Volume II: Archaic Ceremonial Monuments (Antiquities of Zhang Zhung)

Antiquities of Zhang Zhung: A Comprehensive Inventory of Pre-Buddhist Archaeological Monuments on the Tibetan Upland

Volume I: Archaic Residential Monuments

Volume II: Archaic Ceremonial Monuments

by John Vincent Bellezza

Edited by Geoffrey Barstow, Mickey Stockwell and Michael White

THL ID : T5744

Tibetan & Himalayan Library

Published under the THL Digital Text License.

II. Archaic Ceremonial Monuments

II.1. Stelae and accompanying structures: Funerary and non-funerary structures

One of the most captivating types of archaic archaeological site in Upper Tibet consists of stelae, pillars or menhirs either in a solitary aspect or in groups forming special kinds of arrays. In this work, descriptions of 110 sites featuring pillars are presented. The Tibetan generic term doring is applied to pillars of all species in Upper Tibet. These standing stones vary greatly in size (15 cm to 2.4 m in height) number and layout, which is indicative of a fairly broad variety of ritual applications and cultural contexts. As with the dokhang residential monument, pillars without inscriptions reached their highest level of development on the Plateau in Upper Tibet. Pillars exhibiting different morphological characteristics were erected hewn or unhewn, and were made from a diverse assortment of rocks (including igneous, volcanic, metamorphic, and sedimentary). Pillars, whatever their function, were planted firmly in the ground by first excavating a hole to accommodate 30% to 50% of the total length of the stone. Over the centuries, through the agency of gravity and geomorphologic change, it is common for pillars to have collapsed or to tilt in a downhill direction. Gently and even radically inclined pillars are encountered at many sites. Pillars in the Upper Tibetan archaic archaeological context appear to have functioned as political monuments for clans and chieftains, cultic sites for the worship of deities, good fortune enhancement and harm reduction instruments, and as memorials and ritual dispensation sites marking cemeteries.

Beltsa Gyangtrok Doring (Bal tshwa gyang khrog rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog consists of a single quartzitic sandstone pillar that is well rooted in the ground despite the site having been heavily disturbed by road construction. This light-colored unhewn stone was erected on flat, sandy ground covered in river stones. The Chaktak TsangpoLcags thag gtsang po is less than 100 m away and fluvial deposits show that the site must have flooded at least once. The tabular pillar is 1.1 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.1 m. As is customary in this monument typology, the broad sides of the standing stone face north and south. Ostensible traces of the north wall of the enclosure are represented by three stones (each around 30 cm in length) oriented in an east-west direction. An elderly herder (drokpa) who hails from the locale confirmed that the pillar was, at one time, surrounded by a stone enclosure. This information, the mythology and the morphological characteristics of the structures confirm the typological identity of the site. Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog is the most easterly example of stelae erected within an enclosure situated south of the Transhimalaya discovered to date. This example of the II.1b typology is located 80 km northwest of Tsanglha PudarGtsang lha phu dar, a traditional boundary mountain of TsangGtsang and Zhang ZhungZhang zhung, according to BönBon sources. Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog‘s location at the edge of the main east-west road (gyalam) to southwestern Tibet puts what remains of this pillar monument at extreme risk.

Oral tradition

It is said by local sources that Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog is a long-stone that appeared during the emergence of existence (sipa chakpé doring).

Gurchen Doring (Gur chen rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gurchen DoringGur chen rdo ring is located in a basin with views that are most open in a downhill or westerly direction. This orientation is at odds with most other sites of this typology, which generally have the most expansive vistas in the east. The very slightly sloping terrain is sandy with a sparse covering of turf. There are two main pillars firmly planted near the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure.

Oral tradition

According to MenlaSman bla, an elderly resident of the area, and others, sites such as Gurchen DoringGur chen rdo ring are ancient MönMon funerary sites and some of them are associated with human remains.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 8.8 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). Significant parts of all four walls of the enclosure are intact. As in most examples of the typology, these double-course walls (around 70 cm thick) consist of a single layer of stones embedded in the ground. The stones (up to 50 cm long) of the enclosing walls are flush with the surrounding terrain or elevated above it to a maximum height of 15 cm.

Pillars

Both of the main pillars are partially covered in orange climax lichen. The north pillar is four-sided, beige in color and fairly well centered in the enclosure (1 m [height] by 1.4 m [basal girth]). This pillar is slightly inclined. North of the north pillar there is a tiny specimen around 20 cm in height. The south pillar is three-sided and tan in color (85 cm by 1 m).

Khusé Doring (Khu se rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Khusé DoringKhu se rdo ring is situated on a slightly tapering bench overlooking the Achok SerlepA chog ser lebs basin. The terrain is sandy and hemmed in to the north by a ridge. There are at least 18 undressed reddish brown and gray pillars standing inside the enclosure near the west wall.

Oral tradition

Khusé DoringKhu se rdo ring is thought by some local sources to have been erected by the MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 6 m (north-south) by 11 m (east-west). Many parts of its four walls are intact. These superficial (consisting of a single layer of stones) walls are flush with the surrounding ground level, 60 cm in thickness and made of smaller stones (up to 40 cm long). In order to maintain a level space, the enclosure is elevated 50 cm above the adjacent terrain on its eastern flank.

Pillars

While most pillars parallel the full extent of the west wall, some of them extend a short distance along the inner edges of the north and south walls of the enclosure, creating a U-shaped array. All but three of the stelae are 60 cm or less in height. Most of the shorter specimens have sustained some damage and are missing their top sections. The stelae are unhewn and made from various types of rock. These stones are tabular, three-sided and irregularly shaped. The three tallest pillars are situated about 70 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure:

Long-stone DR1: three-sided, reddish (1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). DR1 is centrally located.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (90 cm by 1 m). DR2 is located near the southwest corner of the enclosure.
Long-stone DR3: tabular (75 cm by 1 m). DR3 is in very close proximity to DR2.

Affiliated sites

Not far from Khusé DoringKhu se rdo ring, in a valley called Senggé LungSeng ge lung, there is a small hilltop ruin.

Jangdé Doring (Byang sde rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring is located near the southern effluent of the TsachuTshwa chu, an important tributary of the Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po in Drongpa’Brong pa. The site consists of two pillar installations spaced roughly 300 m apart. While Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring has no contemporary religious function, pieces of milky quartz scattered around both enclosures suggest an earlier ritual usage of the site.

Oral tradition

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring and other Doring sites in the same general area (upper Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po drainage basin) are considered the haunts of elemental spirits such as the tsenBtsan. These pillar complexes are thought to have appeared with the emergence of the universe. According to one local source, they were built by the dré’Dre demons. Other area drokpa refer to them as MönMon tombs (möndur).

Site elements

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring East

The larger Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring East complex is built on level ground in the middle of a broad valley (30° 02.546΄ N. lat. / 83° 47.439΄ E. long.). The soil is thin and rocky and partially covered in tundra. The complex is endowed with wide views to east and west.

Enclosure

The well-preserved square enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 13 m to 13.5 m on each of its four sides. The robustly built superficial walls of the enclosure are 60 cm to 70 cm thick and are composed of stones up to 70 cm in length. Upright stones in the enclosure protrude as much as 25 cm above the ground surface. In the center of the east wall there is a small opening formed by large stones that lie perpendicular to the wall course.

Pillars

Ten in situ standing stones form an 8 m long row situated about 1 m from the inner edge of the west wall (the least well preserved wall of the enclosure). The tall thin pillars were roughly hewn from the same blue-gray stone used to build the enclosure. The pillars host some orange climax lichen. From north to south, the dimensions and characteristics of these menhirs are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (1.3 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular (80 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (80 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR4: tabular, inclined (1.7 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR5: tabular, severely inclined (2 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided, severely inclined (2 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR7: three-sided (1.9 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR8: four-sided (1.8 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped, inclined (1 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR10: four-sided, severely inclined (1.7 m by 1 m).

In addition to the ten in situ pillars there are six more specimens in the same row that are broken near ground level. About 10 m west of the west wall of the enclosure there is a structure (2.5 m by 2.5 m) that is nearly flush with the ground surface. Its construction indicates that it is an integral part of the pillar complex. This structure appears to be a funerary superstructure of some kind.

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring West

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring West was built on ground that gently rises to the west (30° 02.466 N. lat. / 83° 47.313΄ E. long.). The soil cover is poor and the views to the east are not as expansive as those from Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring East.

Enclosure

The enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 11 m (east-west) by 5.5 m (north-south). A good portion of all four walls of the enclosure have survived. These less robustly constructed superficial walls are around 50 cm thick and composed of stones 40 cm or less in length. The stones protrude up to 10 cm above the ground surface.

Pillars

Four undressed pillars stand near the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure, forming a row 2 m in length. These standing stones sport some orange climax lichen. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of the pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (90 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR2: tabular (90 cm by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (80 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (90 cm by 80 cm).

Sana Marri Doring (Sa sna dmar ri rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Sana Marri Doring
English equivalent: Variegated Earth Red Mountain Long-stones
Site number: C-11
Site typology: II.1a
Elevation: 4590 m
Administrative location (township): ladrang
Administrative location (county): Drongpa
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: April 14, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. Recently, some of the pillars were vandalized.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS XI, HAS C5
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Sana Marri DoringSa sna dmar ri rdo ring is named after the low-lying ridge that hems in the east side of the site. To the west, Sana Marri DoringSa sna dmar ri rdo ring enjoys expansive views of the Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po valley. There are no structural traces of an enclosure in the proximity of the pillars. However, the way in which the pillars form a north-south oriented row (6.2 m long), with three more specimens running perpendicular to the north of them, may suggest that they were originally enclosed by walls. The sandy, somewhat sloping ground appears to have engulfed all evidence of the enclosure. Two types of light-colored rocks were used to create the pillars. A few of them may have been roughly hewn into shape. There are six pillars 50 cm to 80 cm in height and about eight others 30 cm or less in height. Most of the pillars have been broken.

Oral tradition

In this region (upper Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po drainage basin), sites such as Sana Marri DoringSa sna dmar ri rdo ring are generally thought to have been built by the ancient MönMon or to be the sanctuaries of elemental spirits.

Affiliated sites

West of Sana Marri DoringSa sna dmar ri rdo ring is Gachö GönpaDga’ chos dgon pa, a Gelukpa monastery of significant size, which was destroyed during the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

Drukmö Doring (’Brug mo’i rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Drukmö Doring’Brug mo’i rdo ring, named after the wife of the epic hero GesarGe sar, is situated on level, sandy terrain near the northwest side of an alpine basin. With its sparse grasses, the site sees only limited pastoral use. The enclosure has been nearly obliterated; only scant traces of the east wall are still visible. The east wall is located 9.5 m east of the row of pillars, signaling that this was a medium-sized example of the typology. From what little remains, it appears that the enclosure was heavily built. There are 16 unhewn pillars forming a modified U-shaped array.

Oral tradition

According to residents of Tara GönpaRta ra dgon pa, Drukmö Doring’Brug mo’i rdo ring is named for Drukmö Lugo’Brug mo’i lu mgo, a nearby spring, thought to have been magically created by the goddess DrölmaSgrol ma. This sacred spring is said to have appeared after Drukmo’Brug mo, the wife of GesarGe sar, prayed to DrölmaSgrol ma to bring water to the parched landscape. As a result of the spring, a marshy pasture several kilometers in length formed. As part of the boon granted by DrölmaSgrol ma, the locale is said to be hydrologically stable. Some drokpa also refer to the site as a MönMon burial ground (möndur). One elderly drokpa alleges that the stones of this site were erected by the SingpaSing pa (an invader group from the northwest Subcontinent) to honor their fallen heroes.

Site elements

Pillars

Most of the standing stones form a meandering north-south row near, what must have been, the west wall of the enclosure. The pillars are all tabular, around 10 cm thick and with some orange climax lichen growing on them. Eleven of them are more than 50 cm in height. In addition to the in situ specimens, there is a dislodged pillar 1 m in length at the site. The broad sides of most pillars face north and south, as is often the case in this typology. Two pillars planted near, what must have been, the north wall of the enclosure, however, have broad sides oriented east and west. The tallest pillar occupies the central part of the north-south oriented row. It is 1.2 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.7 m. Three other stelae reach 1 m in height and have basal girths of between 1.2 m and 1.4 m. Seven other pillars are between 50 cm and 80 cm in height and have basal girths of between 70 cm and 1.4 m. A number of the pillars have had their tops broken off.

Doring Tsotra (Rdo ring mtsho bkra)

General site characteristics

Doring TsotraRdo ring mtsho bkra is named for the sparkling ponds found in the vicinity of the monument. It was built on a sandy knoll situated in the midst of a large basin. This knoll is elevated about 2 m above the surrounding terrain. Pieces of milky quartz, carried to the site, probably indicate that it once had a ritual function (none is still observed). There are two main rows of pillars at Doring TsotraRdo ring mtsho bkra imprecisely oriented north-south. These meandering rows of standing stones are located on the crest of the knoll. At least two different types of rocks were used as pillars. The particular alignments made by the stelae and their situation on high ground indicate that they were never enclosed by walls of the II.1b typology.

Oral tradition

According to local lore, Drukmo’Brug mo, the wife of the epic hero GesarGe sar, used to tie her horses to the pillars of Doring TsotraRdo ring mtsho bkra. It is also said by residents of Tara GönpaRta ra dgon pa, that this was an inauspicious site until a lama came here long ago and practiced Buddhist rituals, transforming it into a Buddhist holy place (nechen) of sorts. This story seems to confirm the non-Buddhist origins of Doring TsotraRdo ring mtsho bkra.

Site elements

West row of pillars

The west row of pillars contains 12 specimens, plus five others standing east of the row. There are also several broken pillars near the south end of the west row as well as a single broken specimen at the north end. All of the stelae are tabular and between 10 cm and 30 cm in thickness. Their broad sides are oriented north and south. It is difficult to know how precisely the pillars were aligned due to their movement over the centuries. Some appear to have gradually twisted into their current positions. The west row (11.5 m long) contains 9 pillars 80 cm or more in height, with an average basal girth of around 1.2 m. The tallest pillar is 1.4 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.3 m. The smallest pillar is 50 cm in height with a basal girth of 1.1 m. The five isolated pillars are all under 70 cm in height.

East row of pillars

The east row of pillars (32 m long) is situated 14 m east of the west row. It begins nearly as far south as the west row, but extends much farther north. There are 16 pillars in the east row, several of which are broken. These pillars have the same basic characteristics and orientation as those in the west row. Four of the pillars are 1.1 m to 1.4 m in height with basal girths of around 1.2 m. The rest of the pillars are between 50 cm and 1 m in height.

Tara Doring (Rta ra rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tara DoringRta ra rdo ring is located on a sandy flat, approximately 1 km southwest of Tara GönpaRta ra dgon pa. Nearby there is standing water in the pasturelands of the TaraRta ra basin. The unusually designed enclosure of this site consists of both outer and inner walls.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Tara DoringRta ra rdo ring was part of Ling GesarGling ge sar’s horse corral.

Site Elements

Enclosure

What little remains of the square enclosure (13 m by 13 m) is aligned in the cardinal directions. It is primarily made up of slabs (20 cm to 70 cm long) set into the ground edgewise. These double-course slab walls are 60 cm to 70 cm thick. Small parts of all four walls are intact. There also appears to have been an inner enclosure that shares its north and west walls in common with the outer enclosure. The inner enclosure, a unique design feature in this II.1b typology site, measures 8 m (north-south) by 6.5 m (east-west). Due to extreme degradation, the wall type of the inner enclosure is unclear (possibly made of slabs as well).

Pillars

Near the west wall of the inner enclosure there are two broken tabular pillars. These pillars measure 75 cm (height) by 90 cm (basal girth) and 40 cm by 90 cm. The smaller one was originally substantially taller. Approximately 2.5 m away, near the south wall of the inner enclosure, there is a broken four-sided pillar (70 cm by 90 cm). The three existing pillars are made of a beige-colored rock that has weathered to a tan color.

