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Yoga Interventions for the Prevention, Treatment, and Rehabilitation of Medical Conditions

A Curated Guide

This guide provides a brief overview of this topic and a curated list of the most important relevant resources and those frequently cited, referenced, or recommended by current scholars and experts in the field.

Overview

Yoga refers to a system of physical postures, breath control, and often meditation practices originally derived from a Hindu spiritual and philosophical tradition. More and more people are reporting health benefits from practicing yoga, and in recent years the use of yoga as an intervention for cardiovascular, respiratory, organ, immune, and autoimmune health in general and women’s and elderly health in particular and for the prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of particular medical conditions has greatly increased. According to surveys, 14.3% of U.S. adults reported practicing yoga in 2017, up from 9.5% in 2012, a year in which 94% of U.S. yoga practitioners reported engaging in the practice for wellness-related reasons and 18% reported doing so to treat specific health conditions with back pain, stress, and arthritis being the most common conditions cited.^{^[1]}

More people are practicing yoga, more people are reporting health benefits, and research is rapidly expanding to explore popular claims. A marked increase in yoga intervention studies began in 2000, with steady growth since 2007, and over 200 new research articles published annually since 2011.^{^[2]} Significant findings from these studies suggest that practicing yoga correlates with decreases in stress and unhealthy inflammation; increases in strength, flexibility, and body awareness; and more balanced hormone and cortisol levels and that yoga is a safe, accessible, and valuable complementary health treatment.

The diversity in yoga styles, research methods, and treatment plans, however, makes it difficult to draw strong conclusions about the efficacy of yoga interventions. Many studies have a low number of participants and no control group, and many do not compare yoga to similar interventions, such as exercise or meditation. For example, the first ever randomized trial on yoga, published in 1975, found that yoga was more effective than relaxation in reducing high blood pressure, but the trial included a mere 34 participants, all with high blood pressure.^{^[3]} Many subsequent studies have had similar limitations in sample size, participant selection, and length.

Of the studies that have included control or comparison groups, few have protected against bias by blinding participants to the intervention. Other problems with yoga intervention research historically include: a lack of long-term studies; few studies on the adverse effects of practicing yoga; a predominant focus on adults (white women comprise the majority of study participants); and a limited focus on common medical concerns, including back pain, breast cancer, and multiple sclerosis.

Yoga is complex and may include many components, such as poses, breathing exercises, meditation, relaxation techniques, chanting, visualization, and more. Yet many studies still fail to report on or adequately account for these variables, making them impossible to duplicate. For studies to be relevant and reliable, researchers must precisely explain the type of yoga used, the dose and delivery, the class sequences and modifications, the selection of instructors, the setting, the assessments, the measurement of intervention fidelity, etc.

In the United States, yoga research falls under the purview of the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health—the U.S. government’s lead agency for scientific research outside of conventional medicine (founded in 1991 as the Office of Alternative Medicine). This agency receives frequent criticism for funding studies with little supporting scientific evidence and for insufficient discovery of new medical research or treatment.

Despite these various issues, yoga research has continued to grow and become more robust over time. For example, in 2005, the seminal study on yoga for low back pain was published. This well-regarded randomized, controlled trial with thorough reporting included 101 adults with chronic low back pain divided into a yoga group, an exercise group, and a self-care book group. The experience lasted for 12 weeks, with a follow-up assessment at 26 weeks.^{^[4]} Positive results for the yoga intervention group spurred many more studies on yoga for low back pain.

Researchers have begun to consider the effects of yoga interventions on other populations, such as on children practicing yoga in schools, and with respect to other concerns, such as joint disorders, organ cancers, and nervous system conditions. They’re also beginning to examine the precise physiological mechanisms underlying yoga’s effects on health, such as the impact practicing yoga has on inflammation and the autonomic nervous system.

Much of the research on yoga interventions continues to come from the United States and India. Increasingly, however, yoga research is being done around the world. For example, in Germany, the Department of Internal and Integrative Medicine at the University of Duisburg-Essen was established in 2004; currently under the supervision of Gustav Dobos, M.D., Jost Langhorst M.D., and Holger Cramer, the department is known for its scholarly productivity. In Australia, the Australian Research Centre in Complementary and Integrative Medicine, established in 2012, has quickly become a leading critical public health and health services research center focusing on traditional, complementary, and integrative health care.

In the future, research on yoga interventions is likely to continue to expand and improve in coverage, methodology, and reporting. For example, some yoga intervention researchers are now advocating for the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) guidelines (first developed in 1996 to improve research quality and since refined and adopted by established journals) to be expanded to make them more relevant to complementary and alternative medicine and to add guidelines on developing and reporting study protocols. More open communication and collaboration among individuals, doctors, and yoga instructors will also assist in improving the design and effectiveness of yoga interventions.

Curated Resources

Books

Bell, B., and Zolotow, N. (2017). Yoga for Healthy Aging: A Guide to Lifelong Well-being. Boulder, CO: Shambhala. https://www.shambhala.com/yoga-for-healthy-aging-15028.html

Growing out of the authors’ popular blog of the same name, this book offers a yoga program for healthy aging based on strength, flexibility, balance, agility, cardiovascular health, brain health, and stress management, backed by scientific and medical research. The short yoga practices are safe and accessible for beginners, with some practices designed for overall health and others meant for addressing particular problem areas.

