achievement

Better grades

Volanen et al., 2015

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

MBSR is one of the most popular and most commonly researched contemplative-based interventions designed to reduce stress in adults. MBSR is organized around two central skills: (1) the cultivation of one’s attention and (2) the embodiment of nonjudgmental awareness. The premise of the MBSR program is that cultivating an open and receptive stance toward whatever arises in the present moment enables participants to circumvent their conditioned coping mechanisms and directly engage with life. This direct experience of life then provides the foundation for self-healing.88

MBSR was developed at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center by Jon Kabat-Zinn, a molecular biologist and professor of medicine. The program is now widely available and is often taught by individuals certified in the program’s instruction by one of several universities in the United States. The MBSR program is also available online for no charge.

MBSR training tends to take place over eight weeks, including weekly sessions lasting two-and-a-half hours and two day-long retreats integrated throughout the program. The program is approximately 36 hours in length.

Five studies have evaluated the impact of MBSR on students in grades 5-12. 89 The following table summarizes the findings:

MBSR

Domain

Variable 

Associated Study

Mindfulness

 Increased mindfulness

 

Edwards et al., 2014

Mental Health

Reduced anxiety

Sibinga et al., 2013

Reductions in negative coping

Sibinga et al., 2016

Reduced rumination

Sibinga et al., 2016

Reduced somatization

Sibinga et al., 2016

Reduced negative affect

Sibinga et al., 2016

Reduced self-hostility

Sibinga et al., 2016

Reduced PTSD symptoms

Sibinga et al., 2016

Reduced stress

Gouda et al., 2016; Edwards et al., 2014

Reduced depression

Sibinga et al., 2016; Edwards et al., 2014

Physical

Health

 Improved cortisol levels

 

Sibinga et al., 2013

Fewer medical absences

Bennett & Dorjee, 2015

Social and Emotional Competency

 

 

Increased self-regulation

Gouda et al., 2016

Fewer interpersonal problems

Gouda et al., 2016

Well-Being

 Increased self-compassion

 

Edwards et al., 2014

Classroom   Effectiveness

 

Enhanced school-related self-efficacy

Gouda et al., 2016

Academic Achievement

N/A

N/A

Holistic Life Foundation

This organization’s curriculum is a yoga and tai-chi-based mindfulness and SEL program for adolescents. The program is designed as a series of 48 lessons traditionally taught twice per week over 24 weeks. Students learn tools for conflict resolution, improved focus and concentration, self-regulation, and stress reduction. Each session follows a similar structure: students begin with a centering exercise followed by a mindful movement practice. Students then engage in a group discussion. The session concludes with a short meditation. In addition to in-class work, students are asked to complete assignments on their own to help reinforce the learning goals. Most of the sessions are taught as “mat-based” experiences; however, some of the sessions take place at desks to help students apply the program’s techniques during the school-day.90

Holistic Life Foundation was started by mindfulness and yoga practitioners Ali Smith, Atman Smith, and Andres Gonzalez. The curriculum has been evaluated in one empirical study, which showed the course increased students’ Mental Health through reductions in rumination, intrusive thoughts, and emotional arousal and increased students’ Social and Emotional Competency through reductions in students’ involuntary engagement.91

Learning to Breathe

This curriculum is designed for 11- to 18-year-old adolescents and has six central themes corresponding to the acronym B.R.E.A.T.H.E:  body, reflections, emotions, attention, tenderness, and healthy habits. Adapted from the MBSR program, this curriculum incorporates a number of classic mindfulness practices, including the body scan, mindful movement, and sitting meditation. Additionally, as part of the curriculum, students learn how to use mindful awareness practices to calm their bodies and focus their attention; develop a curious and non-judgmental relationship to their thoughts; identify and attune to their emotions; develop self-compassion; and relate to others from an attitude of loving-kindness. The curriculum is generally taught in six hour-long classes or 18 20-minute classes, but it can be adapted to fit different schools’ needs.92It’s written in two versions to ensure the content is developmentally appropriate. The first is written for students in grades 6-8. The second is written for students in grades 9-12. In addition to the curriculum, teachers receive student workbooks, audio versions of four mindfulness practices, and suggestions for how students can practice the skills at home.

Learning to Breathe was written by Patricia Broderick, a licensed clinical psychologist and certified school counselor. It is available to the public for purchase.