Drama Nakgu Doring (Gra ma nag gu rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The highly degraded Drama Nakgu DoringGra ma nag gu rdo ring is located on the northern edge of the broad Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po valley, near where the NeutsangpoNe’u gtsang po (a major tributary) debouches into it. The terrain is very sandy and studded with drama brush and grasses. The site has open views only in the south and east. The sandy ridge on which Drama Nakgu DoringGra ma nag gu rdo ring was built, cuts off the northern and western vistas. There are nine much eroded standing stones at the site, seven or eight of which are broken. Two or three types of beige and gray metamorphic rocks were employed in construction of the monument.

Oral tradition

Like other sites of this typology in the general region (upper Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po drainage basin), Drama Nakgu DoringGra ma nag gu rdo ring is ascribed to the ancient MönMon or elemental deities.

Site elements

Enclosure

The general configuration of the enclosure is discernable through the few remaining in situ stones of the walls. The most visible wall section is in the north, next to the pillars. Much of this wall, however, has been dislodged or engulfed by shifting sands and vegetation.

Pillars

Seven of the nine uncut stelae form a north-south oriented row 4 m in length. The other two stelae run in a perpendicular fashion near the fragmentary north wall of the enclosure. The tallest pillar is tabular (1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth] by 20 cm [thickness]). The thin edges of this pillar face in the southeast and northwest directions. The second tallest pillar measures 60 cm by 90 cm. The remaining specimens are significantly smaller. There is also an uprooted pillar 1.7 m in length at the site.

A Serchung Doring (’A ser chung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

A Serchung Doring’A ser chung rdo ring is found on the northern edge of the Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po valley, among low-lying sandy hills. There appears to have been two enclosed pillar monuments situated on a gentle slope at this site. Although the pillars are extant, almost nothing of the two enclosures is left. The site is strewn with stones, probably used to build the enclosures, contrasting with the adjacent terrain which is free of debris. Much of the site is obscured by sand and drama brush. It seems likely that, when A Serchung Doring’A ser chung rdo ring was constructed, there was much less sand in the area. Sites with stable surface qualities would have been chosen for the erection of the pillars. The pillars are made of naturally occurring rocks of different types.

Oral tradition

A Serchung Doring’A ser chung rdo ring is attributed to the ancient MönMon or elemental deities, as are analogous sites in the general region (upper Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po drainage basin).

Site elements

South complex

Enclosure

A 1.2 m long, 50 cm thick fragment of the north wall of the enclosure is intact. This is the only identifiable wall fragment remaining at A Serchung Doring’A ser chung rdo ring.

Pillars

The south complex hosts a north-south oriented row of unhewn pillars (7.8 m long) ostensibly set on the west side of the enclosure. The southern-most menhir of the row is also the largest (1.3 m [height] by 1.3 m [basal girth]). One meter north of this tabular specimen there is another light-colored tabular specimen (90 cm by 1.1 m). Just to the east of this latter specimen there is a small red pillar broken at the base. On the north end of the row of pillars there are two more small specimens, one light-colored and one dark-colored. There are also two partly submerged dislodged pillars in the south complex. They are 1.2 m and 1.6 m in length.

North complex

The north complex is located 16.5 m north of the south complex.

Pillars

The main row of standing stones of the north complex is more or less in line with those of the south complex. Nevertheless, neither row of pillars is particularly straight. The main row of pillars in the north complex contains 24 specimens, which are tabular and irregularly shaped. Probably, at least four different types of rocks are represented, gray, red, beige and tan in color. There are 11 standing stones more than 70 cm in height, six of which reach 1 m or 1.1 m in height and have a basal girth of 1.1 m to 1.3 m. One of the taller pillars is so severely inclined that it is almost prostrate. East of the main row of standing stones there are around 12 smaller examples, nearly all of which are broken. There are also several dislodged specimens in close proximity to these smaller stelae.

Ukpa Lung Doring (’Ug pa lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Ukpa Lung Doring’Ug pa lung rdo ring is situated on level, sandy ground in the middle of the north-south running Ukpa Lung’Ug pa lung valley. The site is obscured by much drama brush growth. Ukpa Lung Doring’Ug pa lung rdo ring is in eyeshot of the great citadel of Wangchuk Gönpo KharDbang phyug mgon po mkhar (A-51). In the pre-modern period it was used to enshrine mani plaques, some of which are still intact. The enclosure was constructed primarily of white granite cobbles and does not appear to have been well aligned in the compass points. Except for the relatively intact south wall, only small fragments of the enclosure have survived. The enclosure measures 7.5 m (north-south) by 9.5 m (east-west). There appear to be seven pillars clustered near the west end of the enclosure, of which, all but two have been broken. The two tallest specimens measure 1.1 m (height) by 1.4 m (basal girth) by 8 cm (thickness) and 1 m by 1.3 m by 20 cm. The next tallest specimen (75 cm) is also tabular. The other broken pillars are significantly shorter. Broken parts of pillars and other stones are heaped around the in situ menhirs.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Gyaplung Doring (Rgyab lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gyaplung DoringRgyab lung rdo ring is located on the eastern edge of the Gonggyü TsoGong rgyud mtsho basin. The sandy, gently sloping ground has only scant grass cover. The site has very open vistas in the west overlooking the sacred BönBon holy lake, Gunggyü TsoGung rgyud mtsho/Gongkhyung Ngül TsoGong khyung dngul mtsho. The views north and south are partly open but in the east, they are constrained by mountains. The main focus of the site is two tall in situ pillars. There are no signs of an enclosure (thus the site’s inclusion in the II.1a typology), but it may have completely disappeared in the sandy terrain. The area around the pillars is level and slightly elevated above the surrounding ground level, morphological qualities often associated with the pillars erected in an enclosure typology (II.1b). There are also outlying funerary superstructures at Gyaplung DoringRgyab lung rdo ring.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Pillar complex

The tallest pillar is a slim, well-cut, four-sided pillar (2.2 m [height] by 80 cm [(basal girth]). This graceful pillar is only 20 cm to 30 cm wide on each of its four sides. Next to it there is a tabular pillar (1.6 m by 1 m) with stones piled against it. In close proximity to the two standing stones there are three dislodged specimens, one of which is 2 m in length. As they are partially submerged, the length of the other two uprooted ones could not be determined. Visible portions of them are 1.9 m and 1.8 m in length. Sixteen meters west of the tallest stele there is a 75 cm long rock slab fixed in the ground, which appears to be the sole surviving appurtenance of a superstructure. There are other stones scattered about, in the proximity, that may have been part of integral constructions as well, but not enough is extant to discern their character.

There is also a group of eight unbroken prostrate pillars situated 36 m southeast of the two standing examples. These pillars are four-sided and tabular. They have the same slim form and are made of the same dark-colored rock as their in situ counterparts. These collapsed stelae form a row of stones with a north-south orientation. From west to east these pillars measure 1.3 m (partly buried), 1.9 m, 2.4 m, 2 m, 2m (partly buried), 1.7 m, and 2 m (partly buried) in length. The most easterly unbroken specimen is still rooted in the ground despite its radical tilt. It sticks 1.9 m out of the ground and has a basal girth of 1.9 m.

Funerary superstructures

Some distance away from the pillars, at slightly lower elevation, there are two dispersions of single-course rectangular stone enclosures. They were erected on open sandy ground and are not well aligned in the cardinal directions. These enclosures are funerary in character but it could not be determined if they had a burial or non-burial function. The enclosures are made from stones up to 80 cm in length, the regular faces of which suggest that some of them may have been partially cut into shape. These stones are flush with the ground surface or raised a maximum of 20 cm above it. Most integrated stones appear to have been laid flat but some may have been installed in the ground edgewise as well. Rocks of different colors and types were used in the construction of the enclosures.

A row of at least five enclosures begins 78 m north of funerary structure FS6. This group of enclosures extends in a northwest line for 70 m. There is evidence indicating that there were more than five specimens in the row, but these additional enclosures are now either too heavily degraded or obscured by the sandy ground to make a positive assessment. From the northwest (lower) end of the row, the five distinct enclosures have the following dimensions:

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m by 7.5 m): at this structure there are two slabs (around 1.3 m long) lying on the ground. These were either part of the superstructure or extracted from the substructure.
Funerary structure FS2 (4.2 m by 8 m). There are the probable remains of another enclosure 18 m north of FS2
Funerary structure FS3 (3.8 m by 8.2 m).
Funerary structure FS4 (4 m by ?): this enclosure is very heavily deteriorated. The probable traces of another specimen are located 11 m to the north.
Funerary structure FS5 (3.8 m by 9 m).
Funerary structure FS6 (12 m by 7 m) is located 90 m northwest of the tallest in situ pillar. This fragmentary enclosure seems to stand off on its own.

Marchö Doring (Mar mchod rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Marchö Doring
English equivalent: Butter Offering Long-stone
Site number: C-14
Site typology: II.1a
Elevation: 4390 m
Administrative location (township): Khyunglung
Administrative location (county): Tsamda
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: May 1, 2001
Contemporary usage: As a prayer flag mast for the local pastoral encampment. The pillar also functions as a cult offering site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Prayer flags.
Maps: UTRS V, UTRS X, HAS C3
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring is situated on the left side of the narrow MarchöMar mchod valley. Located southwest of KhyunglungKhyung lung village, access to the MarchöMar mchod valley is gained by way of a 4500 m high pass known as YarkhalaYar kha la. The lone pillar of Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring stands in close proximity to a winter pastoral camp of the same name. It is anchored on a 10° slope covered in sparse grass and pebbles. The four-sided pillar is 2.5 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.2 m. The four sides of the stone are quite evenly hewn and are fairly closely oriented in the compass points. Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring is slightly inclined but still well rooted in the ground. It has stood for a long time as evidenced by the wear it has undergone and by the way it has turned from beige to a reddish and dark brown color due to geochemical weathering processes. The original function of Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring could not be ascertained.

Oral tradition

The Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring pillar is called sipé doring by the inhabitants of KhyunglungKhyung lung village. It is thought to have grown where it stands in the primal epoch. Butter is offered to the stele because it is considered a protective and fortune-bestowing object. Dabs of butter cover much of its upper section and prayer flags are draped over it.

Sakti Doring (Sag thi rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Sakti DoringSag thi rdo ring is located on the left side of the eponymous valley, an effluent of the Chukar TsangpoChu dkar gtsang po. The single pillar stands on a broad, gentle slope in close proximity to a winter pastoral camp. The pillar (1.7 m [height] by 1.6 m [basal girth]) is irregularly shaped and highly worn. The beige stone has weathered to a much darker color. Stones have been piled up around the base of the pillar including pieces of locally occurring milky quartz. White scarves (khatak) and prayer flags (lungta) have been tied around the stone, and butter has been repeatedly dabbed on its upper section. Incense is also burnt at the site. Evidently, Sakti DoringSag thi rdo ring is a local cult monument. The use of ancient pillars for contemporary religious purposes is much more common in the GugéGu ge region than it is in the JangtangByang thang. The original function of lone pillars in GugéGu ge such as Sakti DoringSag thi rdo ring is not clear.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Luma Archung Doring (Lu ma ar chung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Luma Archung DoringLu ma ar chung rdo ring is located in a sandy mountain cove near the right bank of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po, about 1 km downstream of Rala KharmarRa la mkhar dmar (see A-65). The site is named for a spring at the base of a nearby limestone formation, the home of a luKlu named Dungkyong KarmoDung skyong dkar mo (the most popular luKlu water spirit in Upper Tibet). Local sources report that a pillar around 1.4 m in height stood here until circa 1990 when it was toppled. This fallen pillar now lies on the site. It has four well-formed sides of about equal width and is 2.1 m long and has a basal girth of 1.1 m. There are also funerary tumuli at Luma Archung DoringLu ma ar chung rdo ring.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, the pillar of Luma Archung DoringLu ma ar chung rdo ring appeared in the primal epoch of existence.

Site elements

Proximate funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Next to the fallen pillar there is what appears to be a burial tumulus (bangso). This rocky rectangular mound (8.4 m by 9.3 m) is elevated about 1.2 m above the surrounding very gently sloping terrain. Recently this tumulus (FS1) was heavily disturbed by the excavation of its top. This damage precluded discerning the design and alignment of the walls.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (6.4 m by 6.6 m) is situated 26 m west of FS1. This smaller square mound is elevated less than a 1 m above the surrounding terrain. The sides of FS2 are aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 35 m north of FS2. This truncated mound now barely projects above ground level. Its sides are also aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 51 m west of FS3. This probable funerary enclosure barely extends above the ground surface and measures 11.4 m (north-south) by 14.7 m (east-west). Its limestone walls are aligned in the compass points and are around 60 cm in thickness.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 9 m south of FS4, and is of the same design and construction. FS 5 is 11 m long (north-south) but its west end has been obliterated. It is also aligned in the cardinal directions. In close proximity to FS4 and FS5 is a small seasonal pastoral camp.

Nangchu Doring (Nang chu rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nangchu DoringNang chu rdo ring is located in an eponymous tributary valley on the west side of the main Dri Jiu’Bri byi’u valley. The terrain is strewn with rocks but supports little vegetation. Nangchu DoringNang chu rdo ring is a smaller example of a pillar erected inside an enclosure typology. Stelae of this typology probably find their greatest numerical expression in the greater ZhungpaGzhung pa region. Nangchu DoringNang chu rdo ring is one of ten pillar sites surveyed (C-9, C-10, C-55, C-56, C-77, C-78, C-79, C-80, C-90, C-136) that encompass the nine territorial divisions (tsopa) of old Zhungpa MatsenGzhung pa ma mtshan.168 These pillar sites may have been subsidiary to the centrally located Shang DoringShang rdo ring (C-54), formerly the largest pillar site in ZhungpaGzhung pa, and may reflect the existence of an integral ritual and political network during the archaic cultural horizon.

Oral tradition

In this region (ZhungpaGzhung pa), pillar sites such as Nangchu DoringNang chu rdo ring are often associated with the ancient tribe known as the MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 4.7 m (east-west) by 2.7 m (north-south). It is composed of neatly-built double-course slab walls (around 60 cm thick) containing variable-length (primarily 35 cm to 60 cm long) stones. These stones project as much as 20 cm above ground level. The south wall of the enclosure is well preserved and the west and north walls are partially intact, while most of the east wall has been destroyed. In the east wall, a large stone (55 cm long) runs perpendicular to the wall course. This stone appears to demarcate one side of a “portal” that punctuated the east wall. Lying outside the east wall, near the portal stone, a slab wall extends in an easterly direction for 2 m. Thin slabs of stones (15 cm to 30 cm long) were planted edgewise into the ground, in parallel courses, creating a wall 30 cm thick.

Pillar

A single pillar (1.3 m [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]) stands 40 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. This four-sided, somewhat pointed menhir is inclined at about a 30° angle, and is not well centered in the enclosure.

Naklhé Doring (Nag lhas rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring is located on the western fringe of the highly degraded Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin. With its many salt and soda flats, this was an attractive location for the placement of ritual and utilitarian facilities pertaining to the disposal of human remains. I refer to this area as the “Valley of the Dead” because of the concentration of funerary sites found here (see C-92, C-153, D-46, D-68). All of these sites have especially long views in the east. The extreme aridity of the area, rendering much of it uninhabitable and of little value to livestock, would appear to account for the concentration of funerary sites in the Valley of the Dead. The closest archaic residential site to this cluster of ceremonial sites surveyed is Mönkhar SernakMon mkhar ser nag (A-30), located 20 km to the west. The precise chronological and cultural relationships between the various Valley of the Dead funerary sites have yet to be determined. Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring is named for the small, dark conical formation standing on the western edge of the Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin. There are three individual archaeological installations at NaklhéNag lhas: two of stelae erected inside enclosures and one consisting of quadrate enclosures. The three sites of Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring are all in eyeshot of one another.

