In the Collected Works of the Cheng Brothers,[10] there are numerous accounts of the Chengs and their father’s practice of quiet-sitting meditation. Some of these accounts were given by students, while others were self-reported or shared among family members. 

Cheng Yi wrote about his father Cheng Xiang, “After retiring, my father often engaged in silent-sitting (默坐). When asked if he felt bored from quiet-sitting (靜坐) for extended periods, he smiled and replied, ‘I am not bored.’” Cheng Xiang also advised his sons that “the joy of mountain sightseeing pales in comparison to what I felt in quiet-sitting.”[11]

Cheng Hao regularly engaged in quiet-sitting meditation and encouraged his students to do the same as evidenced by the following instances:

Cheng Hao appears like a molded statue when seated yet exudes an amiable warmth in his interactions with others.[12]

When serving in an administrative role, Cheng Hao had the phrase “Treat the people carefully as if they were injured” (視民如傷) displayed in all the places where he sat（凡坐處). He often said, “I, Hao, am constantly ashamed of these words.”[13]

One day, Cheng Hao told a student seeking to learn from him, “You’ve come here to learn my words and phrases, but your heart and speech do not align. Why don’t you try doing something about it?” When the student asked what to do, Cheng Hao replied, “Just sit in quiet” (且靜坐).[14]

In comparison, the evidence of Cheng Yi’s practice of quiet-sitting meditation is even more plentiful: 

When You Zuo and Yang Shi first met Cheng Yi, Cheng Yi sat with his eyes closed (瞑目而坐), and the two young men stood by his side. When Cheng Yi became aware of their presence, he turned to them and asked, “Are you gentlemen still here? It’s getting late, let’s rest for now.” As they left, they discovered that the snow outside the door had accumulated to a depth of one foot.[15]

Whenever Cheng Yi saw someone sitting in quiet (靜坐), he would sigh and praise their dedication to learning.[16]

In addition, Cheng Yi would also engage in quiet-sitting with his students, providing instructions based on the meditative practice:

On a day of leisure, Cheng Yi sat in quiet, with He Jing, Meng Dunfu, and Zhang Sishu in attendance. Pointing to a basin of water in front of him, Cheng Yi remarked, “To what is pure and tranquil (清淨), nothing can infiltrate. Once something infiltrates, it will be disturbed.”[17]

Someone asked, “During leisure time, if one’s body appears lazy and slack but their heartmind (心)[18] is not insolent, is this acceptable?” Cheng Yi answered, “How can one sit on the floor with legs stretched out (箕踞) and not be insolent in heartmind? Once, Lv Dalin (呂大臨, 1044–1091 CE) visited Ms. Gou in the middle of June. During his leisure time, whenever I looked in, he sat upright (危坐) with great solemnity, demonstrating his dedication to learning. However, scholars must remain deferential and reverent (恭敬), without feeling constrained as such constraints make it difficult to sustain one’s learning.”[19]

[While commenting Mengzi’s (372–289 BCE) words “what is primordial is based upon what happens beneficially” (故者以利為本) (4B26.2),[20]] Cheng Yi says, “If a person does not have any benefits, they cannot survive. How can one not seek benefits? For instance, sitting on a chair (椅子) can provide calmness (坐此便安), which is a benefit. However, if someone continues to pursue comfort by demanding more blankets for warmth and even goes so far as to take them away from their ruler or father, this is the harm that comes from chasing benefits. People always need benefits, but they pursue them in different ways.”[21]

After a lifetime devoted to quiet-sitting meditation and self-cultivation, Cheng Yi attained a high spiritual state in his old age as demonstrated by the following event that occurred when he was 64 years old:[22]

Cheng Yi was demoted to Fu Zhou, and while crossing the Han River, the boat nearly capsized in the middle of the stream. The people on board cried out in terror, but Cheng Yi sat calmly with his collar properly arranged as usual (正襟安坐如常). Upon reaching the shore, an old man on the boat asked him why he was able to sit right (正坐) and remain composed during the perilous situation. Cheng Yi replied, “I simply maintained a sincere and reverent heart” (心存誠敬).[23]

Nevertheless, despite the ample evidence of Cheng Yi’s favorable attitude toward quiet-sitting, not all his views about the practice were positive as demonstrated in the following example:

Sitting quietly alone (靜坐獨處) is not difficult, but living in the broad dwelling of the whole world and dealing with all things under heaven is a challenge.[24]