Broad, William J. (2012). The Science of Yoga: The Risks and the Rewards. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Science-of-Yoga/William-J-Broad/9781451641431

A New York Times bestseller, written by a prominent science writer and devoted yoga practitioner, this book caused controversy upon its release for critically examining yoga research and claimed health benefits. As a burgeoning global industry, Broad suggests that yoga organizations are disinterested in scientific findings that overturn popular yoga health myths, but that sharing such research offers a way forward.

Budig, K. (2012). The Women’s Health Big Book of Yoga: The Essential Guide to Complete Mind/Body Fitness. New York, NY: Rodale Books. https://penguinrandomhouseeducation.com/book/?isbn=9781609618391

Backed by the Women’s Health magazine, this book focuses on women’s health and yoga practices for weight loss, core strength, and mindful eating; the book explains how practicing yoga also helps reduce stress, which reduces stress-based over-eating. The book includes targeted fifteen-15 minute yoga classes designed by Budig, an internationally acclaimed yoga teacher and writer, which are beginner-friendly and also valuable for experienced yoga practitioners.

Emerson, D., and Hopper, E. (2011). Overcoming Trauma Through Yoga: Reclaiming the Body. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. https://www.northatlanticbooks.com/shop/overcoming-trauma-through-yoga/

This book is for trauma survivors, clinicians, and yoga teachers, offering a research-based modified trauma-sensitive yoga approach meant to actively bring the body into the healing process. The book gives an overview of yoga and four key themes for trauma-sensitive yoga, with example sequences and modifications for home practice. Trauma-sensitive yoga helps trauma survivors cultivate a more positive relationship with their bodies through gentle breath, mindfulness, and movement.

Iyengar, B.K.S. (1966). Light on Yoga: The Bible of Modern Yoga. New York, NY: Schocken Books. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/85770/light-on-yoga-by-b-k-s-iyengar/9780805210316/

This highly regarded book is considered an essential text on the philosophy and practice of yoga; it has been translated into 16 languages. Its three sections include an introduction to yoga practice and history, asana instruction, and breathing exercises. Written by B.K.S. Iyengar, founder of the Iyengar Yoga style and one of the most influential yoga teachers in the last 100 years, the book gives preparatory poses, leading into sequences that become progressively advanced, as well as yoga poses for particular health problems.

Keil, David. (2014). Functional Anatomy of Yoga: A Guide for Practitioners and Teachers. Chichester, UK: Lotus Publishing. https://www.jroscoe.co.uk/functional-anatomy-yoga-guide-for-practitioners-and-teachers-p-2401.html?osCsid=a5a63aeeb57180b8eac14e427aeeda8d

With an underlying theme of integration, this book delivers the subject of human anatomy in a clear and provocative form that distills the complex anatomy lessons into understandable and functional units. Keil uses the deeper understanding of anatomy to explain how body parts work together to support integrated movement. This book is appealing to casual readers, seasoned practitioners, and yoga teachers, and includes colored photographs and images that illustrate concepts and poses.

McCall, T. (2007). Yoga As Medicine: The Yogic Prescription for Health & Healing: A Yoga Journal Book. New York, NY: Bantam Books. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/194962/yoga-as-medicine-by-a-yoga-journal-book-by-timothy-mccall-md/9780553384062/

Yoga as Medicine provides a history of yoga, many instructional practices, and mindfulness tasks in order to prevent illness, promote healing, foster a mind-body connection, offer a complementary or alternative treatment to surgery or medication, and improve communication with medical professionals. Praised by both yoga and medical professionals as clear and accessible, this book is a great resource for exploring yoga and its health benefits at home.

McGee, Kristin. (2017). Chair Yoga: Sit, Stretch, and Strengthen Your Way to a Happier, Healthier You. New York, NY: HarperCollins. https://www.harpercollins.com/9780062486455/chair-yoga/

This book is an accessible guide to 100 yoga poses and short pose sequences that can be done in a chair, organized to target specific body parts. Meant for people who work all day at a desk, who have a limited range of motion, or have no experience with yoga or exercise, all poses are done seated— - no workout clothes required— - and help improve back pain and posture. With routines as short as five5 minutes, the book offers something for everyone, even people with a busy schedule.

Stanley, J. (2017). Every Body Yoga: Let Go Of Fear, Get On The Mat, and Love Your Body. New York, NY: Workman Publishing Company. https://www.workman.com/products/every-body-yoga

This book is a “how to” book on breaking physical and emotional barriers to yoga, inspirational for people of all shapes and sizes who are curious about or new to yoga. Emphasizing how poses feel rather than how they look, Stanley builds on her Instagram-fame to challenge larger issues of body acceptance and the meaning of beauty. Part memoir, part beginner’s guide, this book breaks stereotypes with its body positive approach and inclusive selection of models.