Oral tradition

It is generally thought in this region (GegyéDge rgyas) that sites such as Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring were constructed by the ancient MönMon for burial purposes.

Site elements

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Northeast

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Northeast consists of a row of nine in situ pillars, situated near the shores of the alkaline lake Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha (32° 37.278΄ N. lat. / 81.52.428΄ E. long. / 4450 m).169

Enclosure

The walls enclosing these pillars are highly fragmentary and their original configuration could not be determined with any precision. Quite an anomaly, the row of pillars (many of which are inclined) appears to stand near the east end of the enclosure. The west wall of the enclosure is situated 26 m west of the pillars. The extant west wall fragment is about 15 m long and fairly well aligned in the cardinal directions. This wall is double-course (40 cm to 50 cm thick), and contains variable-length (10 cm to 70 cm long) stones. The stones of the west wall are flush with the ground surface or project above up to a height of 20 cm. A small fragment of the enclosing north wall is also intact where it joins with the west wall. The area between the row of pillars and west wall of the enclosure is strewn with small pieces of white limestone. These stones either formed an element of the construction or were once part of votive offerings. Inside the enclosure, 5.8 m west of the row of pillars, there is a smaller enclosure (2.2 m by 2.4 m) or cell. This inner enclosure is offset towards the north side of the larger enclosure. The single-course perimeter walls of the smaller enclosure are composed of calcareous rocks up to 60 cm in length. These stones project as much as 30 cm above ground level. The smaller enclosure is of crude construction and sub-rectangular in form. This is one of the only examples of the stelae erected inside an enclosure typology (II.1b) that has a subsidiary inner enclosure discovered to date.

Pillars

Five of the nine in situ pillars planted inside the enclosure are broken to varying degrees, and now stand 60 cm to 1 m in height. These broken pillars are all irregularly shaped. There are also two fallen pillars, 1.3 m and 1.4 m in length. All the pillars (except one) are made of an unhewn light-colored, grained igneous (?) rock. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of the four unbroken stelae are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (1.2 m [height] by 85 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: a tabular dark-colored stone (1 m by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (1.5 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided (1.25 m by 1 m).

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest is situated about one-half km from Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Northeast, in close proximity to the NaklhéNag lhas rock formation (37.083΄ / 52.338΄ / 4460 m). The sandy terrain is nearly level and strewn with dark blue grained rocks that have reddish-colored varnish. This is the type rock with which the monument was constructed. Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest is a conventional example of the II.2 typology.

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 11.4 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). The east, west and south walls of the enclosure are largely intact, while the north wall is highly fragmentary. These double-course walls (65 cm to 80 cm thick) are composed of stones (primarily 40 cm to 60 cm long) that are even with the ground level or elevated up to 20 cm above it.

Pillar

There is a single, irregularly shaped, pillar (approximately 1 m in height) erected inside the enclosure. The pillar stands next to the inner edge of the west wall and is quite well centered between its north and south walls of the enclosure. There are also three or four partly submerged larger stones inside the enclosure. These appear to have been smaller pillars.

Outlying funerary structure

A square structure (2.1 m by 2.2 m) is located 7.5 m directly west of the west wall of the Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest enclosure, at slightly higher elevation. The base of this structure is made of large rocks upon which smaller stones are heaped. This probable funerary structure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding ground level.

Interconnected funerary superstructures

At NaklhéNag lhas there is a third site, consisting of at least seven large rectangular funerary enclosures, located a couple hundred meters north of Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest (37.17΄ / 52.29΄ / 4460 m). These structures are situated on level sandy ground in the mouth of a small side valley. This interconnected line of enclosures (with the possible exception of two structures that may have had spaces between them) is 82 m in length. Forming a single north-south line, these enclosures are about 13 m wide (east-west). As these structures are highly deteriorated, a detailed assessment of their design and construction qualities was not possible. The walls of the enclosures do not seem to be well aligned in the cardinal directions. Variable-length (primarily 25 cm to 50 cm long) stones of the type used to build Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest were used in the construction of the walls. Some enclosure walls also exhibit chunks of a white calcareous stone but this is the exception. The largest stones in the construction reach 1 m in length. The stones of the enclosures tend to project 10 cm to 30 cm above ground level. The enclosures all appear to have been free from interior structural elements. This NaklhéNag lhas site with its interconnected line of enclosures somewhat resembles funerary structure FS4 of Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo (C-170).

Approximately 50 m west of the interconnected enclosure complex there are the remains of a wall (8.5 m long, 1.2 m thick, 60 cm high). Farther west there is other minor structural detritus.

Lumö Tanak Doring (Klu mo’i rta nag rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Lumö Tanak DoringKlu mo’i rta nag rdo ring is situated along the western margin of the desiccated Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin. There are very open views to the east. The terrain is well drained, sandy and very gently sloping with a perennial spring in close proximity. I have adopted the name “Valley of the Dead” for this long, dry basin because of the proliferation of funerary monuments found here (see C-91, C-153, D-46, D-68). Lumö Tanak DoringKlu mo’i rta nag rdo ring enjoys a wide panorama to the east as is typical in this typology. Within the enclosure there is a row of eight standing pillars set close to the inner edge of the west wall.

Oral tradition

Lumö Tanak DoringKlu mo’i rta nag rdo ring is locally said to be the haunts of a local lumoKlu mo (female water spirit). Her black horse mount is likened to the pillars and walls found at the site.

Site elements

Enclosure

The quadrate enclosure measures 11.4 m (east-west) by 7.1 m (north-south), and its walls are oriented with no more than a 15° deviation from the compass points. The walls of the enclosure are largely intact with the exception of the east wall. The sturdy perimeter walls are between 60 cm to 90 cm in thickness, and each consists of parallel courses of slabs and cobbles. These stones are primarily 30 cm to 60 cm in length, and are set flush with the surface or elevated above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. In the south wall there is one very prominent stone, 1 m in length and rising 45 cm above-ground level. Mostly light-colored, fine-grained igneous stones were used to build the enclosure, but there are a few white calcareous stones in the construction as well. There are a couple of inscribed mani stone fragments lying in the enclosure; these were probably transported there from nearby mani walls that were built in the pre-modern period. There are also small pieces of milky quartz scattered about the enclosure, which are likely to have been arrayed in some kind of gesture of offering. Just to the west of the enclosure there are the scant remains of a möndur type funerary superstructure.

Pillars

The row of pillars, which is set within a few centimeters of the inner edge of the west wall, extends from the south to the north ends of the enclosure. The pillars are made of the same fine-grained stones as was used to build the enclosure. The four-sided standing tabular pillars tend to have their two wider faces oriented north and south. There is an uprooted specimen with three uneven sides lying inside the enclosure (1.1 m long by 80 cm girth).

From north to south, the dimensions and forms of the in situ pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four well-hewn sides with broken top (50 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: small insignificant pillar (50 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four irregular faces (1.5 m by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR4: four irregular faces (90 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR5: four irregular faces with pointed top (1.6 m by 1.4 m).
Long-stone DR6: four irregular faces (1.2 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR7: three irregular faces (1.1 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR8: four irregular faces (1.3 m by 1m).

Affiliated sites

LhasaLha sa government facility

The presence of potable water and salt at Lumö Tanak DoringKlu mo’i rta nag rdo ring insured its economic importance long after the demise of the Upper Tibetans responsible for erecting the pillars. The site, however, is now completely deserted. In the nearby rocky formation, bounding the western side of the basin, there is a small ruined Buddhist retreat. In close proximity, on the valley floor, there are the remains of a small residence, which is reported to have been occupied by a representative of the old Tibetan LhasaLha sa government. This official was in charge of overseeing the extraction of salt from nearby Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha and collecting the appropriate taxes.

Tsari Lung Möndur (Tshwa ri lung mon dur)

General site characteristics

Tsari Lung MöndurTshwa ri lung mon dur is located on the southern edge of the Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin. It is named for Tsari LungTshwa ri lung, a rocky ridge just west of the archaeological site. The terrain is open, level and sandy, with long views to the east. Tsari Lung MöndurTshwa ri lung mon dur is a particularly small example of an array of stones appended to a temple-tomb typology. It was constructed of a grayish, grained igneous (?) rock.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of this region (GegyéDge rgyas), Tsari Lung MöndurTshwa ri lung mon dur was an ancient MönMon grave site.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The appended structure provisionally measures 3 m by 4 m. This structure, a well developed temple-tomb in larger examples of the typology, has been reduced to near oblivion. Not one coherent wall fragment has survived. Many of the stones used in its construction are 50 cm to 60 cm in length.

Pillar array

In the array there are only 11 north-south oriented rows of stones that cover an area of 4 m (east-west) by 2.8 m (north-south). There are an unequal number of stones in each of the rows totaling 110. Most of the miniature pillars extend merely 10 cm to 20 cm above the ground surface. The tallest among them is 40 cm. In the most northerly row there are several tabular specimens, otherwise, the standing stones are pointed and have an irregular form. The rows of pillars are spaced 35 cm to 45 cm apart from one another. Each stone in a row is typically spaced 15 cm to 20 cm from the next one. Some of the southern rows appear to be missing stones in the east portion of the array (these rows are shortened). Despite this upwards of 70 percent of all standing stones erected at the site seem to still be in situ. It is possible, however, that the array was originally more extensive than the in situ evidence now indicates.

Shapak Doring (Sha phag rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Shapak DoringSha phag rdo ring consisted of three or four pillars erected inside an enclosure. It is reported to have been destroyed sometime during the Chinese Communist period and the pillars moved a short distance away to serve as the entrance to a corral. This corral is situated just south of the main road that links TsakhaTshwa kha and GegyéDge rgyas. The largest pillar is a well-hewn four-sided stone that projects 1 m above the ground surface and has a girth of 1 m. The other pillars are considerably smaller. A grayish grained stone was selected for use as the standing stones. North of the main road there are wall traces on gently sloping ground. These structural traces ostensibly belonged to the enclosure in which the pillars were erected.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Shapak DoringSha phag rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Tangra Doring (Thang ra rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Tangra Doring
Site number: C-94
Site typology: II.1b
Elevation: 4350 m
Administrative location (township): Risum
Administrative location (county): Rutok
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: May 25, 2001
Contemporary usage: As a shrine for the worship of a local divinity.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Prayer flags and at least one mani plaque.
Maps: UTRS I, HAS A1
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Tangra DoringThang ra rdo ring is located on the east side of the Maga TsangpoMa ga gtsang po, near the mouth of a small side valley. The terrain is sandy and gently sloping. The main road between RutokRu thog and the NgariMnga’ ris prefectural headquarters runs within 100 m of the archaeological site. Road construction and the building of corrals has disturbed the area around the site. Tangra DoringThang ra rdo ring was vandalized during the Chinese Cultural Revolution; not one pillar remains whole. The site constitutes one of the most westerly examples of the stelae erected inside an enclosure typology (II.1b) in Upper Tibet (also see C-95 and C-112). The border of LadakLa dwags is only about 30 km to the west.

Oral tradition

According to area residents, Tangra DoringThang ra rdo ring is a sacred site of ancient times.

Site elements

Enclosure

Fortunately most parts of the four walls of the enclosure have survived. These walls are oriented almost to the intermediate points. The enclosure measures 12 m (southwest-northeast) by 5.7 m (southeast-northwest). The double-course enclosure walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) were constructed with variable-length (25 cm to 60 cm long) stones. Some of these stones are level with the ground surface while others project as much as 40 cm above it.

Pillars

All the pillars were erected near the inner edge of the southwest wall (they are mostly concentrated near the north corner) of the enclosure. Originally, there were at least eight pillars. These include seven tabular specimens, all of which are now 50 cm or less in height. At least three types of rocks were used as pillars, including a grayish grained type (igneous?) that was also used to construct the enclosure. Another type of rock is black in color. The main pillar of the site was broken about 40 cm above ground level. The broken upper section is 1.25 m long and has been propped back into position with the help of a pile of stones. This was part of an attempt by local residents to rehabilitate the site. The main pillar is irregularly shaped and has a girth of about 1 m. It is covered in butter and red ochre. This pillar is seasonally propitiated in invocation and offering rituals (sölwa) by the local drokpa, who regard it as the sanctuary of a local divinity.170 There are poles, with prayer flags attached, in the pile of rocks supporting the pillar. There is also at least one plaque inscribed with the mani mantra. Next to the cairn there are ashes from incense offerings.

Nakkhung Doring (Nag khung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nakkhung DoringNag khung rdo ring is comprised of a single intact pillar located a little east of a black conical hill. The monument was established on a rocky shoulder on level ground. Immediately to the east of the site there is a vertical drop of several meters to a valley floor. The pillar of Nakkhung DoringNag khung rdo ring is coated in red ochre and butter. Prayer flags are also tied around it.

Oral tradition

According to the drokpa of the proximate spring encampment (consisting of five tents), the pillar of Nakkhung DoringNag khung rdo ring is propitiated in informal invocation and offering rituals (sölwa). The pillar is considered a divinity that helps to insure the well-being of the local shepherds and their livestock. Local sources claim that this long-stone appeared with the rise of primordial existence (sipa chakpé doring).

Site elements

Enclosure

Only small fragments of the double-course wall of the enclosure have survived. Several small sections of the south wall are visible as well as even smaller traces of the east and west walls. The north wall has been obliterated. These 50 cm thick walls are aligned in the cardinal directions. From east to west, the enclosure appears to have measured around 9 m. The north-south dimension was probably significantly less. The stones in the enclosing walls are of variable length (generally 10 cm to 30 cm long). There is one in situ slab in the perimeter walls that is 80 cm long.

Pillar

The pillar protrudes 2.2 m above ground level, but its shape reveals that it originally was more deeply planted in the ground. The lower half of the stone has a splayed section (as do many dislodged specimens in Upper Tibet), which helped to anchor it firmly. This widened area of the standing stone is exposed above ground level, suggesting that it was once set 60 cm to 75 cm more deeply into the substrate. Despite the apparent replanting of the pillar, it is still firmly fixed in the ground. The current basal girth of the pillar is 80 cm but originally it was probably about 1 m. A dark-colored stone was selected as the stele. The broad sides of the tabular pillar are oriented east and west. Its thin sides are 10 cm to 12 cm thick.

The carving of a chöten is found on the west side of the pillar, 60 cm above the current ground level. This carving (62 cm tall) is somewhat coarse and was almost certainly made well after the founding of the monument. Nevertheless, it is of substantial age as evidenced by the heavy wear and the significant degree of repatination. The style of the chöten represents an earlier variant of this type of shrine. It has a graduated base of five tiers set on a plinth, a small circular mid section (bumpa) and a squat spire (khorlo) with a broadened central section. The spire is horizontally segmented by 12 or 13 lines. It is crowned by a conjoined sun and moon (nyida). Much of the chöten is covered in red ochre.

Doring Karnak (Rdo ring dkar nag)

Basic site data

Site name: Doring Karnak
English equivalent: Black and White Long-stones
Site number: C-96
Site typology: II.1b
Elevation: 4880 m
Administrative location (township): Jangtö
Administrative location (county): Gegyé
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 3, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Four plaques inscribed with the mani mantra.
Maps: UTRS II, HAS A2
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Doring KarnakRdo ring dkar nag is located near the north edge of the broad GangraGangs ra valley. Bounding the valley, in the proximity, is a dark-colored rock outcrop. The terrain is almost level and covered in small rocks and gravel. There are excellent views to the east and west and a fairly long view to the south. The black pillar and white pillar erected inside the enclosure have inspired the current name of the site. Three of the four mani plaques found at the site are broken.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The not well aligned double-course slab-wall enclosure measures 4.4 m (east-west) by 3.4 m (north-south). The walls of the enclosure (50 cm to 60 cm) thick contain upright slabs primarily 30 cm to 70 cm in length (the longest slab is 1 m). These slabs are 2 cm to 7 cm thick and project 10 cm to 20 cm above ground level. Parts of all four walls of the enclosure are intact, including about 50 percent of the original number of slabs. Other slabs of the enclosure lie dispersed around the site.