Feng Li, who called himself Donggao Jushi (居士, a title for a lay Buddhist), said, “I’ve been attending to your teachings for twenty years, and now I’ve experienced a peculiar event.” Cheng Yi asked, “What happened?” Li said, “While sitting at ease (宴坐) at night, there was a light in the room.” Cheng Yi said, “I too have had a peculiar experience.” Li asked to hear about it, and Cheng Yi said, “I always eat until I am not hungry.”[25]

The term “sitting at ease” (宴坐) is used in Chinese Buddhist texts[26] to refer specifically to the Buddhist style of cross-legged sitting meditation. These two quotations suggest that Cheng Yi had reservations to this style for two reasons: first, it encourages Buddhist practitioners to talk about miraculous but impractical deeds and events, and second, it detaches meditators from their everyday human affairs. Cheng Yi aimed to distinguish his contemplative practices from Buddhism and Daoism, and we will further analyze how he succeeded in doing so below.

The Cheng brothers carried their psychosomatic state of being from quiet-sitting to other contemplative practices. One of these practices, “beholding the vitality of the myriad things,” is among the most emblematic of Ru contemplation. Here are some examples from Cheng Hao’s beholding practice:

In front of Cheng Hao’s window, the lush grass covered the pavement. Some people advised him to cut it, but he refused, saying that he wanted to witness the vitality of the creative universe (見造化生意). He also kept a small pond and raised a few small fish, which he beheld (觀) from time to time. When asked why, he said he wanted to behold how all things remain content in themselves (觀萬物自得意).^[27]

[Let’s] behold the baby chicks.[28]

If you behold things in quiet, you will find a sense of spring.[29]

The vitality of the myriad things is the worthiest of beholding. This is what the Classic of Change refers to as “the highest good of initiation”[30] and is also known as humaneness (仁). Humans are an integral part to the same universe as heaven and earth, yet why do they view themselves as insignificant?[31]

The best way to understand the humaneness is to examine one’s pulse (切脈).[32]

Cheng Hao viewed the vitality of things in the universe as the foundation for the cardinal virtue of humaneness. Through beholding this vitality, humans cultivate a profound ontological bond with the creative universe, which motivates them to pursue humane behavior.

Following Cheng Hao’s example, Cheng Yi also sought to behold the vitality of nature: “To behold water skillfully, one must pay attention to its waves. When the waves break and become turbulent, one can witness the boundless power of the water’s source.”[33] Cheng Yi, however, emphasizes that the source of vitality in nature is the pattern-principle^[34] of the universe, or Tianli (天理). This principle elucidates the manner in which different cosmic and human phenomena arise and coalesce in a dynamic and coherent manner and thus pervades all phenomena in the universe, including the human realm. Unlike Cheng Hao’s practice of contemplative beholding, which tends to focus on intuitive perceptions of the vitality of concrete things, Cheng Yi’s practice extends to anything that reflects the regulative power of Tianli. As such, it encompasses a more complex process of investigation and reflection:

Someone asked, “When beholding things and examining oneself (觀物察己), should it be the case that whenever looking at things, one reflects back on oneself?” Cheng Yi answers, “It is unnecessary to put it that way. There is a common pattern-principle to both things and oneself (物我一理). When one understands the former, one will know the latter. This is the unity of the inner and outer Way (道). To speak broadly, one should understand the heights and depths of heaven and earth. To speak narrowly, one should understand why each thing comes to be so (所以然). Scholars should comprehend all of this.” The person asked further, “When seeking to attain knowledge, should one start from investigating the four incipient sprouts of moral feelings (四端)?”[35] Cheng Yi answered, “While examining one’s nature and feelings is a way to pursue knowledge by delving into oneself, every blade of grass and every tree has its own pattern-principle, and one must examine them as well.”[36]

By beholding pattern-principles in things, one can examine oneself. Once able to illuminate pattern-principles, there is nothing that cannot be understood. All things in the world can be illuminated by pattern-principles; if there is something, there must be a norm, and every single thing must have a pattern-principle.[37]

For Cheng Yi, beholding extended to all things and all pattern-principles in the universe, imbuing all human activities with a contemplative dimension. This pan-contemplative nature of Ru learning is particularly highlighted in the discussion of Cheng Yi’s crucial technique of contemplative practice, namely “reverence” (敬), which I will explain further below.