Wei, M., and Groves, J. E. (2017). The Harvard Medical School Guide to Yoga: 8 weeks to Strength, Awareness, and Flexibility. Boston, MA: Da Capo Lifelong Books. https://www.dacapopress.com/?s=The+Harvard+Medical+School+Guide+to+Yoga%3A+8+Weeks+to+Strength%2C+Awareness%2C+and+Flexibility

Written by two doctors, this book offers a science-based eight-week yoga program to increase flexibility and balance, build muscle and bone strength, improve sleep, reduce stress, strengthen the immune system, and enrich brain health. Designed to be approachable and safe, the book includes pose illustrations, dozens of breathing and meditation techniques, adaptable sequences, and safety principles to prevent injury.

Academic Articles

Birdee, G.S., Legedza, A.T., Saper, R.B., Bertisch, S.M., Eisenberg, D.M., & Phillips, R.S. (2008). Characteristics of yoga users: Results of a national survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 23(10), 1653-1658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-008-0735-5

In a U.S. survey study of 31,044 people in 2002, yoga practitioners were likely to be white, female, young, and college-educated; they practice yoga for musculoskeletal and mental health conditions.

Bower, J.E., Garet, D., Sternlieb, B., Ganz, P.A., Irwin, M.R., Olmstead, R., & Greendale, G. (2012). Yoga for persistent fatigue in breast cancer survivors: A randomized controlled trial. Cancer, 118(15), 3766-3775. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.26702

In this randomized controlled trial, 31 breast cancer survivors reporting significant cancer-related fatigue were divided into a yoga group and a health education control group for 12 weeks of intervention. The yoga group had significant improvements in fatigue and vigor, measured at baseline, post-treatment, and at three months follow-up, compared to the control. Both groups had positive changes in depressive symptoms and stress.

Carson, J.W., Carson, K.M., Porter, L.S., Keefe, F.J., & Seewaldt, V.L. (2009). Yoga of Awareness program for menopausal symptoms in breast cancer survivors: Results from a randomized trial. Supportive Care in Cancer, 17(10), 1301-1309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-009-0587-5

In this randomized trial, 37 breast cancer survivors experiencing menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes were divided into a yoga group and a wait-list control group. The yoga group completed an eight-week yoga intervention, with daily reports of symptoms collected at baseline, post-treatment, and three months follow-up; post-treatment, the yoga group showed significantly greater improvements relative to the control group in hot flash frequency and frequency, and in a range of related symptoms, and at three months follow-up had maintained their treatment gains.

Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Haller, H., & Dobos, G. (2013). A systematic review and meta-analysis of yoga for low back pain. Clinical Journal of Pain, 29(5), 450-460. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e31825e1492

This article compiles research data from 10 randomized controlled trials of yoga’s impact on low back pain, for 967 total patients, finding strong evidence for short- term effectiveness, and moderate evidence for long-term effectiveness, of yoga on improving back pain and disability.

Descilo, T., Vedamurtachar, A., Gerbarg, P.L., Gangadhar, B.N., Damodaran, B., Adelson, B., … Brown, R.P. (2010). Effects of a yoga breath intervention alone and in combination with an exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in survivors of the 2004 South-East Asia tsunami. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 121(4), 289-300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01466.x

In a non-randomized study of 183 tsunami survivors with post-traumatic stress disorder, participants practicing yoga breath or yoga breath plus trauma treatment showed significant improvement after six weeks compared to the control group.

Field, T., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Medina, L., Delgado, J., & Hernandez, A. (2012). Yoga and massage therapy reduce prenatal depression and prematurity. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 16(2), 204-209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2011.08.002

In a randomized study of 84 prenatal depressed women, participants receiving yoga or massage therapy treatments showed improvement in depression, anxiety, back and leg pain, and relationship measurements, as well as healthier birth outcomes, than participants in the control group.

Gordon, L.A., Morrison, E.Y., McGrowder, D.A., Young, R., Fraser, Y.T.P., Zamora, E., … Irving, R.R. (2008). Effect of exercise therapy on lipid profile and oxidative stress indicators in patients with type 2 diabetes. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 8(21), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-8-21

In a randomized study of 230 patients with type 2 diabetes, one- third of the people practicing Hatha yoga exercise and one- third performing conventional physical therapy exercises saw improvements in fasting blood glucose, lipid profiles, oxidative stress markers, and antioxidant status compared to the one- third people in the control group after six months.

Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Christian, L., Preston, H., Houts, C.R., Malarkey, W.B., Emery, C.F., & Glaser, R. (2010). Stress, inflammation, and yoga practice. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72(2), 113-121. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181cb9377

In this comparison study, 25 yoga novices and 25 yoga experts (all healthy women) performed restorative hatha yoga and two control conditions, movement-based and video-based, across three visits to compare inflammatory and endocrine responses. Yoga boosted positive affect over the control conditions, but not inflammatory or endocrine responses; in stress tests before and after the yoga intervention, novices exhibited a greater stress response through interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein levels.

Lundgren, T., Dahl, J., Yardi, N., & Melin, L. (2008). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and yoga for drug-refractory epilepsy: A randomized controlled trial. Epilepsy and Behavior, 13(1), 102-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.02.009

In a randomized controlled trial of 18 epilepsy patients, participants received either Acceptance and Commitment Therapy or a yoga treatment and were assessed at zero, three, six, and 12 months, with annual follow-ups; ACT and yoga both increased quality of life, and ACT was more effective than yoga at reducing seizures.