Pillars

The two pillars are planted about 20 cm from the inner edge of the west wall and are well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. The north pillar (1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]) is black and has an irregular tabular form. The south white pillar (75 cm by 80 cm) has an irregular form. The strong color contrast between the two pillars is especially noteworthy in the late afternoon sun.

Tekyer (Thes skyer)

General site characteristics

The standing stones of TekyerThes skyer are found on a gravel bar in the midst of a large basin known as SharnaShar sna. The tallest standing stone in the group has a somewhat rectilinear form (1.2 m [height] by 2 m [basal girth]). Next to it are at least four other dark-colored standing stones planted in the ground in a line, as well as other stones dispersed in close proximity. It could not be determined whether these stones constitute an artifact or a geofact. If indeed they were erected by humans, they represent a more primitive pillar typology, the likes of which have not been documented elsewhere in Upper Tibet.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Kekar Möndur (Rked dkar mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Kekar Möndur
Site number: C-154
Site typology: II.1c
Elevation: 4370 m
Administrative location (township): Tsakha
Administrative location (county): Gegyé
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 4, 2001
Contemporary usage: The site has been destroyed to make way for a road.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS II
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Kekar MöndurRked dkar mon dur was situated 5 km west of the town of TsakhaTshwa kha in the midst of the TsakhaTshwa kha basin. By 2001, this rare and highly valuable site had been heavily impacted by construction crews improving an east-west link road to GegyéDge rgyas. It is reported that explosives were used on the archaeological site in order to dislodge its stone elements. Kekar MöndurRked dkar mon dur stood next to one of the many parallel tracks traversing the TsakhaTshwa kha basin. By 2002, the site had been utterly destroyed by the road building effort, the stones ripped from the ground to build the new road bed. Clearly, in the wide open stable terrain of the TsakhaTshwa kha basin, the new road could have been easily diverted around the site. The availability of stones in the monument and old superstitions, however, proved too much for the poorly advised road workers. Kekar MöndurRked dkar mon dur stood on gravelly and sandy well-drained terrain. The site consisted of a concourse of standing stones and an appended edifice. The small unhewn pillars were of two or three types of rock red or white in color. The same white calcareous rock used for some of the standing stones was employed in the construction of the appended edifice.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Kekar MöndurRked dkar mon dur was considered inauspicious and would disorient drivers and even cause accidents on the main road. It is said to have been blown up for this reason. In the region such sites are generally associated with the ancient MönMon. In TsakhaTshwa kha and northern GegyéDge rgyas, however, oral traditions around archaic archaeological sites are not well developed. This may be the case because the present pastoral residents of these regions are of relatively recent origin (they began to arrive less than 350 years ago).

Site elements

Appended edifice

By 2001, the temple-tomb had been reduced to a flattened tumulus 50 cm to 60 cm in height. This structure approximately measured 4 m (north-south) by 3.6 m (east-west). The temple-tomb was built on a natural 1.5 m rise in the plain. No coherent wall fragments were visible. In a 15 m radius around the temple-tomb there were scattered stones that must have once been part of it. In the middle of the tumulus there was a shallow depression corresponding to the location of the central chamber.

Pillar array

The field of standing stones was aligned in the cardinal directions. Around 100 mostly broken pillars were still in situ in 2001, no more than 25 percent of the total number that once stood at the site. The rectangular array measured at least 31 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). There was a gap of 8 m between the most westerly standing stones and the appended edifice, indicating that the array was originally longer east to west (the pillars in this typology usually come close to the appended edifice). The ground of the west half of the array slightly inclines towards the erstwhile remains of the appended temple-tomb. Most of the intact pillars were found on the east side of the array. The tallest specimens reached 40 cm to 50 cm in height. These uncut stones tended to have four irregular faces. The rows of pillars were spaced 55 cm to 1 m apart, and the individual pillars in a row 65 cm to 1 m apart. This spacing, however, may not have reflected the original distribution of standing stones (it could have been somewhat denser).

The array was enclosed on its three outer sides by a double-course slab wall. These walls were composed of light-colored calcareous stones (15 cm to 20 cm long) laid 15 cm to 20 cm apart in parallel courses. The upright stones of the enclosing walls were flush with the ground surface or rose above it slightly. In 2001, the south perimeter wall was largely intact, less than 50 percent of the north wall was extant, and the east wall was highly fragmentary. The dissolute east wall contained one standing stone within its courses. Running parallel to the east wall of the array there appears to have been four more slab walls extending a maximum of 4 m to its east. Only small portions of these double-course slab walls were still intact in 2001. The western-most of the four slab walls contained three standing stones within its courses. This wall was around 30 cm in thickness. The two outermost slab walls on the east side of the pillar array appear to have consisted of just a single-line of stones, but by the time of the survey there was little structural evidence left to go by.

Mokyok Doring (Mo kyog rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Mokyok DoringMo kyog rdo ring is located in a valley called DoringRdo ring, a tributary of SalhéSa lhas, the valley that runs between old Oma’O ma and Bero TsetsoSbe ro rtse mtsho. All directions around the monument, except the west, are fairly open. In the west there is a mountain that bounds the DoringRdo ring valley. The terrain is slightly inclined to the south and is grassy and strewn with small rocks. The three pillars of the site are considered auspicious magical objects, however, religious observances at the site are light, reflecting the fact that there are few drokpa families in the vicinity. The pillars and much of the enclosure are made of an unhewn gray rock.

Oral tradition

The local drokpa families believe that the pillars of Mokyok DoringMo kyog rdo ring appeared with the emergence of existence (sipa chakpé doring), and that they are sky pillars (Namgyi Kawa) linking the vertically aligned cosmos. Offerings of butter are made at this site in the summertime in order to dispel negative influences, and to increase the prosperity of the local residents and the well-being of the flocks of livestock.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 10.2 m (east-west) by 5.6 m (north-south) and many portions of its four walls are intact. These double-course slab walls are 45 cm to 70 cm thick and are composed of variable-length (20 cm to 90 cm long) stones. Some of these stones are level with the surface, but a significant number of them project as much as 40 cm above ground level. In the east wall of the enclosure there is a 35 cm long stone set perpendicular to the axis of the course. This threshold stone created a “portal” about 45 cm in width. There is no clear threshold stone still in place on the opposite side of the portal. In order to maintain a level interior, the south/upslope wall of the enclosure is generally level with the surrounding terrain while the north/downhill wall is elevated. The east and west walls of the enclosure are somewhat elevated as well.

Pillars

The three pillars stand 30 cm to 50 cm away from the inner edge of the west wall. These three slim stelae form a well centered row. The dimensions and shapes of the pillars are as follows:

South pillar: irregularly shaped (1.6 m [height] by 1.2 m [basal girth]).

Central pillar: irregularly shaped (1.1 m by 1m).

North pillar: irregularly shaped (1 m by 85 cm).

Funerary superstructures

A fragmentary slab-wall enclosure (3.3 m across) is situated 22 m northwest of the walled pillars. Nearby, in a functioning corral, there is an example of the same type of pillar (1.15 m long), which was probably uprooted from the monument a long time ago. Near this corral are traces of the walls of other funerary superstructures.

Bültang Doring (Bul thang rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Bültang DoringBul thang rdo ring is located less than 300 m south of the main road running between Oma’O ma and GertséSger rtse. The terrain is gently inclined and strewn with small rocks and gravel. From the site there is a very long vista to the east and sweeping views to the north has well. The south and west directions, however, are constrained by the proximate ridge system. The site consists of a single pillar erected inside an enclosure.

Oral tradition

According to local sources in the village of LhaktongpaLhag mthong pa, Bültang DoringBul thang rdo ring appeared with the rise of existence.

Site elements

Enclosure

The double-course enclosure is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 11 m (east to west) by 12.5 m (east wall) and 14.5 m (west wall). This enclosure is unusual for having longer dimensions north-south than east-west. The walls of the perimeter (around 50 cm thick) contain uncut slabs and some blockwork (20 cm to 85 cm long) inserted into the ground edgewise. A few of the slabs are as little as 2 cm in thickness. The stones of the walls protrude as much as 25 cm above ground level. Little of the enclosing walls have survived. There is a 3.3 m long south wall segment intact near the east corner of the enclosure and the west half of the north wall is largely in place. The mostly intact east wall had one or possibly even three openings, which were not evenly spaced. The most recognizable “portal” has a 50 cm long stone running perpendicular to the wall course making up one side of it and two stones (combined length 55 cm) on the other side. The gap thus formed is 30 cm in width.

Pillar

The lone in situ pillar (1.2 m [height] by 95 cm [basal girth]) was erected near what was the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure (this wall has been obliterated). This stele of four irregular sides has a grayish to purplish hue. Also near the west end of the enclosure there are two smaller broken pillars. One specimen is snapped off at ground level while the other one still retains 30 cm of its height.

Affiliated sites

In the environs of the small permanent settlement of LhaktongpaLhag mthong pa (32° 23.689΄ N. lat. / 83° 36.688΄ / 4420 m) there used to be a small ancient pillar. This information was collected from the local ngakpa, Karma ChömpelKarma chos ’phel (born circa 1924), his wife and other elders.

Kyungmö Mönra (Skyung mo’i mon ra)

General site characteristics

The array of pillars and appended edifice of Kyungmö MönraSkyung mo’i mon ra are located near the southwest shore of Kyungmo TsoSkyung mo mtsho (Female Chough Lake), in a broad basin. To the south and west rises Gyaro DrakkarRgya ro brag dkar/Lhari DrakkarLha ri brag dkar, the principal holy mountain of NgönchuSngon chu. The site has expansive vistas in all but the south and southwest directions. The hard packed and gravelly terrain gently declines towards the lakeshore. The site is now undulating; appearing to have undergone water-borne changes over time. The quadrate array of pillars has been heavily disturbed: out of perhaps 900 stones that were raised originally, only about 145 are still in situ, and many of these are broken at or near ground level. Despite the poor condition of the array, there are no signs of recent vandalism at the site. There are also several outlying funerary superstructures at Kyungmö MönraSkyung mo’i mon ra.171

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Kyungmö MönraSkyung mo’i mon ra was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The appended edifice, which has been reduced to a rocky tumulus, sits 4 m west of the nearest pillars. There are no coherent wall segments remaining in this structure. Based on the extent and form of the dispersion, the appended edifice is likely to have measured around 3.5 m by 3.5 m. This rocky tumulus rises 70 cm above the ground surface and is topped with large chunks of milky quartz. The presence of quartz may indicate a ritual function for the site in pre-modern times.

Pillar array

As only fragmentary bits of the array are still extant, it is difficult to gauge its size. Provisionally, it measured 28 m (east-west) by 18 m (north-south). Aligned in the cardinal directions, the natural pieces of red sandstone rise an average of about 30 cm above the surface. The tallest standing stone is under 45 cm in height. Many of the pillars have a rough tabular form, with their broad sides facing north and south. The few dislodged pillars found at the site are 50 cm to 60 cm in length. From the remaining structural evidence, it appears that the rows of pillars were placed 50 cm to 80 cm apart from one another, and individual stones in each row were spaced 80 cm to 90 cm apart.

Funerary superstructures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1, a double-course quadrate enclosure, is situated 72 m southwest of the array and appended structure. FS1 was probably aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 10 m (north-south) by 7 m (east-west). The west wall of the structure was completely destroyed by a widening flood plain. The other walls are fragmentary. These walls (around 50 cm thick) contain mostly blocky stones flush with the surface but also a few upright slabs. The stones used in the walls tend to be smaller (up to 40 cm long).

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 22 m south/uphill of FS1. The perimeter walls of FS2 are of the same general type of construction as FS1. The structure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 22 m (north-south) by 12 m (east-west). Parts of all four walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) have survived and they contain variable-length (30 cm to 50 cm long) stones. These stones are level with the ground surface or rise above it to a height of 30 cm. Of all the perimeter walls, the east wall is the most intact. FS2 appears to have been divided into three cells of uneven size.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 24 m south/uphill of FS2. This enclosure was divided into two cells. The north cell measures 16 m (north-south) by 8 m (east-west) and the south cell measures 16 m (north-south) by 11 m (east-west). The walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) of FS 3 consist mostly of variable-length slabs (up to to 65 cm long) placed into the ground edgewise, which are elevated a maximum of 25 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 13.5 m south of FS3. FS4 consists of four single-course slab-wall fragments, which are parallel to one another. These walls are spaced 20 cm to 25 cm apart and are 4 m in length. Variable length (15 cm to 50 cm long) thin slabs set into the ground edgewise were used in the construction of these walls.

Nakpo Doring (Nag po rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The single pillar erected inside an enclosure of Nakpo DoringNag po rdo ring was founded in the middle of a large plain with open views in all directions. To the north, the sacred and lofty Mukkar GangriSmug dkar gangs ri range is visible. The terrain is level and sandy. There are also remnants of two outlying funerary superstructures at Nakpo DoringNag po rdo ring.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Nakpo DoringNag po rdo ring is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The highly fragmentary rectangular enclosure may have measured 5.5 m (north-south) by 8.5 m (east-west). The extant structural evidence indicates that walls of the enclosure were double-course and aligned in the cardinal directions. The extant wall segments are about 60 cm thick and constructed of a light-colored concretion and a black stone with white veins of variable length (up to 85 cm long). Around the enclosure there are many scattered stones that must have once been part of its construction. The surrounding terrain is largely free of stones. One meter east of the northeast corner of the enclosure there is an L-shaped wall fragment. It extends 5 m north and then turns west for 10 m paralleling the enclosure.

Pillar

The dark-gray irregularly shaped single pillar (60 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]) was erected near the west side of the enclosure. It is reported that the rock used as the pillar is not found locally.

Funerary superstructures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is a very fragmentary double-course enclosure (7 m by 7.5 m) situated 40 m north of the pillar. The configuration of this structure is not clear and may have included more than one cell. The variable length (primarily 30 cm to 50 cm long) uncut slab and blocks of the perimeter walls project as much as 20 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.5 m by 5 m) is situated 30 m west of FS1. FS2 appears to be of the same construction as FS1 and is also very much deteriorated.

Ngönmo Doring (Sngon mo rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Ngönmo Doring
English equivalent : Blue long-stones
Site number: C-100
Site typology: II.1b, II.2b
Elevation: 4560 m
Administrative location (township): Urtö
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 16, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. The extraction of stones from the site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Some mani plaques and pillars carved with the mani mantra.
Maps: UTRS VIII
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

The important walled pillars and funerary superstructures of Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring are located near a mountain named NgönmoSngon mo (Blue One). A little farther away from the site is the mountain known as MarmoDmar mo (Red One). The views from Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring are particularly expansive in the east, and are also quite open in the north (towards Mukkar GangriSmug dkar gangs ri) and south. The view west is constrained by the local topography. The north side of the site is bounded by a small watercourse. The terrain is level, sandy and rock strewn. Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring is dominated by 18 well-preserved pillars erected inside an enclosure and two very large multi-celled enclosures.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), pillars and walls such as those found at Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring are often connected to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 7 m (north-south) by 11 m (east-west). The double-course walls of the enclosure (50 cm to 70 cm thick) contain variable-length (20 cm to 60 cm) uncut pieces of sandstone. The stones of the walls are largely flush with the ground surface. The west wall of the enclosure is missing. There are some plaques inscribed with the mani mantra inside the enclosure, reflecting the Buddhist cult status of the monument.

Pillars

All 18 pillars are made of sandstone, reddish tan and beige in color. Many of the larger pillars have had the mani mantra artfully carved upon them.

North wall row

Paralleling the north wall of the enclosure, beginning at its west corner, there is a line of four pillars. From east to west, these pillars have the following dimensions and forms.