Prospective teachers may attend an optional four-day workshop that includes an overview of the curriculum’s underlying research, hands-on practice with teaching core aspects of the program, and instruction in developing a personal mindfulness practice. The training is not required for teachers to use the program. The curriculum, as well as supplementary resources, are available for purchase by the public.93 

Learning to Breathe has been examined in seven empirically-based studies.94 The following table summarizes the findings:

Learning to Breathe

Domain

Variable

Associated Study

Mindfulness

N/A

N/A

Mental Health

Reductions in depressive symptoms

Shomaker et al., 2017

Bluth et al., 2016

Reductions in perceived stress

Metz et al., 2013

Reductions in negative affect

Broderick et al., 2009

Reduced somatization

Broderick et al., 2009

Fewer internalizing problems

Fung et al., 2016

Fewer externalizing problems

Fung et al., 2016

Physical Health

Fewer psychosomatic symptoms

 

Metz et al., 2013

Improved insulin resistance levels

Dalager et al., 2018

Shomaker et al., 2017

Improved fasting insulin levels

Shomaker et al., 2017

Reduced overeating

Dalager et al., 2018

Improved cortisol levels

Dalager et al., 2018

Social and Emotional Competency

Increased emotional awareness

Metz et al., 2013

Broderick et al., 2009

Increased self-regulation

Metz et al., 2013

Broderick et al., 2009

Increased expressive suppression

Fung et al., 2016

Well-Being

Increased calm/relaxation

Broderick et al., 2009

Classroom Skills

Improved concentration

Metz et al., 2013

Academic Achievement

N/A

N/A

 

Transformative Life Skills

This yoga-based mindfulness and SEL program for adolescents is designed as a series of 48 lessons traditionally taught three times per week over 16 weeks. Each lesson can be taught in 15-, 30-, or 60-minute segments. The curriculum can be taught in a traditional classroom setting or as a “mat-based” experience. The authors recommend that if the latter option is chosen, instructors should be certified yoga teachers to ensure students’ safety.95

The curriculum is divided into four units: (1) stress management; (2) physical and emotional awareness; (3) self-regulation; and (4) healthy relationships. As part of the program, students learn a variety of skills that include how to: manage stress; attune to oneself; develop an open and curious relationship with one’s thoughts and emotions; pause before acting; and positively connect with others. Notably, the curriculum is trauma-informed and thus appropriate for young people who have faced significant life challenges.96

The Transformative Life Skills curriculum is a product of Niroga, a non-profit mindfulness and yoga organization. It may be purchased online by anyone who wants to incorporate it into their work with youth.

In addition to the written curriculum, prospective teachers receive a video recording of expert instructors teaching each lesson and information on extension activities. Niroga also offers three levels of optional professional development courses for teachers as well as yoga certification programs, Yoga for Youth teacher training, and an advanced yoga certification course.97

Transformative Life Skills has been examined in three empirical studies. which found the following outcomes.98 The following summarizes the findings:

 

Transformative Life Skills

Domain

Variable

Associated Study

Mindfulness

N/A

N/A

Mental Health

Increased primary coping skills

Frank et al., 2017

Increased secondary coping skills

Frank et al., 2017

Improved cognitive restructuring

Frank et al., 2017

Reduced anxiety

Frank et al., 2014

Reduced depression

Frank et al., 2014

Reduced rumination

Frank et al., 2014

Fewer intrusive thoughts

Frank et al., 2014

Fewer global symptoms

Frank et al., 2014

Reduced physical arousal

Frank et al., 2014

Reduced emotional arousal

Frank et al., 2014

Reductions in perceived stress

Ramadoss et al., 2010

Physical

Health

N/A

N/A

Social and Emotional Competency

 

 

Increased emotion regulation

Frank et al., 2017

Reductions in revenge motivation

Frank et al., 2014

Reductions in hostility

Frank et al., 2014

Well-Being

Increased positive thinking

 

Frank et al., 2017

Classroom Skills

Fewer unexcused absences

Frank et al., 2017

Fewer detentions

Frank et al., 2017

Increased school engagement

Frank et al., 2017

Reductions in involuntary action

Frank et al., 2014

Reductions in involuntary engagement

Frank et al., 2014

Academic Achievement

N/A

N/A

Making Friends With Yourself

This eight-week curriculum for adolescents prioritizes the instruction and practice of self-compassion[10] . It’s adapted from the Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC) program and endorsed by the developers of MSC, self-compassion researcher Kristin Neff and clinical psychologist Chris Germer.

The program’s three one-hour-and-45-minute lessons center around the components of self-compassion: (1) self-kindness, (2) common humanity, and (3) mindful, balanced awareness. According to the curriculum’s authors, “these elements serve to open the hearts of teens to their own suffering so they can learn to give themselves what they truly need, recognize that they are not alone in their suffering, and encourage an open-minded acceptance of the struggle they are facing.”99

Making Friends With Yourself offers a six-day, residential training program for individuals interested in teaching the program. To qualify, individuals must have an established daily mindfulness and self-compassion practice and experience working with teens in educational or clinical settings. Additionally, participants must have completed the eight-week MSC course or the five-day MSC intensive. Upon completion of the six-day residential teacher training program, participants receive online consultation while teaching at least one Making Friends With Yourself course.