Mendelson, T., Greenberg, M.T., Dariotis, J.K., Gould, L.F., Rhoades, B.L., & Leaf, P.J. (2010). Feasibility and preliminary outcomes of a school-based mindfulness intervention for urban youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(7), 985-994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9418-x

In a randomized controlled trial assessing feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary outcomes of a school-based mindfulness and yoga intervention, four4 urban public schools divided the 4th and 5th grade classes into intervention or wait-list control groups. After 12 weeks, the intervention was found to be popular and to reduce stress responses including rumination, intrusive thoughts, and emotional arousal.

Mustian, K.M., Sprod, L.K., Janelsins, M., Peppone, L.J., Palesh, O.G., Chandwani, K., … Reddy, P.S. (2013). Multicenter, randomized controlled trial of yoga for sleep quality among cancer survivors. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 31(26), 3233-3241. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2012.43.7707

In this randomized controlled trial, 410 cancer survivors with moderate or great sleep disruption were assigned to standard care or standard care plus a four-week yoga intervention of breathing exercises, gentle poses, and meditation twice weekly. Yoga participants demonstrated greater improvement in sleep quality, daytime dysfunction, sleep efficiency, and sleep medication use, compared to the control group.

Raghavendra, R.M., Nagarathna, R., Nagendra, H.R., Gopinath, K.S., Srinath, B.S., Ravi, B.D., … Nalini, R. (2007). Effects of an integrated yoga programme on chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis in breast cancer patients. European Journal of Cancer Care, 16(6), 462-474. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2354.2006.00739.x

In this randomized study, 62 breast cancer outpatients were assigned to yoga or supportive therapy interventions during chemotherapy, with the yoga group completing supervised or home practice yoga sessions for 60 minutes daily. The yoga group showed significant decrease in frequency and intensity of nausea and vomiting, as well as improved anxiety, depression, and distress symptoms, compared to the control group.

Ross, A., & Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: A review of comparison studies. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(1), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2009.0044

In this review comparing the effects of yoga and exercise, across 10 studies where yoga interventions were compared to exercise interventions, yoga appeared to be equal or superior to exercise in nearly every outcome for health benefits except physical fitness.

Schmidt., S., Grossman, P., Schwarzer, B., Jena, S., Naumann, J., & Walach, H. (2011). Treating fibromyalgia with mindfulness-based stress reduction: Results from a 3-armed randomized controlled trial. Pain, 152(2), 361-369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2010.10.043

In this randomized controlled trial, 177 female fibromyalgia patients were divided into three groups: mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) group (focusing on mindful meditation and yoga), an active control group, or a waitlist control group. The MBSR group showed modest improvement in health-related quality of life compared to the other two groups.

Sengupta, P. (2012). Health impacts of yoga and pranayama: A state-of-the-art review. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 3(7), 444-458.

This article gives an overview of yoga research, including yoga for reducing stress and anxiety, improving autonomic functions in the brain and nervous system, and increasing physical health in cancer patients.

Smith, K.B., & Pukali, C.F. (2009). An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary intervention for patients with cancer. Psycho-oncology, 18(5), 465-475. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.1411

In this review of high-quality studies and randomized controlled trials on yoga as a treatment for cancer-related symptoms, there are positive trends that point to the need for future research that is more methodologically rigorous, that examines what components of yoga are most beneficial, and that considers what type of patient receives the greatest benefit from a yoga intervention.

Streeter, C.C., Jensen, J.E., Perlmutter, R.M., Cabral, H.J., Tian, H., Terhune, D.B., … Renshaw, P.F. (2007). Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 13(4), 419-426. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2007.6338

In this parallel-group comparison study, eight people completed a 60-minute yoga session and 11 people completed a 60-minute reading session; yoga practitioners had a 27% increase in brain amino (GABA) levels after yoga, while readers had no change, suggesting that yoga may be valuable as a treatment for disorders with low GABA levels such as depression and anxiety.

Ueblacker, L.A., Epstein-Lubow, G., Gaudiano, B.A., Tremont, G., Battle, C.L., & Miller, I.W. (2010). Hatha yoga for depression: Critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 16(1), 22-23. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.pra.0000367775.88388.96

This article reviews evidence and mechanisms for the impact of yoga on depression from eight clinical trials, and outlines future research directions. Results from these trials are positive, but findings are preliminary. Yoga has “active ingredients” of other successful treatments for depression and may also have biological, psychological, and behavioral mechanisms that explain its effect.

Williams, K., Abildso, C., Steinberg, L., Doyle, E., Epstein, B., Smith, D., … Cooper, L. (2009). Evaluation of the effectiveness and efficacy of Iyengar yoga therapy on chronic low back pain. Spine, 34(19), 2066-2076. https://doi.org/10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181b315cc

In a randomized study of 90 participants with chronic low back pain, half of the participants practiced a special biweekly Iyengar yoga class for 24 weeks, for significantly greater reductions in functional disability, pain intensity, and depression than the participants in the standard care control group, at the 12 week and 24 week assessments.