Building on the distinction between literary learning and Dao learning discussed earlier, the Cheng brothers also viewed calligraphy as a contemplative practice but were mindful of its potential risks: 

When I write, I do so with great reverence, not because I seek to produce beautiful characters but solely for the sake of learning.[38]

The hobbies and amusements of young people can easily distract them from their will and ambition. Even activities such as writing characters and letters, which are so integral to the life of a Ru scholar, can become an obsession and lead to a loss of focus. . . . Have you ever known someone who is skilled in calligraphy but does not lack knowledge of the Way? Such a person not only wastes their time but also risks hindering their progress on the path to the Way. This illustrates the damaging effects of losing one’s will and purpose.[39]

According to the Cheng brothers, the true focus of calligraphy should not be on producing well-crafted characters but on cultivating an attitude of reverence within oneself. This practice can help to advance one’s self-cultivation and bring one closer to embodying the cosmic Dao.

Cheng Yi viewed “good sleep” as a contemplative practice, and his approach to achieving it reflects his broader method of contemplation: maintaining reverence for the underlying pattern-principles of all things in the world. As he explained, 

Just as the sky has day and night, humans also experience alternating periods of wakefulness and sleep. The natural ebb and flow of yin and yang, motion and stillness, reflects the pattern-principle of the transformative universe (開闔之理). To sleep well, one must follow this natural rhythm.[40]

By focusing the mind on the cosmic pattern-principle of ­yin/yang transformation, one can avoid being disturbed by random thoughts before falling asleep, making it a crucial method for achieving restful sleep. Cheng Yi elaborated on this method as follows:

The human mind is fickle, like a turning cart, constantly shifting and never resting, capable of sensing myriad things. It is also like a mirror hanging in the air, taking in everything without distinction and lacking any fixed form. . . . Zhang Tianqi once said, “For several years, once I got into bed, I would stop thinking about everything.” However, after ceasing to think, one must forcibly bind and constrain the mind to a specific image, which is not natural. Junshi claimed, “I have mastered a technique. I just focus on contemplating a single character, 中 (centrality).” However, this is also a form of binding oneself to that character. Furthermore, what kind of image does this character of 中represent? If a foolish person does not think and is blindly ignorant, then there is a difference between doing too much or too little. . . . It is crucial to hold onto one’s will (持其志）and prevent one’s vital-energy (氣, Qi) from becoming chaotic, and this can be achieved. Thus, the sages and worthies do not suffer from mental illnesses, and if they have any physical ailments, it is because they have not focused on nourishing their bodies.[41]

Junshi once suffered from a mind that was disordered and restless, causing him great discomfort, especially when it plagued him in the middle of the night and kept him awake until dawn. How much blood and vital-energy do people have to withstand such a constant assault? He later said that he had recently discovered a method, focusing his mind on the character中 (centrality). However, this only caused more chaos in his mind. What does中 look like? How can it be properly contemplated? It is simply a matter of selecting a good word from among many. Rather than adding to the disorder in the mind, Junshi would have been better off counting beads, but he declined to use them. Junshi did not realize that 中 does not help to calm the mind and that counting beads may be more effective. To fall asleep at night, one should simply lie down and close one’s eyes, without getting caught up in any particular thought. If one does not make their mind a master (與心為主), they will be easily awakened by the slightest stimulus during the middle of the night.[42]

In his observations, Cheng Yi noted that forcing oneself not to think of anything, as well as being bound to a specific thought, are not effective methods for achieving restful sleep. Counting beads may be a more effective method because it keeps the mind in motion and prevents it from getting caught up in any particular thought. However, the ultimate method for achieving good sleep is to harmonize one’s sleep and wakefulness with the pattern-principle of yin/yang alternation and the creativity of the universe, namely the Tianli. By continuously contemplating this unifying principle, one can strengthen his or her will and make his or her mind the master. Once this state is achieved, one can simply lie down and close his or her eyes, and good sleep will follow.