The curriculum was written by Karen Bluth, an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill and a former classroom teacher, and Lorraine Hobbs, a family therapist and Director of Family Programs at the University of California, San Diego Center for Mindfulness. It has has been evaluated in two empirical studies.100 The following table summarizes the findings:

Making Friends With Yourself

Domain

Variable 

Associated Study

Mindfulness

Increased mindfulness

 

Bluth et al., 2015

Bluth et al., 2017

Mental Health

Reductions in perceived stress

Bluth et al., 2015

Bluth et al., 2017

Reduced anxiety

Bluth et al., 2015

Reduced depressive symptoms

Bluth et al., 2015

Reductions in negative affect

Bluth et al., 2015

Physical

Health

N/A

N/A

Social and Emotional Competency

 

N/A

N/A

Well-Being

Increased self-compassion

Bluth et al., 2015

Bluth et al., 2017

Increased gratitude

Bluth et al., 2017

Increased resilience

Bluth et al., 2017

Classroom Skills

Increased curiosity and exploration

Bluth et al., 2017

Academic Achievement

N/A

N/A

Critical Evaluations and Future Research Directions

Studies of mindfulness-based student training programs so far have shown promising positive results; however, a stronger and more reliable research base is needed before substantive conclusions can be drawn about their impact on PreK-12 students. Specifically, the existing literature is limited by a lack of large-scale, randomized, controlled trials from which more conclusive data can be drawn. The metrics used to assess the outcome of mindfulness training for students also need to be improved; the current literature reflects the use of a broad range of psychometric scales, which makes it difficult to compare the studies and their outcomes.

Additionally, a number of questions about the use of mindfulness practices with young people remain unanswered. For example, the current research has thus far only examined mindfulness practices at a program level; little is known about specific practices and whether they offer unique benefits. Similarly, data does not yet exist to guide educators and program developers on how to present mindfulness practices in developmentally appropriate ways. There are also very few studies that include follow-up assessments, therefore the long-term impacts of mindfulness training on students remain uncertain. Finally, it is not yet clear how combining mindfulness practices with other popular modalities such as yoga and SEL programs impacts the outcomes of each. Future research should examine these questions in greater detail.

The field would also benefit from integrating research on mindfulness training for students with research on mindfulness training for teachers. It may be worth considering how the current evidence-based approaches could be combined to create school-wide interventions. Creating universal school-based mindfulness programs may amplify the positive outcomes already documented, leading to more robust support for teachers and students alike. Researchers should also spend time assessing the limits of mindfulness-based programs and consider how they might use the available data to advocate for systemic changes needed to alleviate student stressors in the first place and better support school communities.

Conclusion

Research on the impact of mindfulness training for PreK-12 students is in its earliest stages. However, many of the initial studies offer optimistic results. Specifically, mindfulness training appears to enhance students’ mental health and well-being and improve their classroom readiness by increasing their attention, executive function, and self-regulation. Additionally, mindfulness training may amplify the impacts of SEL programs and improve students’ physical health when combined with yoga practice.

Still, a more robust research base is needed before the impacts of mindfulness practices in school settings are conclusive. Little is known about how to present the practices in developmentally appropriate ways and whether specific practices lead to unique outcomes. Also additional research is needed to clearly determine the benefits and drawbacks of different approaches to mindfulness training.

Most importantly, the use of mindfulness-based supports for students should not eclipse efforts to reduce the stressors imposed on students in the first place.

Author

Megan Downey is the contemplative schools coordinator at the Contemplative Sciences Center.

Key Terms

Term

Definition

Neural structures

The arrangement of and relationships between neurons within the nervous system.

Rumination

The tendency to consistently focus one’s attention on and repetitively think about one’s present distress and its causes and consequences.

Intrusive thoughts

An intrusive thought is an image or thought that is both unwelcome and involuntary. Intrusive thoughts are often distressing and can feel difficult to manage.

Self-compassion

An emotionally positive and compassionate self attitude to protect against the negative consequences of self-judgment, isolation, and rumination (such as depression) (Neff, 2003).

Norepinephrine

A hormone and neurotransmitter used to mobilize the body for action. Norepinephrine is often released by the body in response to stressful stimuli and is therefore colloquially known as a “stress hormone.”

Cortisol

A hormone created in the adrenal glands that assists with a variety of metabolic processes. Cortisol is often released by the body in response to stressful stimuli and is therefore colloquially known as a “stress hormone.”

Hippocampus

A part of the limbic system that helps the brain consolidate information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Negative affect

The extent to which an individual experiences unpleasant emotions from the individual’s subjective point of view.