Video Talks / Podcasts

Michael Mukunda Chandra Kohan. (2017, May 30). Living Life on Purpose Podcast. Podcast retrieved from https://yourwellnessyogi.com/podcast/

Recommended by the Feedspot blog “Top 30 Yoga Podcasts You Must Subscribe and Listen to in 2018,” the Living Life on Purpose podcast is run by Michael Mukunda Chandra Kohan. Since May 2017, each week he posts a new podcast about spirituality and personal growth, often interviewing expert guests on a range of related topics. The podcast is meant to inspire listeners to achieve goals and reach their highest potential. Podcast episodes are about 45-minutes long.

Plumb, Laura. (2016, November 15). The science of yoga [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CIbR7odQklk

In this 20-minute YouTube video from the Yoga Day Summit at the 2016 International Yoga Festival in Rishikesh, India, many experts of yoga talk about the benefits of practicing yoga, meditation, and mindfulness. Yoga is meant to establish connections within your body and encourage space spiritually and cellularly so energy is able to move through the natural channels of our body. Because of this, yoga allows individuals to cope with emotion and stress. The video description includes a link to a longer documentary about the science of yoga.

TEDx Talks. (2014, May 2). Breathing: Stewart Gilchrist at TEDxLondonBusinessSchool 2014 [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=216&v=BqrXwKzACQw

In this 18-minute video , Stewart Gilchrist shares his healing yoga journey from a severe back injury. After his amazing recovery through an intensive Ashtanga Vinyasa Mysore yoga practice, Gilchrist began studying yoga more seriously, becoming a Jivamukti yoga teacher in 2003. In this video he also discusses his unique style of teaching.

TEDx Talks. (2015, May 26). The science of yogic breathing [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aIfwbEvXtwo

In this 10-minute video , Sundar Balasubramanian, a radiation oncology researcher, shares the medical benefits of deep breathing. Applying the translation of a 3,000-year-old poem to his own yoga practice led to a research study, which revealed significant biochemical changes based on breathing patterns. He discusses his research and offers a simple breathing exercise in the video.

TEDx Talks. (2015, May 28). Why the Youths Should do Yoga | Anahita Sanjana | TEDxStXaviersMumbai [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wnYOOLxoLqA

Anahita Sanjana is a yoga practitioner and teacher that discusses the importance of yoga in the world. She believes yoga has significant benefits for the youth through its healing powers. Her main goal is to integrate yoga into school curricula to rectify mental and physical imbalances.

TEDx Talks. (2015, June 4). What Yoga Taught me about Business, Bravery & Bras | Harriet Minter | TEDxWhitehallWomen [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_NnTAlk2vdk

As the current editor of The Guardian’s Women in Leadership section, Harriet Minter writes about a variety of issues affecting women. She is an advocate of women’s rights through her journalism and discusses how yoga has impacted her life in the workplace.

TEDx Talks. (2015, June 17). Yoga and Self-Acceptance | Anne Falkowski | TEDxManchesterHighSchool [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eNyhaLV1a6c

Anne Falkowski, a master yoga teacher teaching for 15 years, hopes to show the audience that yoga can be a body-centered practice leading to healing, change, and self-acceptance.

TEDx Talks. (2017, May 18). Yoga and its Connection to Mental Health | Nikolai Blinow | TEDxSalveReginaU [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T4nr4t0AQzw

Nikolai Blinow is a certified yoga instructor and licensed mental health counselor in Rhode Island with the goal of serving the mental health and personal development community. In her TEDxTalk she identifies that yoga practices can be used in mental health treatment to enhance cognitive and behavioral change.

The CEO Magazine. (2014, August 14). Dr. Khalsa of Harvard Medical School on the science behind yoga [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wOlB7Y5Stkc

In this YouTube video, Dr. Khalsa from Harvard Medical School discusses the science behind yoga in a nearly hour-long interview with The CEO Magazine. He dives into the difficulties of researching yoga due to its infancy as a scientific topic of study and suggests that more rigorous studies are needed to conduct meta analyses and draw strong conclusions. The video points out, however, that yoga and meditation have been proven to be beneficial in cancer patients to alleviate pain and encourage brain plasticity.

YogaUOnline. (2016, August 15). Yoga as medicine: Interview with Dr. Timothy McCall [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vyTaBeNARS4

In this 40-minute YouTube video, Dr. McCall is interviewed by Eva Norlyk Smith for YogaUOnline. He begins by explaining his medical and yoga background, and then he gives his belief that yoga should be integrated into Western health care, with supporting arguments. Dr. McCall advocates for adapting the yoga practice to the individual as a complementary medical treatment.

Yoga Health Coaching. (2017, May 31). Yoga Health Coaching Podcast. Podcast retrieved from https://yogahealthcoaching.com/podcast/

Recommended by the Feedspot blog “Top 30 Yoga Podcasts You Must Subscribe and Listen to in 2018,” this podcast series, began in May 2017, helps yogis connect with a coach and assists coaches improve their yoga health coaching capabilities in the health and wellness industry. New episodes are posted weekly by a variety of yoga health coaches, covering a range of yoga health topics, from Ayurveda to work-life balance. Podcast episodes are 20- to 35-minutes long.

Related Organizations

Australian Research Centre in Complementary and Integrative Medicine
https://www.uts.edu.au/research-and-teaching/our-research/complementary-and-integrative-medicine

Established in 2012, the Australian Research Centre in Complementary and Integrative Medicine pursues scientific investigation of traditional, complementary, and integrative medicine, both in Australia and internationally, with particular focus on women’s health, palliative care, primary health care, chronic illness, aging, and health policy and legal issues.