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (70 cm [height] by 60 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (80 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped (90 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (85 cm by 95 cm).

West wall row

Paralleling what would have been the west wall is a row of 13 pillars. From north to south, these pillars have the following dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR5: tabular (70 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR6: tabular (60 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (95 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR8: irregularly shaped (1.1 m by 1.2).
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped (1.5 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR10: tabular, broken (65 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR11: irregularly shaped (1.1 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR12: irregularly shaped (75 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR13: tabular (1 m by 1.4 m).
Long-stone DR14: irregularly shaped (1.7 m by 1.6 m).
Long-stone DR15: irregularly shaped (1.7 m by 1.4 m).
Long-stone DR16: tabular (1.2 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR17: tabular (1.1 m by 1.5 cm).

Against the inner edge of the south wall of the enclosure, near its west corner, there is a single irregularly shaped pillar (85 cm by 80 cm). East of the enclosure there are two long stones that appear to be dislodged pillars (1.2 m and 95 cm long).

Funerary superstructures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1, a 14.5 m long arc-shaped wall fragment, is situated 14 m west of the pillars. This structural fragment (80 cm thick) appears to have made up the west wall of an enclosure. It is composed of variable length (averaging 30 cm to 40 cm long) stones laid flat, which are level with the ground surface or elevated above it a maximum of 20 cm. There are also a few other fragmentary walls of enclosures dispersed around the site, which are not enumerated in this survey.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 40 m northwest of the pillars. This very large rectangular double-course enclosure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 35 m (north-south) by 9.5 m (east-west). The entire structure is elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the surrounding plain, giving it the appearance of a funerary mound (bangso). FS2 appears to have been subdivided into five cells, but only small wall segments have survived. The top of the structure undulates due to the long-term action of flowing water. The walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) of FS2 are composed of variable length (primarily 20 cm to 50 cm long) stones laid flat on the ground. Connected to the north side of FS2 there is a square enclosure (6.5 m by 6.5) of the same construction.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3, a sub-rectangular double-course enclosure, is situated 30 m west of FS2. Stones from this poorly preserved structure have been recently pilfered in order to build the one homestead of DoringRdo ring, located on the north side of the watercourse that bounds the archaeological site. FS2 appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 44 m (north-south) by 14 m (east-west). It was probably subdivided into four or five cells by north-south running walls. The walls (60 cm to 90 cm thick) of the enclosure are made of variable-length stones flush with the ground surface or slightly raised above it. Many stones from FS2 have been dislodged and now lie strewn across the vicinity. The west wall of FS2 is very uneven and the southwest corner of the enclosure is rounded. A partition wall on the south end of the structure is still quite well preserved.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 56 m southwest of FS2, on a gently inclined slope that adjoins a ridge spur. Measuring 16 m (north-south) by 22 m (east-west), this rectangular enclosure also appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. It was subdivided into two cells of unequal size. The walls are similar in construction to its counterparts: most stones were laid flat and are level with the surface, but there are also a few slabs that were placed edgewise into the ground and which are elevated a maximum of 50 cm above ground level.

Zhalung Doring (Zha lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Zhalung DoringZha lung rdo ring, the site of a pillar erected inside an enclosure, is situated in a fold in a large plain, in the middle of parallel branches of the main road running between the NyimaNyi ma county seat and points west. As the monument is found in a dip in the plain, the views to the east and west are somewhat circumscribed. On the other hand, the views north and south are quite open. The sandy terrain gently declines towards the east. Unhewn pieces of reddish brown sandstone were used to build the monument.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), sites such as Zhalung DoringZha lung rdo ring are closely associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 5 m (north-south) by 11.5 m (east-west). The west wall of the enclosure is largely intact, the east partly intact, and small parts of the north and south walls have survived as well. The variable-length (15 cm to 70 cm long) blocks and slabs of the double-course walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick) are level with the ground or elevated a maximum of 15 cm above it. The many stones scattered around the enclosure were probably once part of its construction (the surrounding terrain is largely free from such stones).

Pillar

The single tabular pillar (75 cm [height] by 1.1 m [basal girth]) is fairly well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. This pillar is situated 1.4 m from the inner edge of the west wall. The top of the pillar was broken off long ago, as evidenced by the heavy erosion of the fractured surface.

Tomb

In the vicinity of the pillar monument, a male resident of ZhalungZha lung excavated a “möndur” and used a femur he recovered from the tomb to make a thigh-bone trumpet (kangling).

Sanyel Doring (Sa nyal rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The enclosed pillar of Sanyel DoringSa nyal rdo ring is located in the valley that debouches into a plain at Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring (C-99). The site is situated on the right side of the valley on gravelly and rocky ground that dips gently towards the north. A reddish brown sandstone was used to build the monument. Sanyel DoringSa nyal rdo ring is one of three sites of this typology (see also C-100 and C-101) in this corner of the erstwhile NaktsangNag tshang province. These sites are within a 10 km radius of each other.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), such monuments as Sanyel DoringSa nyal rdo ring are connected to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

There are small traces of the enclosing walls to the east of the pillar. The west wall is partially intact as well (this fragment is 2.7 m long). The enclosure walls are of double-course slab construction. These slabs are level with the ground surface or protrude as much as 15 cm above it.

Pillar

The four-sided pillar is now 90 cm in height (basal girth of 1 m), but it was originally 40 cm taller. It is reported that the breakage of the pillar occurred in the last two decades. The broken part of the pillar is still found on the site. The sandstone pillar is highly eroded and has mineral depositions on its surface. A layer of conglomerate is cemented to one side of the stele, a highly unusual feature. The pillar stands 1 m east of the west wall of the enclosure.

Ngönmo Möndur (Sngon mo mon dur)

General site characteristics

Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur is located on a rock-blanketed ridgeline at the foot of NgönmoSngon mo mountain. From the site there are profound views east. The view north, in the direction of Mukkar GangriSmug dkar gangs ri, is also very open. From Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur the pillars and other structures of Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring (C-100) in close proximity to the south are visible. Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur consists of two arrays of pillars and appended edifices situated on a broad ridgeback, just above where it splits into two lesser spurs. There are also four outlying funerary constructions at the site. All the structures of Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur are in a very poor state of preservation. They were built of uncut, variable length (20 cm to 1 m) pieces of tan sandstone laid in random-rubble courses. Over time, the sandstone has weathered to a much darker color.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), as well as locally, sites such as Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur are commonly associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

South complex

Appended edifice

The appended edifice (temple-tomb) is situated 3.3 m west of the most westerly in situ pillar (an irregularly shaped specimen). Largely reduced to a mound of rubble, the approximate dimensions of the edifice were 5 m (north-south) by 4 m (east-west). The maximum height of this structure on the downhill flank is 90 cm, while its upslope side is only slightly raised above ground level. Small coherent wall segments are still extant. The central chamber appears to have been oriented in the cardinal directions, and approximately measures 1.6 m by 1.6 m. Only the base of the central chamber to a depth of 10 cm has survived. The diminutive size of the central chamber indicates that the walls in which it was encased were massively constructed.

Pillar array

The quadrate array of pillars measures 12 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). There are only about 20 in situ pillars remaining in the array. These pillars are inclined at various angles and protrude 20 cm to 25 cm above the rocky ground surface. Nevertheless, there are around 200 uprooted specimens clumped together where they were once planted in the ground. These uncut pieces of local sandstone tend to have a tabular form and are 50 cm to 70 cm in length. The soil around the array is sandy and quite sodden, suggesting that over the centuries, the pillars collapsed of their own accord due to the failure of the substrate. The concourse of standing stones tilts down towards the east at an approximately 5° angle, which is probably another factor in the collapse of the pillars en masse. The declivity, of course, would have added to the effect of gravity upon the standing stones. The scant in situ evidence suggests that the rows of pillars were aligned in the cardinal directions, and that their broad sides faced north and south. The rows appear to have been spaced 45 cm to 75 cm apart, while the standing stones in each row were spaced 55 cm to 65 cm from one another. This spatial pattern is corroborated by the placement of pillars in other small arrays.

North complex

Appended edifice

The north complex is situated 65 m north of the south complex at about the same elevation. The highly deteriorated appended edifice approximately measures 6 m (north-south) by 5.5 m (east-west), and its down-slope side is 90 cm in height. There are a few coherent wall fragments extant, especially on the south side of the structure. Where measurable, the outer walls of the edifice were around 70 cm thick, but there may also have been an inner masonry mantle, as is found is some examples of the typology. A slight depression in the middle of the structure coincides with the placement of the central chamber.

Pillar array

Only five inclined pillars (around 30 cm high) of the array remain fixed in the ground. Some other specimens lie scattered about the monument but many appear to be missing. With the remaining structural evidence, the dimensions of the concourse of standing stones cannot be ascertained. We can probably assume that it was about the same size as its southern counterpart.

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 24 m southwest of the north complex appended edifice. Little remains of this small enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2, another highly fragmentary enclosure, is situated 60 m west of the north complex appended edifice. FS2 was partly transformed into small shepherd’s shelter (droklhé).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.5 m by 4.6 m), a single-course rectangular slab-wall enclosure, is situated 8 m northwest of FS2. The variable length (70 cm to 1 m) slabs of the perimeter walls are either flush with the ground surface or elevated a maximum of 20 cm above it. Slabs that were extracted from the enclosure are piled up within its walls.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.7 m by 5.1 m) is situated 19 m southwest of FS3. This much more elevated structure is 50 cm to 70 cm in height. Although it now has a round appearance, the surviving coherent wall segments indicate that FS4 was a square construction. In the middle of this structure there is a depression, which is probably the remains of a collapsed burial chamber.

Yanglung Doring (G.yang lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Yanglung DoringG.yang lung rdo ring, a fine example of the walled pillars typology, is situated in the head of a remote side valley. The site is closely encircled by ridges in all but the down valley/northeast direction. The gently sloping terrain is somewhat gravelly and rocky. The ten pillars and enclosure are made of a hard dark-gray rock that has weathered to a much lighter color. There are also two outlying funerary superstructures at Yanglung DoringG.yang lung rdo ring.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), sites such as Yanglung DoringG.yang lung rdo ring are commonly associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is roughly aligned to the intermediate points and measures 10.4 m (northwest-southeast) by 13 m (southwest-northeast). In order to maintain a level interior space, the downhill/northeast side of the enclosure is elevated 30 cm above the surrounding terrain. The double-course block and slab construction of the enclosure walls is particularly robust. These walls (70 cm to 95 cm thick) are composed of variable-length (30 cm to 90 cm long) stones, which are flush with the ground level in some cases, while other stones project as much as 25 cm above the surface. At the south corner of the enclosure there is also a tabular (60 cm wide) standing stone that protrudes 45 cm above the surface. All parts but the rear/southwest wall of the enclosure are largely intact. The rear wall is far more fragmentary.

Pillars

Southeast group

Long-stone DR1 is situated near the inner edge of the southeast wall of the enclosure. This severely inclined four-sided pillar has lost its top (75 cm [height] by 95 cm [basal girth]).

Long-stone DR2 is situated beside DR1. This is a well-hewn four-sided pillar (1.1 m by 90 cm). In close proximity there is a collapsed specimen, a slender, well-cut four-sided stele (2.5 m long by 80 cm girth).

Southwest row

Against the inner edge of the rear/southwest wall there is an uneven row of pillars. This row begins 2.3 m from the south corner of the enclosure and ends 2.7 m from the west corner. These gaps are probably indicative of where missing pillars once stood. There are two light-colored plaques engraved with the mani mantra near the row of pillars. From the south corner to the west corner, these pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR3: four irregular sides (1.3 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (75 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR5: four irregular sides (1 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR6: irregular tabular form (1 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR7: four irregular sides (1.75 m by 1.6 m). There is a small counterclockwise swastika carved on the northeast side of the pillar, which is probably of considerable age.
Long-stone DR8: four quite regular sides (2.2 m by 1.4 m).

Outlying funerary superstructures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is a rocky tumulus (8 m by 6.5 m by 50 cm [height]) situated 13 m northwest of the walled pillars. The traces of its double-course perimeter walls indicate that this structure is a quadrate enclosure or a bangso type monument. Variable-length (up to 70 cm long) stones went into its construction.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.2 m by 4.3 m) is situated 30 m north of the walled pillars. Only small fragments of the block and slab walls of this enclosure have survived. The entire structure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain.

Nyönpa Lhé Doring (Smyon pa lhas rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring is named after a seasonal drokpa encampment located in the vicinity, Nyönpa LhéSmyon pa lhas. Another proximate encampment is called Marcha LachenSmar ca la can (sp.?). The site is also simply called DoringRdo ring. Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring is located well above the right bank of the Langchen TsangpoGlang chen gtsang po. The moderately sloping terrain has a sparse covering of grass and stones. The celebrated holy mountain Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se is visible from the site (it is situated 75 km due east). It could not be determined whether, Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, being in eyeshot of Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring was an accident of geography or a deliberate geomantic calculation on the part of the builders. The geographic position of Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring demonstrates that the enclosed pillar typology extended all the way to the southwest corner of Tibet. There are also several outlying structures at Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring of significant proportions, which are probably funerary in nature.

Oral tradition

The elders of KhyunglungKhyung lung village refer to Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring as a sipé doring. They believe it magically grew in the beginning of existence at its present position.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is highly fragmentary and obscured by loose stones, some of which seem to have been integrated into it at one time. The enclosure appears to have been oriented to the intermediate points, and approximately measures 5.5 m (southwest-northeast) by 3.5 m (northwest-southeast). Although three of the enclosing walls are highly dissolute, more than 50 percent of the northwest wall is intact, allowing for an assessment of its design characteristics. This double-course wall (45 cm to 60 cm thick) is composed of variable-length (35 cm to 65 cm) beige and tan-colored slabs and blocks. The northwest wall is dominated by stones set into the ground edgewise, which project 10 cm to 25 cm above ground level. Some stones were also laid flat.

Pillars

The main pillar is firmly rooted near the inner edge of the southwest wall, and is well centered in the enclosure. This tabular pillar is 2 m in height, 30 cm to 35 cm wide and 11 cm to 20 cm thick. Its broad sides are oriented to the southeast and northwest. A 1.2 m long, 50 cm wide sliver has been cleaved off the northeast side of the pillar. This break occurred long ago, as indicated by the degree of repatination to which the fractured surfaces have been subjected. The well-formed stele has weathered from a light gray color to dark tan. A number of stones are piled up around the base of the pillar. A counterclockwise swastika (12 cm high) was carved near the top of the southeast face of the pillar. The wear and repatination of this carving indicate that it is of considerable age. On the left arm of the swastika the Tibetan letter A was much more recently engraved. Below this swastika there is an incomplete or primitive specimen whose arms run at odds with the usual radial form of the symbol. It is highly worn as well. The southeast side of the pillar also displays shallow pecking marks of significant age. On the southeast side of the main pillar there is a small four-sided pillar broken 35 cm above ground level.

Outlying structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 85 m west of the pillar near the base of the DoringRdo ring outcrop, which bounds the Langchen TsangpoGlang chen gtsang po Valley. This highly deteriorated ovoid enclosure (5 m across) is slightly raised above the slope on its downhill side, while its uphill side is set as much as 1.1 m below the slope. The enclosing walls are comprised of jumbled courses of variable length (up to 50 cm long) blocks that were mostly laid flat.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (roughly 3 m across) is situated 6 m northeast of FS1. It appears to be another highly deteriorated ovoid enclosure, but with almost no protrusion above the surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 12 m northwest of FS2. It consists of a 30 m long wall that parallels the base of the DoringRdo ring rock outcrop. The downhill/forward side of this wall is raised 1 m to 1.5 m above the slope, while its uphill/rear side is more or less level with the slope. This poorly preserved wall exhibits jumbled courses of blocks that were laid flat. The original texture of the wall remains quite uncertain. Along its southwest half three other walls join it to produce an enclosure (13 m by 6 m). The rear wall of this enclosure is set about 1 m below the slope. Slabs of stone up to 1.2 m in length are dispersed within the enclosure. Just below the southwest end of the rear wall there are traces of another analogously built enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (3.5 m across) is situated 9.5 m northwest of FS1. An integral rear wall segment in this ovoid enclosure consists of two to five vertical courses of small blocks laid on top of one another.