Executive function

Executive function refers to a set of mental processes and skills that enable individuals to plan, organize, and complete tasks. Executive function, or executive functioning, is an umbrella term for cognitive skills that support and enable individuals’ self-regulation.

Self-regulation

The ability to interrupt or direct one’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors without interventions from others.

Inhibitory control

Inhibitory control refers to one’s capacity to voluntarily inhibit one’s own automatic or habitual response to a particular stimulus.

Working memory

Working memory refers to an individual’s capacity to temporarily store and retrieve information in order to complete a task.

Cognitive flexibility

Cognitive flexibility refers to the  capacity to adapt one’s thinking, attention, and behavior in response to changes in one’s own internal or external environment.

Prefrontal cortex

The prefrontal cortex refers to the part of the cerebrum located at the front of the brain. It is the part of the brain most associated with executive functions.

Prosocial behavior

Behaviors that benefit others. Prosocial behavior refers to the outcomes of an individual’s behavior rather than the intentions that motivated it.

Mindful states

Intentionally cultivated experiences that arise through the use of mindfulness practices. Mindful states enable an individual to be aware of what is happening in the moment that it is happening (Siegel et al., 2016).105

Mindful traits

Traits are enduring characteristics of an individual that are an automatic way of being, often occurring without conscious intention or effort (Siegel et al., 2016). According to one study (Baer et al., 2006), mindful traits can be categorized into five independent qualities: (1) acting with awareness; (2) being non-judgmental; (3) being non-reactive; (4) labeling the internal world; and (5) self-observation.106

 

Footnotes

  1. ^ Felver, J. C., & Jennings, P. A. (2016). Applications of mindfulness-based interventions in school settings: An introduction. Mindfulness, 7(1), 1-4; Frank, J. L., Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013). Mindfulness-based interventions in school settings: An introduction to the special issue. Research in Human Development, 10(3), 205-210.

  2. ^ Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 145.

  3. ^ Siegel, D. J., Siegel, M. W., & Parker, S. C. (2016). Internal education and the roots of resilience: Relationships and reflection as the new R’s of education. In K.A. Schonert- Reichl & R.W. Roeser (Eds.) Handbook of Mindfulness in Education (p 48). New York, NY: Springer.

  4. ^ Tang, Y. Y., Hölzel, B. K., & Posner, M. I. (2015). The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 213-225.

  5. ^ Felver, J. C., & Jennings, P. A. (2016). Applications of mindfulness-based interventions in school settings: An introduction. Mindfulness, 7(1), 1-4; Frank, J. L., Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013). Mindfulness-based interventions in school settings: An introduction to the special issue. Research in Human Development, 10(3), 205-210.

  6. ^ Zoogman, S., Goldberg, S. B., Hoyt, W. T., and Miller, L. (2014). Mindfulness Interventions With Youth: A Meta-Analysis. Mindfulness. Available at: http://mindfulnessinschools.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/zoogman.pdf

  7. ^ Gilman, R., Huebner, E. S., & Ng, M. J. F. L. (2014). Toward a science and practice of positive psychology in schools: A conceptual framework. In Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools (pp. 11-19). Routledge.

  8. ^ Lee, S. Y., & Strom, I. D. F. R. G. (2014). Covitality: A Synergistic Conception of Adolescents’ Mental Health. In Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools (pp. 13). Routledge.

  9. ^ See, for example, Fuchs, W. W., Mundschenk, N. J., & Groark, B. ( 2017). A promising practice: School-based Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for children with disabilities. Journal of International Special Needs Education, 20(2), 56-66; Sibinga, E. M., Webb, L., Ghazarian, S. R., & Ellen, J. M. (2016). School-based mindfulness instruction: An RCT. Pediatrics, 137(1), 1-8. doi: 10.1542/peds.2015-2532; Langer, Á. I., Ulloa, V. G., Cangas, A. J., Rojas, G., & Krause, M. (2015). Mindfulness-based interventions in secondary education: A qualitative systematic review/Intervenciones basadas en mindfulness en educación secundaria: una revisión sistemática cualitativa. Estudios de Psicología, 36(3), 533-570.

  10. ^ Brown, C.G. (2019, June 18). Why I do not use contemplative pedagogy in the public university classroom. Religious Studies News. Retrieved from http://rsn.aarweb.org/spotlight-on/teaching/contemplative-pedagogy/why-i-do-not-use-contemplative-pedagogy-public-university-classroom

  11. ^ Treleaven, D. A. (2018). Trauma-Sensitive Mindfulness: Practices for Safe and TransformativeHealing. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, p. 6.

  12. ^ National Survey of Children's Health. NSCH 2011/12. Data query from the Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative, Data Resource Center for Child and Adolescent Health website. Retrieved [08/11/19] from https://www.childhealthdata.org/browse/survey/results?q=2614&r=1

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