Benson-Henry Institute for Mind Body Medicine
https://www.bensonhenryinstitute.org

The Benson-Henry Institute, located at the Massachusetts General Hospital, has been integrating mind-body practices into research, clinical care, and training since 2006, with particular interest in the body’s “relaxation response” to meditative activities, including yoga.

Center for Mindfulness, University of Massachusetts Medical School
https://www.umassmed.edu/cfm/

The Center for Mindfulness at UMass was established in 1979 and is the largest and longest continually operating research center on stress reduction, including studies on gentle yoga and mindfulness meditation.

Department of Internal and Integrative Medicine at the University of Duisburg-Essen
https://www.uni-due.de/naturheilkunde/87-0-Home.html

Founded in 2004, the Department of Internal and Integrative Medicine at the University of Duisburg-Essen in western Germany conducts research on naturopathy, mind-body medicine, Chinese medicine, and Ayurvedic medicine in clinical settings.

Duke Integrative Medicine
https://www.dukeintegrativemedicine.org

Duke Integrative Medicine grew out of an interdisciplinary discussion group at Duke University that started in the early 1990s, formally founded in 1998. Through research, clinical care, and training, they are developing an integrative medicine approach that is patient-centered and addresses the full range of mental, physical, emotional, social, spiritual, and environmental health factors.

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
https://nccih.nih.gov

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health at the National Institutes of Health is a U.S. government agency that funds and conducts research on scientific and public health questions concerning complementary health approaches. It was founded in 1991 as the Office of Alternative Medicine, renamed the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine in 1998, and re-named again in 2014.

Patanjali Research Foundation
http://www.patanjaliresearchfoundation.com/patanjali/

The Patanjali Research Foundation in northern India was established in 2010 to study indigenous texts, practices, and medicine, such as yoga and Ayurveda, using modern scientific methods.

The International Association of Yoga Therapists
https://www.iayt.org

Established in 1989, the International Association of Yoga Therapists is the professional research and education organization for yoga therapists; it runs the peer-reviewed Journal of Yoga Therapy, hosts an annual conference, sets yoga therapist certification benchmarks, and is the accrediting body for yoga therapy training programs. The IAYT has expanded rapidly in services and membership over the past 10 years.

The Omega Institute
https://www.eomega.org

The Omega Institute is a holistic wellness center in New York, established in 1977. It offers a range of educational classes, trainings, and retreats, as well as online lectures and webinars, on a range of topics including yoga and health.

Yoga Service Council
https://yogaservicecouncil.org

The Yoga Service Council was formed in 2009 in collaboration with the Omega Institute, as a non-profit that makes research-based yoga and mindfulness practices more accessible. It runs the Journal of Yoga Service, and has three “best practices” books on yoga in the criminal justice system, yoga in schools, and yoga for veterans.

About this Curated List

Interviewers: Seara Mainor
Contributors: Seara Mainor
Date Submitted: January 2019

Curator Bio

Mala Cunningham is a Clinical Assistant Professor at University of Virginia School of Nursing where she teaches a course in Medical Yoga. Prior to joining the University of Virginia, Mala taught as an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the Northern Illinois University and at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. She is the president of Positive Health Solutions, founder and director of Cardiac Medical Yoga, and a counseling psychologist. Mala is certified in Auricular Acupuncture and is a certified yoga teacher from two traditions. She has continued studying the effect of yoga on conditions like high blood pressure, Lupus, mental health, fibromyalgia, cancer, and even stroke.

Related Bibliography

Coulter, H. David. Anatomy of Hatha Yoga: a Manual for Students, Teachers, and Practitioners. Body and Breath, 2012.

Anatomy of Hatha Yoga presents yoga in scientific terms while building on the foundational material of biology. Postures, diagrams, and critical muscle groups are displayed and integrated into the reflection of the principles of yoga.

Maehle, Gregor. Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy. New World Library, 2007.

This book is meant for modern practitioners as a practical and spiritual guide. Ashtanga Yoga Practice and Philosophy is an excellent resource for yoga teachers to learn all eight limbs of Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga.

Kaminoff, Leslie, and Amy Matthews. Yoga Anatomy. Human Kinetics, 2012.

Leslie Kaminoff and Amy Matthews Yoga Anatomy. Kaminoff and Matthews provide the reader with a deeper understanding of the biology, structures, and principles underlying yoga and breath. Yoga Anatomy is an ultimate and valuable reference for yoga practitioners, instructors, and yogis alike.

Ray Long The Key Muscles of Yoga. Volume I of Long’s series offers a scientific approach to the practice of hatha yoga including illustrations of the human anatomy and detailed physiological descriptions highlighting the agonist, antagonist, and synergist muscles coming into play with each pose. Beginners and experts will learn to appreciate the key muscles of hatha yoga and how they are utilized,

Long, Ray. The Key Muscles of Yoga: Your Guide to Functional Anatomy in Yoga. Greenleaf Book Group Llc, 2009.

Ray Long Key Poses of Yoga. Volume II of Long’s series elaborates on the thoughts and ideas of Volume I. However, Volume II discusses in greater detail the correct muscles used during each key pose in yoga.