Strengthening one’s will and mastering one’s mind before sleep can influence the quality of one’s dreams. Cheng Yi regarded “reflection on dreams” as an important contemplative practice for evaluating the results of one’s self-cultivation as demonstrated in the following two dialogues:

Someone asked, “Why do the things we don’t want to do during the day often appear in our dreams at night?” Cheng Yi replied, “It is simply because the heartmind is not settled (心不定). The things that people dream of are not limited to what they experienced during the day; they can be things that happened decades ago. The reason why these things appear in dreams is because they were already in the mind, and they were triggered by something that happened during the day or by something that affected the mind. Therefore, things that one dislikes during the day can also appear in dreams. It is like how the wind creates waves on the water; even after the wind stops, the waves continue to surge. If one has been well-preserved and nourished for a long time, one will not have such dreams. Sages and worthies do not have such dreams. For them, only omens and signs appear in dreams. Some people have clear vital-energy and no dreams, while others have muddled vital-energy and no dreams. A sage has no dreams because their energy is clear. If a person is extremely tired, they may not dream, but it is because their mind is clouded and blocked by muddled vital-energy. When Confucius dreamt about Duke Zhou,[43] it was different from an ordinary person’s dream. Therefore, people can evaluate the depth of their learning by reflecting on their dreams and quality of sleep. If they feel confused or disoriented about their dreams, it may indicate that their heartmind has not yet been settled, and their efforts to preserve and nourish themselves have not yet been solidified.”[44]

Someone asked, “The things that are tied to the heartmind will appear in dreams at night. If good things are tied to it, will they all be harmful when they appear in dreams at night?” Cheng Yi replied, “Even if it is a good thing, the heartmind can still be in agitation (心亦是動). When omens and signs enter the dream, they have no harmful effects, whereas everything else is just a result of delusional agitation.” Someone asked, “What about Confucius dreaming of Duke Zhou?” Cheng Yi replied, “This is a manifestation of a sage’s authenticity (誠). As a sage who sought to follow the Way of Duke Zhou, even during sleep, he did not forget about Duke Zhou. As he aged, he realized that the Way could not be realized, and he no longer dreamed of Duke Zhou. However, dreaming of Duke Zhou is not about delusionally conversing with him every night. The heartmind needs to be settled so that when one thinks, one thinks properly. Nowadays, people are driven by their hearts.” Someone then asked, “Who controls the heart?” Cheng Yi replied, “One can use their heartmind to control their heartmind. If one sets it free, the heartmind will roam aimlessly.”[45]

Cheng Yi distinguishes three types of dreams: First, dreams of omens and signs do not bring harm. Second, dreams of sages, such as Confucius, have no discrepancy from their true character in the daytime and hence demonstrate the authenticity of their personality, with no harm involved. Third, all other dreams, even those involving good things, are harmful. This is because the heartmind cannot control what happens in these dreams, and the occurrences often significantly differ from one’s waking state. Even if one dreams of good things, he or she cannot control their manifestation in the dream, making it an unreliable evaluation of his or her heartmind’s state. The first two types of dreams demonstrate the settledness of one’s heartmind and provide a proper evaluation of the state of the heartmind.

Cheng Yi’s belief that dreams of omens and signs indicate a settled state of the heartmind is particularly intriguing. He maintained that a heartmind that is in an authentic state allows for the ability of “psychological resonance” (感通), which can account for an individual’s ability to know things in an unusual, perhaps even psychic, manner. Cheng Yi explained,

Yang Ding’s belief in ghosts and gods boils down to the concept of psychological resonance. For instance, a person who has never learned to read in their entire life may fall ill one day and recite a whole poem by Du Fu (712–770 CE). This is made possible by the existence of pattern-principle. Everything in the world is either present or absent; what exists, exists, and what does not, does not. For example, Du Fu’s poetry truly exists in the world, so when someone’s heartmind reaches a state of concentration and unity (精一), they can resonate with the truth and gain knowledge of it. This is also why someone’s heartmind can visit the dream of another person in a different place; it is all due to the existence of pattern-principle that leads to psychological resonance of the heartmind. The dead can also appear in dreams for the same reason.[46]

What is psychologically resonated by the heartmind is nothing but the pattern-principle. The affairs of the world exist as they do, or they do not exist at all. This is true regardless of their occurrence in the past, present, or future. Dreams during sleep lack physical forms, but they are made possible by the existence of the pattern-principle. Shape and sound pertain to vital-energy. When things are born, vital-energy gathers, and when they die, it disperses and returns to nothingness. Sound requires the mouth, and touch requires the body. Once the material base (質) is destroyed, how can sound and touch exist? Therefore, without the pattern-principle, dreams cannot be trusted.[47]

According to Cheng Yi, the human ability of psychological resonance allows omens and signs to enter one’s dreams. The occurrence of such resonance depends on three factors: things must truly exist in the world, whether in the past, present, or future; the resonating person’s heartmind must be concentrated and unified and thus “settled”; and even if the material and Qi aspect of things disappears, the pattern-principle that explains their existence and coexistence with other things in the world still persists.[48] Thus, it is the existence of pattern-principles and their broad interconnection that is resonated by a pure heartmind, leading to the manifestation of omens and signs in dreams.