Garshok Doring (Sgar gshog rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Garshok DoringSgar gshog rdo ring is located in the DoringRdo ring valley, not far from the main road that connects SagaSa dga’ and Drongpa’Brong pa. GarshokSgar gshog is the name of the general area. The site appears to have been flood damaged and there are no signs of other structures in the vicinity of the lone pillar. The nearly level terrain is impacted and stony and supports almost no vegetation. The site is open in all directions, however, in the east the view is somewhat abbreviated by an intervening ridge.173 The irregularly shaped bluish pillar now only stands 40 cm above ground level. Reportedly, it was broken before living memory. With a basal girth of only 75 cm, Garshok DoringSgar gshog rdo ring is not likely to have stood much more than 1 m in height. The pillar is inclined in a downhill direction although the terrain is nearly level. Pieces of milky quartz as offerings are piled around it, reflecting the stone’s sacred status.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, the pillar of Garshok DoringSgar gshog rdo ring magically sprang up in primordial times.

Lhaktsang Doring (Lhag tshang rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The lone pillar of Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring is located on the outskirts of the eponymous township headquarters. It is situated in the middle of the MenchuSman chu valley on sandy terrain with tufts of grass. Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring is roughly equidistant between three mountains that are thought to be potentially dangerous (ka nyenpo): LuklakLug lag (south), batsangBa tshang (sp.?) (west) and Nyugu TönpoNyu gu mthon po (sp.?) (north). It is not known whether this geographic placement influenced the erection of the pillar. Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring is four-sided (70 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]) and very heavily weathered. Like Garshok DoringSgar gshog rdo ring (C-19), Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring appears to represent an elementary pillar variety, which appeared near the southeastern extremity of the pillars erected inside an enclosure (II.1b) territorial range.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring is ancient.

Drangchungwa Bam Doring (Grang chung ba bam rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Drangchungwa Bam DoringGrang chung ba bam rdo ring, a line of five small pillars, is situated on a broad, moderately inclined, turf-studded sandy slope. The site overlooks the south side of the MenchuSman chu valley and is in a locale known as DubakDus bag (sp.?). The five irregularly shaped and tabular standing stones form a row 1.5 m in length. Originally dark gray in color, these stones have weathered to reddish brown. If there were other structures accompanying the pillars of Drangchungwa Bam DoringGrang chung ba bam rdo ring they have been totally engulfed by the sands.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Drangchungwa Bam DoringGrang chung ba bam rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Except for the most southerly specimen, the five pillars are between 35 cm and 45 cm in height. The broken southerly specimen is 20 cm in height, but originally it was about the same size as its counterparts. Another specimen is tilted at a radical angle.

In close proximity to the row of five standing stones, there is a specimen 55 cm in height. This irregularly shaped and isolated pillar shares the same physical qualities as do those in the pentad.

Gangchen Doring (Gangs chen rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gangchen DoringGangs chen rdo ring boasts a large array of pillars with appended edifices and large enclosures sitting side by side. Gangchen DoringGangs chen rdo ring is situated in the middle of a broad plain with expansive views to the east. The views to the south and west are quite open as well, but the northern vista is constrained by a range of mountains. There is no permanent contemporary settlement in the area. The terrain is level and strewn with small rocks. All structures at the site are more or less aligned in the cardinal directions. A variety of types of rocks were used to produce the monuments of Gangchen DoringGangs chen rdo ring. The pillars are primarily made of a dark gray rock and a light gray speckled rock. The slab walls at the site are mostly of the same dark gray rock as the pillars. The edifices and enclosures contain many light-colored rocks.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Gangchen DoringGangs chen rdo ring is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

South complex

Appended edifice

The appended edifice (temple-tomb) measures 24 (north-south) by 14 m (east-west) and has been reduced to 2.5 m to 3 m in height. It is not clear how much taller this poorly preserved structure may have been originally. Only a few coherent wall fragments remain and these all have interior placements adjacent to the central chamber. The central chamber seems to have been one large undivided space, but lightly built partitions or those made of perishable materials may have completely disappeared. The massive coursed-rubble walls that encase the interior space are around 1.5 m in thickness. These walls rise up 1 m to 1.2 m in height around the central chamber. Mostly small (around 20 cm long) light-colored cobbles and rounded stones were used to build the walls of the appended edifice. These walls also contain a few larger stones. In order to produce such massive walls, stones were laid side by side in multiple courses. On the east side of the appended edifice there are poorly preserved wall fragments running in an eastern direction. Perhaps this was part of a boundary wall that enclosed a portion of the pillar array. A funerary structure that has degraded into a rubble-filled tumulus (4.8 m by 3.3 m) is situated 37 m west of the south complex appended edifice.

Pillar array

No more than 10 percent of the original number of pillars are still in situ, and many of these are broken. As so few pillars remain in the array, it is difficult to gauge its original size. At present, the array measures 35 m (north-south) by 33 m (east-west). In total, about 100 stones are left standing and roughly 200 are collapsed and lie in the concourse. Originally the array may have numbered more than 1000 standing stones. The array itself is unevenly bisected into two parts by an east-west running double-course slab wall. The array of pillars, in its present form, narrows in the direction of the appended edifice. The pillars are generally tabular in form and 2 cm to 5 cm thick. Their two broad sides are oriented north and south. The tallest pillar (1.2 m high) still anchored in the ground is inclined, and is located near the west end of the bisecting slab wall. The second tallest standing pillar is 60 cm in height, and about one dozen specimens reach 50 cm in height. The largest uprooted pillar scattered about the array is 1.8 m in length. Around one dozen dislodged pillars are between 1 m and 1.2 m in length, while most prostrate specimens are 60 cm to 90 cm in length.

Beyond the current eastern extent of the array of pillars, there are at least 14 double-course slab walls running in parallel. This network of slab walls extends 35 m further east, but most of these structures are highly fragmentary. Like the slab wall bisecting the array of pillars, these outlying slab walls consist of variable length (15 cm to 60 cm long) slabs of stone embedded in the ground edgewise. The average length of the slabs is around 25 cm and they are 2 cm to 5 cm thick. The double-course slabs are set 20 cm to 30 cm apart from one another, and are even with the ground surface or slightly protrude above it.

North complex

Edifice

The north complex edifice is situated just 4 m north of the south complex appended edifice. It measures 11.5 m (east-west) by 20 m (north-south) and is currently 2 m to 2.5 m in height (originally, it was taller). Although very little remains intact, it appears that this was also a temple-tomb, although it was not as heavily constructed as its southern counterpart. The north complex edifice was built with a coursed-rubble texture, and is mainly composed of small cobbles and rounded stones. Walls around the central chamber rise to 1 m in height. This interior seems to have consisted of a single non-partitioned space, just like in the south complex appended edifice.

The north complex is completely devoid of a pillar array and slab walls. Ostensibly, all traces of these structures were destroyed. Now, only an empty concourse exists. On the other hand, it is also possible that the north complex edifice was designed to stand in isolation, just as the enclosures to the north do.

South enclosure

A large enclosure is situated 22 m north of the north complex edifice. This structure measures 15.5 m (east-west) by 7.5 m (north-south), and its walls of multiple vertical courses are 50 cm to 80 cm in height. The upper extent of this well-built coursed-rubble structure exhibits herringbone courses of masonry. The 50 cm thick walls enclose an open center, just like the more substantial temple-tomb edifices to the south. Near the northwest corner there is a single standing pillar 40 cm in height. Another dislodged pillar inside the south enclosure is 1.4 m in length; its original placement is unclear.

North enclosure

Another large enclosure is situated 37 m north of the south enclosure. It measures 17 m (east-west) by 3.75 m (north-south). The north enclosure is not as well preserved as the south enclosure. Its perimeter walls are reduced to 50 cm or less in height. These walls appear to have been around 50 cm thick. Near the northwest corner of this structure there are two standing pillars 40 cm in height.

Affiliated sites

In the MenchuSman chu valley, upstream of the LhaktsangLhag tshang township headquarters, there is what appears to be a single funerary structure (29° 33.260΄ N. lat. / 84° 36.372΄ E. long. / 4600 m). It is situated in the middle of the valley on a rock-strewn plain. Very little of this structure has survived save for massive stone members piled up on the surface. A small perimeter wall fragment survives along the southeast corner of the structure.

Nakhama Doring (Na mkha’ ma rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nakhama DoringNa mkha’ ma rdo ring is located in a huge basin near the head of the MenchuSman chu valley. This site sits close to the north base of the Tenchen LaRtan chen la (5230 m), on ground that moderately declines to the east. The sacred mountains Lönpo GangriBlon po gangs ri and Polha ShelgyungPho lha shel rgyung are visible from Nakhama DoringNa mkha’ ma rdo ring.174 The terrain is sandy and there are many rocks strewn around Nakhama DoringNa mkha’ ma rdo ring, unlike adjoining areas that are fairly clear of debris. The space to the east of the six pillars is slightly elevated, as is often encountered at sites with walled enclosures. The ground before the pillars also gently slopes down to the east rather than being level, which may be indicative of geomorphologic changes to the site. If indeed there was an enclosure, as seems likely, all traces of it have vanished in the unstable substrate.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

All six pillars of the site are made of an uncut blue-gray rock that has weathered to a reddish color. The pillars are all severely inclined and heavily eroded. They form a group spread out over 3 m. From north to south, they have the flowing dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR1: small broken specimen.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (40 cm [height] by 65 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (75 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (75 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR5: four-sided (85 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided (1.1 m by 1 m).

Shamzha Doring (Gsham zha rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The walled pillars of Shamzha DoringGsham zha rdo ring are located in the YorchuYor chu valley bottom, about 100 m from the bank of the stream. The site has expansive views both up (east) and down (west) the valley. To the east the lofty sacred mountain Lönpo GangriBlon po gangs ri is visible. To the north and south, the mountains bounding the YorchuYor chu valley constrain the vistas. The terrain is sandy with a sparse covering of grass. A few stones have been piled around the base of the four pillars.

Oral tradition

According to local inhabitants, Shamzha DoringGsham zha rdo ring is a primordial monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

Exceedingly little of the enclosure remains intact. Presumably, a scattering of stones around the site were once part of its perimeter walls. The enclosure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions and approximately measures 10 m (east-west) by 5 m (north-south). The enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. The perimeter walls were built of igneous cobbles and other types of rock of variable length (mostly 20 cm to 40 cm long).

Pillars

The four pinkish and gray standing stones form a row 2 m in length. The broad sides of the highly eroded pillars are oriented north and south, as is typical in this type (II.1b) of monument. From south to north, the dimensions and forms of the pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: broken at the base.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (55 cm [height] by 75 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (50 cm by 90 cm). This specimen has been broken. Its original height was in the vicinity of 1 m.
Long-stone DR4: tabular (65 cm by 70 cm).

Doring Raktsuk (Rdo ring rag gtsug)

General site characteristics

Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug, an important enclosed pillar and funerary enclosure, is located in the YorchuYor chu valley bottom, about 10 km upstream of its confluence with the voluminous TsachuTshwa chu. RaktsukRag gtsug is the name of a small outcrop on the edge of the valley. Locally, the site is simply known as DoringRdo ring. It is found in a region called LeyorLas yor. Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug was established on the right side of the YorchuYor chu valley (which is about one-half km wide here), on a well-drained rocky plain that gently declines to the west. The YorchuYor chu watercourse is only some tens of meters away from the pillars and funerary structures. This is unusually close to a water source for this type of installation. The sacred mountain Lönpo GangriBlon po gangs ri, located 45 km away, is visible from Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug. The east-west alignment of this stretch of the YorchuYor chu valley is likely to have played a role in the placement of the site at this location. There is a drokpa seasonal encampment in the vicinity, but no permanent habitations. The enclosure was founded on a natural rise, adding to its overall elevation. There are about 30 in situ pillars erected in different groupings, many of which have a slim, graceful form. Three or four types of rock were selected for use as stelae at Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, this was a primordial monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is not well aligned in the compass points. It measures 24 m (east-west) by 6 m (north-south) for the first 19 m from the east wall and 8 m (north-south) for the remaining 5 m. This is one of only two T-shaped enclosures surveyed to date.175 The north and south walls are mostly intact, while the east and west walls are not. The two short wall sections, aligned at right angles, that form the sides of the “T” are partially intact. The double-course walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick) of the enclosure contain uncut blocky stones of variable length (10 cm to 55 cm long). These pink and gray stones are either even with the ground level or project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. Beginning in the middle of the east wall of the enclosure there is a double-course slab wall that extends 6.5 m to the east. This wall contains variable-length slabs (up to 60 cm long, 2 cm to 4 cm in thick), in parallel courses set about 30 cm from each other. This slab wall may have coincided with an opening in the east wall of the enclosure, but not enough of the east wall has survived to know for certain.

Pillars

Another unusual feature of Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug is that its enclosure shelters two main groups of pillars. These groups of stelae appear to have been roughly arrayed in rows. The two main groups are spaced a maximum of 5.7 m from one another. The east group of pillars stands just east of where the enclosure widens, while the west group of pillars spans the entire width of the augmented rear portion of the enclosure.

From north to south, the east group of pillars has the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped, reddish (1.2 m [height] by 85 cm [basal girth]). Next to DR1 there is a collapsed pillar of which a 90 cm length is exposed above the surface. This uprooted tabular specimen has a girth of 65 cm.

Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped, beige (45 cm by 60 cm). This pillar is located in the middle of the enclosure.
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped, broken (20 cm by 65 cm).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped, broken (15 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped, blue-gray (85 cm by 50 cm). This pillar stands near the south wall of the enclosure.
Long-stones DR6 to DR9 are situated near the south wall of the enclosure, a little to the west of the above specimens.
Long-stone DR6: tabular, light gray (65 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR7: tabular, broken (15 cm c 35 cm).
Long-stone DR8: tabular, beige (65 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR9: tabular (45 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR10: irregularly shaped, beige (50 cm by 60 cm). This specimen is situated further west in between the east group and west group of pillars.
The west group of pillars forms a line 6.6 m in length. These pillars tend to be severely inclined due to the effects of gravity over a long period of time. From south to north, the west group has the following dimensions and characteristics:
Long-stone DR11: irregularly shaped, beige, broken (15 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR12: irregularly shaped, beige (1.2 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR13: irregularly shaped, red (85 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR14: irregularly shaped slender specimen, blue-gray having weathered to a red color (1.4 m by 50 cm).
Long-stone DR15: gray, top broken (1.2 m by approximately 1.5 m). Although this specimen is nearly prostrate, it is still well anchored in the ground.
Long-stone DR16: tabular, light gray (60 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR17: dark blue-gray having weathered to a red color, broken (35 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR18: irregularly shaped, beige (75 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR19: tabular, blue-gray (1.4 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR20: tabular, light gray (1 m by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR21: irregularly shaped slender specimen, blue-gray having weathered to a red color (1.6 m by 90 cm). This is the tallest pillar at Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug.
Long-stone DR22: tabular, beige (70 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR23: tabular, gray (1 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR24: tabular, reddish, broken (80 cm by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR25: irregularly shaped, beige (70 cm by 85 cm).
Long-stone DR26: irregularly shaped, beige (50 cm by 65 cm).
Long-stone DR27: gray, broken (20 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR28: tabular, beige, broken (30 cm by 70 cm).
Near the north wall of the enclosure there are two or three minor broken specimens.