Long, Ray, and Chris Macivor. The Key Poses of Yoga Your Guide to Functional Anatomy in Yoga. Bandha Yoga, 2008.

David Frawley and Vasant Lad Yoga of Herbs

Frawley, David, and Vasant Lad. The Yoga of Herbs: an Ayurvedic Guide to Herbal Medicine. Lotus Press, 1986.

Kristen Butera, Staffan Elgelid Yoga Therapy: A Personalized Approach for Your Active Lifestyle Kristin provides a comprehensive and functional guide for incorporating yoga into our daily lives, preventing disease or injury and enhancing better health and performance.

Butera, Kristen, and Staffan Elgelid. Yoga Therapy: a Personalized Approach for Your Active Lifestyle. Human Kinetics Publishers, 2017.

Timothy McCall, M.D., Yoga Journal Yoga as Medicine Yoga as Medicine provides the history of yoga, many instructional practices, and mindfulness tasks in order to individualize each person’s relationship with their body.

McCall, Timothy B. Yoga as Medicine: the Yogic Prescription for Health & Healing: a Yoga Journal Book. Bantam Books, 2007.

Timothy McCall, MD 101 Health Conditions Benefited by Yoga As of October 2016, scientific studies founded a list of health conditions benefited by yoga.

McCall, Timothy. “101 Health Conditions Benefited by Yoga.” Yoga As Medicine: The Art and Science of Yoga Therapy, 2016, www.drmccall.com/uploads/2/2/6/5/22658464/101healthconditionshelpedbyyoga.pdf.

Timothy McCall, MD Western Science vs. Eastern Wisdom Timothy McCall, an American physician conventionally trained in internal medicine, traveled across the world to India to study the deeper meaning of yoga. Dr. McCall visited multiple institutions researching the effects of yoga on health and wellbeing where he found primarily anecdotal research due to the limitations of standardized protocols.

McCall, Timothy. “Western Science vs. Eastern Wisdom.” Yoga As Medicine: The Art and Science of Therapeutic Yoga, 2013, www.drmccall.com/uploads/2/2/6/5/22658464/westvseast.pdf.

Timothy McCall, MD 50 Ways to Heal a Yogi Dr. Timothy McCall provides a list of 50 ways yoga improves health, supported by evidence “consistent with a Western scientific worldview.” He has divided the mechanisms of action into seven categories including musculoskeletal, circulatory, and metabolic.

McCall, Timothy. “50 Ways to Heal a Yogi.” Yoga As Medicine: The Art and Science of Therapeutic Yoga, 2013, www.drmccall.com/uploads/2/2/6/5/22658464/50ways.pdf.

Susi Amendola Finding a Heart Happy Yoga Class Advocating for the Ornish Program, Susi highlights some elements to consider while practicing yoga for those with heart disease. She includes the different types of yoga, helpful tips while practicing the poses, and questions to ask the yoga instructor relating to the specific needs of heart patients in a yoga class.

Amendola, Susi. “Finding a Heart Happy Yoga Class.” Ornish Lifestyle Medicine, www.ornish.com/zine/finding-yoga-class-supports-heart-heath/.

Susi Amendola What is the Purpose of Yoga in the Ornish Program? The Ornish Lifestyle Medicine program is equally an intensive cardiac rehabilitation program intended to reverse heart disease in combination with exercise nutrition, and love and support. Susi describes how the simple, calm, meditative approach is the best way to improve your body from the inside out.

Amendola, Susi. “What Is the Purpose of Yoga in the Ornish Program?” Ornish Lifestyle Medicine, www.ornish.com/zine/purpose-yoga-ornish-program/.

The Distinction Between a Yoga Therapy Session and a Yoga Class

Kraftsow, Gary. “The Distinction Between a Yoga Therapy Session and a Yoga Class.” Yoga International, Yoga International, 3 Feb. 2016, yogainternational.com/article/view/The-Distinction-Between-a-Yoga-Class-and-a-Yoga-Therapy-Session/.

Yoga Therapy: The Next Wave in Yoga

Isaacs, Nora. “Yoga Therapy: The Next Wave in Yoga.” Gaiam, www.gaiam.com/blogs/discover/yoga-therapy-the-next-wave-in-yoga.

What is Yoga Therapy?

Payne, Larry. “What Is Yoga Therapy?” Yoga for Health - Home, 2013, yogatherapyconference.com/what_is_yoga_therapy.html.

Yoga Therapy

“Yoga Therapy.” GoodTherapy.org - Find the Right Therapist, www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/types/yoga-therapy.

Using Yoga to Relieve the Symptoms of Depression

“Using Yoga to Relieve the Symptoms of Depression.” Healthline, Healthline Media, www.healthline.com/health/depression/yoga-therapy.

Using Yoga in Addiction Recovery

“Using Yoga in Addiction Recovery.” American Addiction Centers, americanaddictioncenters.org/therapy-treatment/yoga/.

Yoga can help to treat depression, studies show

Whiteman, Honor. “Yoga Can Help to Treat Depression, Studies Show.” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, 4 Aug. 2017, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318774.php.

Using Yoga in Recovery

“Using Yoga in Addiction Recovery.” American Addiction Centers, americanaddictioncenters.org/therapy-treatment/yoga/.