In his further analysis, Cheng Yi proposed that a pure heartmind, necessary for experiencing dreams of omens and signs, could be achieved through quiet-sitting meditation and other related contemplative practices. However, he cautioned against the pursuit of knowledge about future events as the primary goal of these practices as it contradicts the Ru commitment to moral self-cultivation and a rational lifestyle. While such knowledge may arise as an uncontrollable yet understandable result of contemplative practices, it should not be sought after for its own sake. The conversation that follows is prompted by a question about whether a Buddhist monk could really know in advance when a visitor is coming. Cheng Yi’s answer exemplifies this caution:

Someone asked, “Can a person living in seclusion know in advance when someone is coming to visit them?” Cheng Yi answered, “Yes, there are such people. For example, Dong Wu Jing of Songshan has this ability.” When asked how this was possible, Cheng Yi replied, “It is only through a quiet heartmind (心靜). A heartmind that has become quiet can reflect [like a mirror].” When asked whether a sage would be willing to do this, Cheng Yi answered, “Why do we need to involve sages and worthies in this? Even Buddhist monks who come close to understanding would not engage in such practices, let alone sages.”[49]

As a tranquil and settled mind could allow omens and signs to enter one’s dreams, it is important to mention another contemplative practice of Cheng Yi: divination. Cheng Yi’s major academic contribution to the Ru tradition was the composition of a commentary on the Classic of Change (程氏易傳), which is still considered a must-read today for those studying the Classic in a Ruist style. Before the addition of the Ten Wings, a series of Ru commentaries, the Classic of Change (易經, Yijing) was a book used for divination in the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). To construe the Yijing philosophy, Cheng Yi had to be familiar with the basic operational method of divination, which involves using yarrow stalks, turtle shells, or other objects to generate images and numbers of hexagrams. Accordingly, Cheng Yi explains why the use of Yijing hexagrams in divination can generate accurate prognostications as follows:

Although yarrow stalks and turtle shells used for divination are inanimate (無情) objects, they are used to create hexagrams, which can indicate good or bad fortune based on pattern-principles. Because there is the pattern-principle behind the process, when asking questions using divination, the response can be as accurate as an echo. However, if one asks with a selfish heartmind or uses incorrect hexagrams and images, the response will not be accurate, because they lack the pattern-principle. The pattern-principle that guides divination today is the same as the pattern-principle preestablished in the past. Therefore, divination can provide accurate responses.[50]

It is evident that Cheng Yi uses similar factors to explain accurate prognostication as he does for dreams of omens and signs. Specifically, there are pattern-principles and their mutual interconnections established in the world. Hexagrams represent these pattern-principles. An unselfish, pure heartmind resonates with these pattern-principles.

Interestingly, Cheng Yi opposes taking the acquisition of psychic knowledge about the future as the goal of contemplative practices such as quiet-sitting and reflection on one’s dreams, and he holds a similar attitude toward Yijing divination. In the tradition of Yijing studies, some people exclusively focused on studying the images and numbers of Yijing symbols, making broad connections of these symbols to cosmic events and human affairs and applying Yijing divination in areas such as astrology, alchemy, and geomancy. Cheng Yi deemed these people as “occultists” (術士) and stressed that their Yijing study cannot belong to the learning of Ru, which focuses on investigating the pattern-principles of things and applying these principles to moral self-cultivation and civilizational building. In other words, while knowing the operational method of Yijing divination is necessary to studying Yijingphilosophy, and accurate prognostication can be an understandable result of Yijing studies, a Ru should not take prognostication as the goal of such studies. Divination as a contemplative practice shares the same underlying ethical structure as other practices. The following saying of Cheng Yi further illustrates his Ru attitude toward Yijingdivination:

It is not the case that the meaning of the Yijing arises from numbers. First, there is the pattern-principle, and then there is image. From the image comes a number. The Yijing uses images to clarify pattern-principles, and from the image, one can know the number. Once the meaning is obtained, the image and number are found within it. If one wishes to explore the hidden subtleties of the image and exhaust the smallest details of the number, this would be pursuing the insignificant and following a path of no end. This is what the occultists value, but it is not what the Ru scholars pursue.[51]