Funerary superstructures

In addition to the walled pillars there are no less than 26 funerary superstructures spread out around Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug. These are of the double-course enclosure, heaped-stone wall enclosure and bangso typologies. The double-course enclosures exhibit both upright slab walls and flush block and cobble wall types, and most appear to be ovoid or sub-rectangular in form. These funerary superstructures have the following dimensions, locations and characteristics:

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 40.5 m south of the walled pillars. Only scattered stones remain on the surface.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4.8 m across) is situated 34 m south of FS1 (52.132΄ / 10.363΄). This enclosure appears to have had an ovoid form. Its double-course perimeter walls are primarily composed of cobbles (15 cm to 25 cm long), which are flush with the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 10.4 m southeast of FS2 (52.127΄ / 10.370΄). Very little of this double-course enclosure has survived.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (7 m across) is situated 17 m west of FS2 (52.137΄ / 10.354΄). The double-course (60 cm to 70 cm thick) perimeter walls of this apparently ovoid enclosure are composed of variable-length (up to 65 cm long) slabs and cobbles. These stones protrude upwards of 15 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (18 m by 12 m) is a large quadrate mound elevated 2 m above the surrounding terrain (52.219΄ / 10.376΄). This stony mound has no extant coherent wall fragments. Due to erosion there is a shallow concavity on top of the structure. East of the bangso there are traces of 50 cm high wall, which appear to be part of an ancillary funerary structure.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (7.3 m by 6 m) is situated 39 m west of the walled pillars (52.176΄ / 10.337΄). This apparently ovoid enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding plain. Although the perimeter walls (around 75 cm thick) are partly intact, there are no extant coherent wall segments. Variable-length (up to 50 cm long) stones went into the construction of this enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (5.7 m by 5 m) is situated 11 m north of FS6 (52.186΄ / 10.337΄). The disorderly enclosure walls contain stones up to 50 cm in length, which are flush with the surface or project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (5.2 m across) is situated 67 m southwest of the walled pillars and 28 m northwest of FS4 (52.149΄ / 10.335΄). This poorly preserved specimen appears to have had an ovoid form. In close proximity there may be the faint remains of another enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (10 m by 10 m) is situated 90 m southwest of the walled pillars (52.158΄ / 10.310΄). This not well-preserved enclosure appears to be primarily of the heaped-stone wall typology (these walls are around 50 cm in height). However, the southwest side of the structure exhibits a double-course wall (60 cm thick) segment composed of stones even with the surface or elevated above it to a maximum height of 30 cm.

Funerary structures FS10 to FS14 are ovoid or sub-rectangular specimens with little protrusion above ground level, which share the same general morphological traits as FS9:

Funerary structure FS10 is situated next to FS9 and is of similar size and type.
Funerary structure FS11 (7 m across) is situated 7 m west of FS11 (52.156΄ / 10.299΄).
Funerary structure FS12 is situated 6.7 m northwest of FS11 (52.163΄ / 10.294΄).
Funerary structure FS13 (5.6 m by 6.6 m) is situated 8 m west of FS12 (52.163΄ / 10.284΄).
Funerary structure FS14 (5 m across) is a poorly preserved specimen adjacent to FS13 (52.161΄ / 10.284΄).

Funerary Structure FS15

Funerary structure FS15 (14 m by 14) is a large heaped-stone wall specimen, whose perimeter walls are somewhat elevated above the surrounding terrain (52.159΄ / 10.271΄).

Funerary Structure FS16

Funerary structure FS16 (6.6 m by 7.5 m) is situated 16 m northwest of FS15 (52.165΄ / 10.264΄). A portion of the enclosing double-course walls (60 cm thick) are extant. They are composed of variable-length (up to 50 cm long) stones, which project as much as 15 cm above the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS17 (6.8 m by 7.4 m) is situated 1.3 m north of FS16 and is of similar construction.
Funerary structure FS18 (5.9 m by 5 m) is a poorly preserved enclosure situated adjacent to FS17.
Funerary structure FS19 (11.3 m by 12.8 m), another poorly preserved structure, is situated adjacent to FS18.
Funerary structure FS20 (6.8 m by 6.8 m) is a dissolute structure adjacent to FS19.
Funerary structure FS21 (6.4 m by 7 m) is situated 3.8 m west of FS20. The double-course slab walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) of this enclosure contain stones that protrude as much as 30 cm above the surface.
Funerary structure FS22 (4 m across) is a poorly preserved enclosure, situated 1 m northwest of FS21.
Funerary structure FS23 is situated 2.3 m west of FS22 and has been mostly destroyed (52.181΄ / 10.239΄).
Funerary structures FS24 and FS 25 are two interconnected but incomplete enclosures (17 m across) situated 48 m north of FS23, on the opposite side of the local access road (52.212΄ / 10.231΄).
Funerary structure FS26 (14 m across) is an incomplete enclosure, situated 8 m west of FS25.

Doring Gyaplung (Rdo ring rgyab lung)

General site characteristics

Doring GyaplungRdo ring rgyab lung is located in the YorchuYor chu valley, just north of or “behind” Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug (C-107). The site is situated on a prominence overlooking the southern edge of a small plateau. The view east of Gyaplung DoringRgyab lung rdo ring is closely hemmed in by a ridge, an unusual geographic orientation for Upper Tibetan funerary sites. The terrain is moderately sloping and sandy. Although rocks are scattered around the proximity, there are no definite signs that the pillars of Doring GyaplungRdo ring rgyab lung were enclosed. The quite severe gradient of the site is not in conformance with the customary topographical placement of this monument typology. The 11 in situ pillars of the site are gray to red color. The pillars, standing on high ground, overlook the five funerary enclosures of the site. The uncut menhirs are tilted at various angles, heavily worn and discolored. While the broad faces of the tabular specimens tend to face north and south, there are considerable variations (probably, at least in part, due to geomorphologic changes).

Oral tradition

According to local sources, a primordial monument.

Site elements

Pillars

From south to north, the pillars of Doring GyaplungRdo ring rgyab lung have the following dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR1: tabular (90 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). This is an outlying specimen.
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (50 cm by 60 cm). This is also an outlying specimen.
Long-stones DR3 to DR8 form an uneven line of pillars:
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (80 cm by 50 cm). To the south of DR3 there is an uprooted pillar (1.1 m by 60 cm [girth]).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (1.1 m by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR5: tabular (1.2 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided (1 m by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR7: probably broken (30 cm by 40 cm).
Long-stone DR8: probably broken (20 cm by 40 cm).
Long-stones DR9 to DR11 form another grouping.
Long-stone DR9: tabular (1.4 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR10: tabular (65 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR11: tabular (90 cm by 1 m).

Immediately north of the pillars there is an incomplete enclosure (18 m across) that was built on a broad slope. The north wall is missing in this structure. The perimeter walls are of an indeterminate construction type. They are composed of both slabs and blocks that average 30 cm to 40 cm in length. This structure is likely to be funerary in function.

Funerary superstructures

The five double-course enclosures of Doring GyaplungRdo ring rgyab lung are found on a gently inclined broad slope. The terrain is gravel strewn and almost devoid of vegetation. These five structures are equidistant from the group of pillars, forming an arc around them. They appear to have been quadrate and possibly ovoid in form, and were constructed primarily with blocky stones.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (5.6 m by 6.3 m) is situated 60 m west of the pillars at approximately 10 m lower elevation. Most stones in the perimeter walls of this poorly preserved enclosure are even with the ground surface, but a few rise slightly above it.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (7.7 m by 8 m) is situated 10 m north/upslope of FS1. The walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) of this quadrate double-course enclosure are relatively intact, and are composed of upright blocks and slabs (primarily 30 cm to 50 cm long). These stones protrude as much as 20 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (6 m across) is situated 23 m northeast of FS2 and somewhat upslope (52.394΄ / 10.321΄). FS3 is a poorly preserved specimen.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 12 m east of FS3 and slightly upslope (52.396΄ / 10.328΄). Little remains of this structure.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5, the highest elevation funerary superstructure at the site, is situated 58 m north of the pillars (52.395΄ / 10.337΄). About 50 percent of its double-course upright block walls (40 cm thick) are intact. These stones (average length around 30 cm) are flush with the ground level or elevated, up to 15 cm higher.

Marbuk Doring (Dmar sbug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Marbuk DoringDmar sbug rdo ring is located at the foot of a ridge that bounds the west margin of the TsachuTshwa chu basin. The site enjoys good views in all directions but the west. The terrain is level and covered in sparse turf and small brush. The site consists of 11 in situ pillars erected inside an enclosure and what appears to be a large funerary superstructure. All the pillars of Marbuk DoringDmar sbug rdo ring are made of the same type of gray rock. They are heavily eroded and host orange climax lichen.

Oral tradition

In this region (Drongpa’Brong pa), sites such as Marbuk DoringDmar sbug rdo ring are commonly associated with the primordial epoch and the MönMon tribe of ancient times.

Site elements

Enclosure

Only the east corner of the enclosure is intact. The enclosure appears to have been oriented in the intermediate points. The remaining wall fragment is of standard construction: a double-course (60 cm thick) structure composed of variable-length blocky stones (20 cm to 40 cm), which are either flush with the ground or which protrude slightly above the surface. The east corner of the enclosure is located 9 m from the row of pillars. The line of pillars stretches out over 3.2 m. The enclosure must have been somewhat wider than this. The ground that was situated inside the enclosure appears to have undergone significant geomorphologic changes and is now sloping.

Pillars

The four-sided specimens are very consistent, giving the impression that they may have been hewn into shape. The pillars form a U-shaped array. The eight pillars of the main row form a line near where the northwest wall of the enclosure must have existed. From southwest to northeast the pillars have the following dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided, broken (40 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]). This specimen is offset from the main row of pillars and probably stands in close proximity to what must have been the southwest wall of the enclosure.
Long-stone DR2: four-sided (60 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (75 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided (1.3 m by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR5: tabular (60 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided (80 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR7: four-sided (65 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR8: tabular (90 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped (90 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR10: four-sided (60 cm by 1 m). This specimen is offset from the main row of pillars and probably stands in close proximity to what must have been the northeast wall of the enclosure.
Long-stone DR11: tabular, broken (40 cm by 75 cm). This specimen is offset from the main row of pillars and probably stands in close proximity to what must have been the northeast wall of the enclosure. There is a collapsed pillar (65 cm long) near what must have been the northeast wall of the enclosure.

Outlying funerary structure

What appear to be the vestiges of a large funerary enclosure are located 28 m south of the pillars. The remaining U-shaped double-course wall fragment is 48 m long and perhaps 50 cm thick. The highly eroded, blocky stones in this wall are primarily 20 cm to 40 cm in length. The space enclosed by the wall gently slopes down to the east. A ravine now cuts through the base of the U-shaped structure, dislodging some of the stones.

Yachü Doring (G.ya’ bcud rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Yachü DoringG.ya’ bcud rdo ring is named for the high altitude medicinal herb Chrysoplenium carnosum (also known as yakyima). This site is located in the NyintröSnying ’khrod drainage system on the broad right/west side of a valley. The eastern vista is wide open but, in other directions, the view is much more constrained. The barren terrain is gently sloping and gravelly. A seasonal wash has formed cutting away at the bench to within 1.5 m of Yachü DoringG.ya’ bcud rdo ring.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

A 3.7 m long fragment of the north wall of the enclosure has persisted. This wall fragment has been reduced to a single line of slabs (around 30 cm long), which are flush with the ground surface or slightly raised above it. At what was the southwest corner of the enclosure a single stone is in place. This stone is 4.5 m from the opposite/northwest corner of the enclosure, delineating the probable width of the enclosure. The enclosure does not appear to have been well aligned in the cardinal directions.

Pillars

There are four highly eroded pillars at Yachü DoringG.ya’ bcud rdo ring. They host orange climax lichen, as do many ancient pillars in Upper Tibet. From south to north, the long-stones have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: unevenly tabular, beige (1.3 m [height] by 1.1 m [basal girth]). The broad sides of this inclined specimen face in the anomalous east and west directions.
Long-stone DR2: tabular, gray (40 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR3: tabular, gray (85 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR4: gray, broken (20 cm by 60 cm).

Kyao Doring (Skya’o rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Kyao DoringSkya’o rdo ring is located on the western edge of an arable locale known as ZhingraZhing ra, on the left side of the Maja TsangpoRma bya gtsang po (Karnali river) valley. The site is particularly rocky. There is a shallow depression where an ancient pillar is reported to have stood until being destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. This lone pillar is said to have been tall as a man. Small fragments of the Kyao DoringSkya’o rdo ring pillar are still strewn around the site.

Affiliated sites

Upstream of Kyao DoringSkya’o rdo ring there is a place called TsamtiTsham tid (sp.?). It is reported that a lavish bumpa (receptacle) was buried in the ground at this location until the modern period. This bumpa was dedicated to the earth goddess, Sayi LhamoSa yi lha mo. Until circa 1990, the fields of TsamtiTsham tid were cultivated. Thereafter, they were abandoned due to dismal productivity.

Chönkhor Doring (Chos ’khor rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The single pillar of Chönkhor DoringChos ’khor rdo ring is located on a high uninhabited esplanade, on the northern outskirts of DöyöSdod yod township. This white rock pillar is firmly planted in the middle of a level stretch of gravel-strewn ground. It has four uneven sides and measures 1.6 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.4 m. Some small stones are scattered around the base of the worn and discolored pillar. On the standing stone there are traces of orange climax lichen. To the north of the pillar there is a line of four large stones (up to 1.5 m long) embedded in the ground, which project upwards of 30 cm above the surface. The architectural relationship between these four stones and the pillar is not clear.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Chönkhor DoringChos ’khor rdo ring is an old border marker of the DöyöSdod yod region.

Langchen Chewa (Glang chen mche ba)

Basic site data

Site name: Langchen Chewa
English equivalent: Elephant Tusk
Site number: C-26
Site typology: II.1a
Elevation: 4640 m
Administrative location (township): Barga
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: May 5, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: There are mani walls and other monastic facilities in the proximity.
Maps: UTRS VI, UTRS X, HAS C4
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

The isolated pillar of Langchen ChewaGlang chen mche ba is planted in a fold between two hills of J iuByi’u. Both Mapam YutsoMa pham g.yu mtsho and Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho are visible from this site. Other archaic cultural monuments clustered at J iuByi’u, a strategically important location, include Jiu KharByi’u mkhar (A-82), Jiu Singpé KharByi’u sing pa’i mkhar (B-78), Langchen DopurGlang chen rdo phur (C-35), and Jiu MöndoByi’u mon rdo (D-61). The terrain is barren and gently sloping. This unevenly shaped well-worn tabular pillar is 1.6 m in height and has a basal girth of 2.1 m. The two broad sides of the pillar face north and south. The south side of the pillar is red, perhaps from old ochre applications, while the remaining sides are grayish. The pillar is tilted to the north. Although Langchen ChewaGlang chen mche ba is situated in close proximity to a mani wall and chöten, no ritual activity takes place here.

Oral tradition

According to residents of J iuByi’u monastery and village, Langchen ChewaGlang chen mche ba was self manifested and represents the tusk of an elephant.