Yoga for Anxiety and Depression

“Yoga for Anxiety and Depression - Harvard Health.” Harvard Health Blog, www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/yoga-for-anxiety-and-depression.

15. How Yoga Can Wreck Your Body

Broad, William J. “How Yoga Can Wreck Your Body.” The New York Times Magazine. 5 Jan. 2012.
https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/08/magazine/how-yoga-can-wreck-your-body.html

Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Medical Center Medical Yoga Therapy This academic journal dives into the depth of medical yoga touching on the emotional, spiritual, and physical effects yoga uses to achieve maximum benefits. Yoga impacts the body in many positive ways biologically and psychologically by incorporating breathing techniques, mindfulness and meditation.

Stephens, Ina. “Medical Yoga Therapy.” Children, Edited by Hilary McClafferty, vol. 4, no. 2, 10 Feb. 2017, p. 12., doi:10.3390/children4020012.

Sudarshan kriya yoga: Breathing for health

Zope, Sameera, and Rakesha Zope. “Sudarshan Kriya Yoga: Breathing for Health.” International Journal of Yoga, vol. 6, no. 1, 2013, p. 4., doi:10.4103/0973-6131.105935.

Yoga: An evidence-based therapy

Chandratreya S. Yoga: An evidence-based therapy. J Mid-life Health 2011;2:3-4

Characteristics of Yoga Users: Results of a National Survey

Birdee, G.S., Legedza, A.T., Saper, R.B. et al. J GEN INTERN MED (2008) 23: 1653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-008-0735-5

The efficacy of a comprehensive lifestyle modification programme based on yoga in the management of bronchial asthma: a randomized controlled trial

Vempati, Ramaprabhu, et al. “The Efficacy of a Comprehensive Lifestyle Modification Programme Based on Yoga in the Management of Bronchial Asthma: a Randomized Controlled Trial.” BMC Pulmonary Medicine, vol. 9, no. 1, 2009, doi:10.1186/1471-2466-9-37.

Effects of Yoga Versus Walking on Mood, Anxiety, and Brain GABA Levels: A Randomized Controlled MRS Study

Streeter, Chris C., et al. “Effects of Yoga Versus Walking on Mood, Anxiety, and Brain GABA Levels: A Randomized Controlled MRS Study.” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, vol. 16, no. 11, 2010, pp. 1145–1152., doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0007.

Yoga and menopausal transition

Vaze N, Joshi S. Yoga and menopausal transition. J Mid-life Health 2010;1:56-8

Yoga for Chronic Low Back Pain: New Evidence in 2011

Groessl, Erik J. “Yoga for Chronic Low Back Pain: New Evidence in 2011.” Journal of Yoga & Physical Therapy, vol. 02, no. 02, 2012, doi:10.4172/2157-7595.1000e108.

Evidence-Based Role of Hypercapnia and Exhalation Phase in Vagus Nerve Stimulation: Insights into Hypercapnic Yoga Breathing Exercises

Singh, Umesh Pal. “Evidence-Based Role of Hypercapnia and Exhalation Phase in Vagus Nerve Stimulation: Insights into Hypercapnic Yoga Breathing Exercises.” Journal of Yoga & Physical Therapy, vol. 07, no. 03, 2017, doi:10.4172/2157-7595.1000276.

Guidelines for teaching yoga to women with breast cancer-related lymphoedema: an evidence-based approach

Loudon, Annette, et al. “Guidelines for Teaching Yoga to Women with Breast Cancer-Related Lymphoedema: an Evidence-Based Approach.” International Journal of Yoga Therapy, vol. 27, no. 1, 2017, pp. 95–112., doi:10.17761/1531-2054-27.1.95.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Yoga as Remedial Therapy

Kavuri, Vijaya, et al. “Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Yoga as Remedial Therapy.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2015, 2015, pp. 1–10., doi:10.1155/2015/398156.

Effectiveness of Yoga Therapy as a Complementary Treatment for Major Psychiatric Disorders: A Meta-Analysis

Cabral, Patricia, et al. “Effectiveness of Yoga Therapy as a Complementary Treatment for Major Psychiatric Disorders.” The Primary Care Companion For CNS Disorders, 2011, doi:10.4088/pcc.10r01068.

Effectiveness of an Extended Yoga Treatment for Women with Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Price, Maggi, et al. “Effectiveness of an Extended Yoga Treatment for Women with Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, vol. 23, no. 4, 2017, pp. 300–309., doi:10.1089/acm.2015.0266.

^{^[1]} National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. (2017). National health interview survey. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2017; National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. (2012). Use of complementary health approaches in the U.S.: National health interview survey. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2012.

^{^[2]} McCall, M.C. (2014). In search of yoga: Research trends in a Western medical database. International Journal of Yoga, 7(1), 4-8.

^{^[3]} Patel, C. & North, W.R. (1975). Randomised controlled trial of yoga and bio-feedback in management of hypertension. Lancet, 19, 93-95.

^{^[4]} Sherman, K.J., Cherkin, D.C., Erro, J., Miglioretti, D.L., & Deyo, R.A. (2005). Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care book for chronic low back pain: A randomized, controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 143(12), 849-56.

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