In the above section 2.1, we find from the testimonies on quiet-sitting meditation that Cheng Yi opposed the Buddhist practice of “sitting at ease” (宴坐) and the insolent posture of “sitting with legs stretched out” (箕踞). He instead advocated for “sitting calmly” (安坐), “sitting right” (正坐), or “sitting upright” (危坐). Cheng Yi even indicated that sitting on a chair could help one calm down.

Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE), who lived around the same period of Chinese history as Cheng Yi, was renowned for his expertise in the study of ancient rituals. Zhu Xi corroborated in his work A Discourse on Kneeling, Sitting, and Bowing(跪坐拜說) that in ancient times, “sitting” (坐) meant “people sat with both knees on the ground and put the soles of their feet upward (反其蹠), sitting on top of their heels.”[52] Zhu further clarified that this posture of sitting with knees down required a mat on the ground and could be either “sitting upright” (危坐) or “sitting calmly” (安坐). Sitting upright required both knees to be on the ground with the waist and thighs straightened, resulting in an upright and tall posture. Sitting calmly required both knees to be on the ground with the buttocks resting on the soles (以尻著蹠), resulting in a posture that feels more relaxed.[53]

The widespread use of chairs and other furniture during Zhu Xi’s era eliminated the need to kneel in the traditional way of sitting, which necessitated Zhu’s study of the ancient sitting postures.[54] This shift is further corroborated by Cheng Yi’s previously cited observation that sitting on a chair can often bring a sense of calm.

After analyzing all the previous evidence, it is highly probable that Cheng Yi’s quiet-sitting posture involved sitting on a chair or similar furniture with neither legs stretched out nor crossed and with his back upright and unsupported by the chair.[55] Although there is no record of how Cheng Yi placed his hands during this practice, his advocacy for “not feeling constraint” suggests that the hands were likely placed on the knees or thighs, with the palms facing down.

Even if we can surmise Cheng Yi’s most probable quiet-sitting posture as such, the following statement of Cheng Yi sheds further light on the significance of sitting posture:

The concept of “embryonic breathing” (胎息) is acceptable if it is practiced for the purpose of curing one’s illness (愈疾). However, if it is used to enter the Way, it is not considered to be part of the teachings of the sages, who have never spoken of it.

If one claims that when the spirit resides, so does the breath (神住則氣住), and they practice it as a technique for deep meditation, it is a method used in Buddhism. In regards to this Buddhist technique, some argue that cultivating one’s vital-energy (養氣) is a secondary matter and that the focus should be on the heartmind. Buddhism aims to achieve compassion, kindness, and peace (慈惠安靜) of the heartmind, and therefore it can be helpful in following the Way. However, I do not agree with this view. Mengzi’s idea of “oceanic vital-energy” (浩然之氣) is not the same as this.

Now, if one says that preserving the heartmind and cultivating vital-energy is solely for the sake of vital-energy, then the focus is too narrow. . . . For those who claim that Buddhist meditation can aid in following the Way, it is because their heartmind cannot be settled, and they need to attain silence and tranquility (寂湛). However, this is not the same as the method of concentrating one’s mind in Buddhism.

If one’s learning is like this, then it is a jumbled mess (大段雜). Nurturing one’s heartmind does not necessarily require only closing one’s eyes and practicing quiet-sitting. As stated in the Record of Rites, “As for sitting, one should sit like a representative of the deceased (坐如尸), and as for standing, one should stand like during a period of abstinence (立如齊).” This means that one should focus on nurturing one’s will (養其志), not just on cultivating vital-energy.[56]

In this passage, Cheng Yi discusses the quiet-sitting posture in an interreligious/interspiritual[57] context. He argues that while the Daoist practice of “embryonic breathing”[58] addresses the need for “preserving the heartmind and cultivating vital-energy,” it places too much emphasis on the latter, prioritizing the cultivation of vital-energy over all other purposes. As a result, a Ru scholar can only endorse this practice to the extent that it promotes physical health and cures illness. However, with regard to the higher purpose of nurturing the heartmind and entering the ethical and metaphysical Ru way of life, the Daoist practice falls short.

In regard to the Buddhist practice of guiding one’s breath through the concentration of the mind, Cheng Yi acknowledges that, compared to Daoism, Buddhism appears to place more emphasis on the heartmind. However, due to the significant differences in ethical and metaphysical worldviews between Buddhism and Ruism, a Ru scholar cannot approve of this method for nurturing the heartmind. Even if one believes that practicing Buddhist meditation can help to settle the mind and attain a state of psychological calm, Cheng Yi does not believe that this can aid in the Ruist learning. This is because the goals of the Buddhist method are much more comprehensive than merely achieving a restful psychological state. Even if one’s initial intention in practicing Buddhist meditation was to attain this state, he or she may be led to the higher and distinct goals of Buddhism, which could interfere with his or her Ruist learning.

Similar to Buddhism, Ru meditation prioritizes the nurturing of the heartmind over the cultivation of vital-energy. However, Ruism employs a unique set of meditative techniques and ethical and metaphysical principles for this purpose. Notably, Cheng Yi suggests that “closing one’s eyes and practicing quiet-sitting” is not necessary for nurturing the heartmind in the Ruist tradition. Instead, any human activity conducted in accordance with the instructions for sitting and standing in the Record of Rites contributes to the contemplative Ru way of life.

According to this instruction, the term 尸 referred to a person representing a deceased ancestor during a sacrificial ritual, while 齊 referred to various practices performed before the official start of a sacrificial ritual, such as fasting, bathing, sexual restraint, and abstaining from other everyday activities.[59] Scholars’ archaeological research has shown that the sitting posture of the ancestor representative during the compilation of the Record of Rites is exactly the same as the posture of “sitting calmly” (安坐) studied by Zhu Xi, which involves both knees on the ground with the buttocks resting on the soles.[60] However, Cheng Yi emphasizes that the most important aspect of this instruction in the Record of Rites is not strictly adhering to a particular posture but rather “nurturing one’s will” and maintaining an attitude of reverence and deference toward the pattern-principles of all things and events within a properly ritualized human world.

Therefore, while we can infer that Cheng Yi’s preferred posture for quiet-sitting meditation was likely to be sitting upright on a chair, as mentioned earlier, it is more likely that Cheng Yi viewed this posture as a suggestion rather than a strict rule. The fundamental technique underlying all Cheng Yi’s contemplative practices is still the cultivation of “reverence,” as I will explain in more detail later.