Doring Lung Doring (Rdo ring lung rdo ring)

General Site Characteristics

Doring Lung DoringRdo ring lung rdo ring is located in Doring LungRdo ring lung, a side valley on the west side of the Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho basin. The Doring LungRdo ring lung valley is very narrow, and approximately 20 m east of the pillars there is the gully that drains the valley during heavy downpours and the melting of snow. Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho to the east is partly visible from the site. The views to the west are cut by the slopes at the head of the Doring LungRdo ring lung valley. The terrain is grassy, gravelly and gently sloping. There are 12 in situ gray and tan standing pillars of significant stature at Doring Lung DoringRdo ring lung rdo ring. They are heavily eroded, inclined at various angles and are host to orange climax lichen. The standing stones of Doring Lung DoringRdo ring lung rdo ring tend to have four uneven sides of more or less the same width. Stones lying about the site as well as the slightly elevated position of the pillars above the surrounding slope may possibly indicate that an enclosure or other structures once accompanied the pillars.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: situated south of the main row of pillars and to the east of its axis (90 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: situated south of the main row of pillars and to the west of its axis (1.7 m height). This specimen has nearly collapsed.
Long-stones DR3 to DR9 make up the main north-south oriented row of pillars (6.5 m long). They are presented from south to north:
Long-stone DR3: (1.2 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR4: (1.5 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR5: collapsed but still anchored in the ground (1.6 m height).
Long-stone DR6: (1.4 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR7 (1.3 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR8: (1.2 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR9: (1.3 m by 1.3 m). Adjacent to DR9 there is a collapsed and partly submerged pillar 1.7 m in length.
Long-stone DR10 tabular, situated about 1 m higher and 5.5 m west of the north end of the main row of pillars (70 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR11 situated about 1 m higher and 3.5 m west of the south end of the main row of pillars (70 cm by 90 cm). DR11 is located 8 m south of DR10.
Long-stone DR12: broken, situated in front of DR5 (originally, may have had a height of around 1 m).

Gyatengbur Doring (Rgya steng ’bur rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring is located in the middle of a large basin that abuts the west side of Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho. At this location there are two enclosed pillar complexes separated by approximately 1 km. The red mountain with a fierce reputation, Jomo RirangJo mo ri rang (see A-54, B-23, B-24), is visible 15 km to the northwest. The sandy and grassy terrain at both complexes is almost level. The large highly weathered pillars are mostly tan in color, but also grayish and reddish. There are no suitable rocks to use as pillars in the vicinity of Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa of ZhungsaGzhung sa, the pillars of Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring magically sprang up in primordial times. Some local sources believe that the stones used for the pillars must have come from the mountain Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po, located about 10 km to the northeast (see C-124, E-27). This is where the parent rock is supposed to be located. It would have required significant manpower and organization to transport the large pillars to their present location.

Site elements

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring West

Enclosure

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring West has a far-reaching eastern vista, while the views west are completely cut off by a low-lying ridge (30° 43.065΄ N. lat. / 81° 01.045΄ E. long. / 4630 m). The south and east walls of the enclosure are partly intact, but no coherent wall segments remain. The north and west walls of the enclosure are now completely absent. The enclosure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions and appears to measure 12 m (east-west) by 14 m (north-south). An enclosure with longer north-south dimensions also occurs at Chupuk DoringChu phug rdo ring (C-62). This appears to be a regional variation in the proportions of enclosures limited almost exclusively to far western Tibet. The walls of the enclosure are composed of unhewn stones primarily 10 cm to 25 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface.

Pillars

There are four in situ pillars and two dislodged specimens in Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring West. They were erected near what must have been the west wall of the enclosure. From south to north, they have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided, well formed (1.7 m [height] by 1.4 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular, severely inclined (2.4 m by 1.6 m). The broad sides of this pillar face north and south. There is a counterclockwise swastika (5 cm high) carved on the south face of DR2, 70 cm above ground level. There are also nondescript motifs carved on the south face of DR2. These carvings are of considerable age as evidenced by the degree of repatination they have undergone.
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (1.4 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided, broken (40 cm by 80 cm). There are also two fallen and partly submerged specimens, 1.3 m and 1.2 m long.
The faint remains of what may be a funerary enclosure are situated 80 m west of the pillars on a moderately inclined slope. Given the sandy terrain, it is certainly possible that other superficial funerary structures at the site have either disappeared from view or have completely disintegrated.

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring East

Enclosure

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring East has long views in both the east and west directions (42. 964΄ / 01.367΄ / 4640 m). The enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions and measures approximately 10 m (east-west) by 11 m (north-south). The east wall of the enclosure has been entirely destroyed. The longest surviving coherent wall fragment (2.4 m long, 50 cm thick) is found in the north wall of the enclosure. This double-course wall segment is composed of variable-length (15 cm to 40 cm long) blocky stones, which are mostly flush with the ground surface. There are tiny coherent wall fragments in the west and south walls of the enclosure as well. Different types of rocks (white, gray and tan) were used to build the enclosures.

Pillars

Five inclined pillars of Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring East are clustered near the southwest side of the enclosure. The broad sides of the pillars are roughly oriented south and north. A sixth pillar was planted near the northwest side of the enclosure. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of the pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: tabular (1.9 m by 1.2 m). The Tibetan letters ma and cha were carved several times on the broad north side of DR1. The erosion and repatination of these letters indicates that they are of substantial age.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (1.7 m by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (2.3 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (1.6 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped (2 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR6: irregularly shaped, an isolated (northwest) specimen (1.6 m by 1.5 m). There is also a dislodged broken specimen a total of 1 m in length.

Affiliated sites

There are also two pillars at a summer encampment (yarsa) known as Mamogya DoringMa mo rgya lhas rdo ring (30° 42.052΄ N. lat. / 81° 02.415΄ E. long. / 4650 m). These pillars are found on a gravel bench situated between two tent enclosures (nangra). The local oral tradition affirming that the two standing stones of Mamogya DoringMa mo rgya lhas rdo ring are ancient is corroborated by their highly eroded appearance. The pillars are spaced 2.3 m apart. The tabular east specimen measures 1.7 m (height) by 1.6 m (basal girth). The west specimen is irregularly shaped and measures 1.5 m by 1.1 m. On the east side of the east pillar the six syllable mani mantra was carved a long time ago. It is reported that many stones used to be found in the vicinity of the pillars, but in the last 25 or 35 years they were removed in order to build pastoral facilities. It must be questioned whether the pillars of Mamogya DoringMa mo rgya lhas rdo ring were originally installed at this location. Their aspect and the local topography seem somewhat out of place with the creation of such monuments.

Langchen Dopur (Glang chen rdo phur)

General site characteristics

The two pillars of Langchen DopurGlang chen rdo phur are located at the south foot of the Jiu KharByi’u mkhar hill (A-82), near the right bank of the Gangga ChuGang ga chu (the outlet between Tso MapamMtsho ma pham and Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho). The terrain is level and gravelly. Corrals have come up all around the site. Reportedly, the two pillars were erected in close proximity to one another. One of the pillars is still strongly anchored in the ground, but broken 40 cm above ground level. This beige specimen is tabular and has a basal girth of 1.4 m. The other well-formed tabular pillar was uprooted and has ended up buttressing the gateway of a corral. This pillar projects 1.4 m above ground level. According to the owner of the corral, it is buried to a depth of 50 cm. Near the original site of the pillars there is a source of sakar (calcium carbonate). This white earth is thought to have been a gift of the water spirits (luKlu) to Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che.

Oral tradition

The destruction of Langchen DopurGlang chen rdo phur appears to have begun in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. The pillars are locally considered sacred primordial monuments.

Khyiu Durtrö (Khyi’u dur khrod)

General site characteristics

Khyiu DurtröKhyi’u dur khrod, an enclosed pillar monument, is located on the left side of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valley. From the site there are wide views in all directions. The terrain is sandy and rocky, well drained and slightly inclined to the west. A link road runs right past the site and there are several mani walls in the vicinity. Khyiu DurtröKhyi’u dur khrod is the most westerly example of the pillars enclosed within an enclosure (II.1b) typology surveyed to day.

Oral tradition

The less than flattering name Khyiu DurtröKhyi’u dur khrod hints at an archaic funerary function for the site. No other information was forthcoming.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 10.5 m (north-south) by 6 m (east-west). This enclosure is designed in the extreme western Tibet regional fashion with longer north-south dimensions. The enclosure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding plain. Parts of all four double-course walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) have survived. These walls are primarily built of igneous cobbles 20 cm to 30 cm in length. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 10 cm. There is a possible funerary superstructure (8 m across) located 14 m southeast of the enclosure. However, no coherent wall fragments have endured in this structure.

Pillars

It is reported by villagers of nearby Trashi GangBkra shis sgang that two pillars stood on the west end of the enclosure until the Chinese Cultural Revolution. One was broken but its base was left anchored in the substrate. This pillar base is situated next to the inner edge of the west wall, 4 m from the southwest corner of the enclosure. The broken top of this highly weathered four-sided pillar still lies on the site. It is 65 cm long and has a girth of 85 cm. It is reported that the other pillar stood near the northwest corner of the enclosure. This specimen had a total length of around 1.5 m. It was ripped out of the ground and used in the construction of a water channel feeding a grinding mill.

Dzatsok Doring (Rdza tshogs rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Dzatsok DoringRdza tshogs rdo ring, lines of pillars and associated superficial structures, are located on the southern margin of a large marshy basin known as DzatsokRdza tshogs.176 The views north and east are particularly open, while the southern and western vistas are blocked by intervening ridges. The terrain is sandy and well drained, and gently slopes up southwards in the direction of an enclosing ridge. Dzatsok DoringRdza tshogs rdo ring appears to have been significantly modified by the construction of a corral that is still used seasonally. The stones used in its construction appear to have been extracted from the archaeological monuments. Most of the pillars are made of white granite but a dark gray metamorphic rock was also employed. The main row of pillars is flanked by disintegrating wall fragments, a rectangular structure and three groups of smaller pillars. Although wall fragments border the main row of pillars, they do not appear to constitute the standard type of enclosure.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Main row of pillars

At the lower/north end of the site there is a line of eight in situ pillars extending for 11.5 m. This uneven row is generally oriented north-south. The standing stones are heavily worn and have developed a reddish patina in places. From north to south, these pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: three-sided (1 m [height] by 70 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: four-sided, broken, made of a dark gray metamorphic stone (50 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (1.1 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (1.2 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR5: tabular, well formed (1.6 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR6: irregular shaped (1.5 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (1.2 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR8: four-sided (1.6 m by 1.2 m).

Other structures

To the north of the main row of pillars there is a double-course wall segment (3.7 m long and around 60 cm wide) that runs east-west. This wall fragment contains pieces of granite around 40 cm in length, which protrude up to 25 cm above the ground surface. The remains of what appear to be a similarly constructed wall are found immediately west of the main row of pillars. This wall may have run the full length of the main line of pillars. A rectangular structure (9.4 m by 4.2 m), which is probably funerary in nature, is situated 1 m south/uphill of the southern-most pillar in the main row. This structure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain and exhibits no coherent wall sections. Adjacent to its northeast side there is a row of four small broken tabular pillars (30 cm or less in height). The broad sides of these pillars are set perpendicular to the axis of the structure. The configuration of these pillars and that of the adjoining structure suggest they may be an example of a small array of pillars with an appended edifice (II.1c). However, not enough structural evidence remains in place to make a positive determination. If an array did exist here, it was obliterated by the construction of the corral.

There are a few uprooted pillars scattered around Dzatsok DoringRdza tshogs rdo ring. There are also two in situ four-sided pillars (80 cm by 80 cm, 1 m by 80 cm) standing 3 m northeast of the rectangular structure. Another row of pillars is located 5 m south of the rectangular structure. This row of four broken pillars is 6.5 m long, and each specimen is now 60 cm or less in height.

Doring Nakkha (Rdo ring nag kha)

General site characteristics

Doring NakkhaRdo ring nag kha, a pillar erected inside an enclosure, is located on the right/south side of the A Ong TsangpoA ’ong gtsang po valley. The views to the north and northeast are the most open at the site, but they are not particularly expansive. The well-drained level terrain is sandy and gravelly. Both the enclosure and standing pillar are made of light-colored granite. According to an elderly woman (born circa 1929), who hails from the locale, there used to be three standing stones at Doring NakkhaRdo ring nag kha, but two of them were uprooted during the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The incomplete enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 4.6 m (east-west) by 2.9 m (north-south). Given that it contained three pillars, the enclosure may originally have been somewhat larger than this. No intact wall sections remain in the enclosure. The enclosed zone is covered in variable-length (primarily 20 cm to 40 cm long) stones embedded in the ground, which once must have been part of the perimeter walls. These stones protrude as much as 25 cm from the ground surface.

Pillars

The in situ pillar is 1.1 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.4 m. The broad sides of this highly worn stele are oriented north and south, as is normal in this type of monument. Some parts of the light-colored pillar have weathered to a reddish color. Near the site there is a dislodged pillar (1 m long).

Affiliated sites

It is reported that up the A Ong TsangpoA ’ong gtsang po valley from Doring NakkhaRdo ring nag kha there is a smaller pillar monument called Satra DoringSa bkra rdo ring.

A Ong Doring (A ’ong rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The lone pillar of A Ong DoringA ’ong rdo ring is located about one-half way up the west side of A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho. This pillar stands just several hundred meters from the shore of the lake in the middle of a seasonal encampment. To the south rises a small hill but in other directions there is a wide open panorama. The A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho basin is less degraded and more heavily used by drokpa than the “Valley of the Dead,” which is situated immediately to the south (see C-91, C-92, C-153, D-46, D-68). The environmentally more conducive conditions found in the A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho basin may help to explain why it appears to have hosted far fewer funerary monuments than the neighboring basin.

Oral tradition

Although A Ong DoringA ’ong rdo ring is well known in the region, no oral traditions concerning it could be collected.

Site elements

The gray granite pillar (1.4 m [height] by 1.3 m [basal girth]) has four irregular sides aligned in the cardinal directions. The pillar is slightly tilted towards the north. Its south face has weathered to a light red color. There is a corral in close proximity to A Ong DoringA ’ong rdo ring. A little south of A Ong DoringA ’ong rdo ring, in the sandy basin bounding the west side of A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho, there is a possible minor funerary structure (2.5 m across) (32° 43.143΄ N. long. / 81° 44.441΄ / 4450 m). It is marked by a ring of stones.

Paktuk (Pags mthug)

General site characteristics

PaktukPags mthug is located on one of a group of ridgelines of the same name. The array of pillars appended to an edifice is situated on a sandy level saddle, which connects a northeast-southwest running talus-blanketed ridgeline with higher slopes. From the site there are fairly open views in all directions. This funerary complex is situated 40 m north of funerary structure FS10 of the E-23 site. The pillars and appended edifice are oriented somewhere in between the cardinal directions and intermediate points. All structures are made of uncut reddish and purplish slabs of volcanic talus. The extreme degradation of the monument in part can be attributed to the unstable nature of the sandy substrate. This is the only example surveyed to date of an array of pillars appended to an edifice (II.1c) that was built on the same heights as cubic tombs (II.3). This proximity is likely to demonstrate a close functional and chronological link between these two types of monuments.

Oral tradition

According to the folklore of Oma’O ma, at one time there was a local chieftain who was extremely fond of wild yak (drong) hunting. One day, because of all his killing, there were no wild yaks left in the region. In order to survive, he was reduced to boiling the skins of wild yaks and eating them. The name of the site, “Thick Hide,” is said to refer to this incident.

Site elements

Appended Edifice

The appended edifice is now nothing more than heap of rubble about 1 m height. Originally, the edifice measured around 6 m by 6 m. This structure was constructed of variable-length (30 cm to 80 cm long) stone slabs.

Pillar Array

The array of pillars approximately measures 12 m (east-west) by 4.4 m (north-south). There are only around 35 stones still standing, but strewn among them are over 150 collapsed specimens. The in situ pillars are 20 cm to 30 cm in height and have irregular and tabular forms. The uprooted specimens are 30 cm to 60 cm in length. From the pillars still in place it is clear that originally there were multiple rows of standing stones extending west almost to the appended edifice.

Drakgo Doring (Brag sgo rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Drakgo DoringBrag sgo rdo ring is located between the herder’s village of DrakgoBrag sgo and the entrance to a red and white limestone gorge simply known as DrakgoBrag sgo. The terrain is level and studded with drama brush. At the very edge of the expansive Oma’O ma plain stand four small white limestone pillars in an uneven row (2.2 m long). These pillars are highly eroded, discolored and encroached upon by drama brush. No other manmade remains were detected at the site.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

From south to north the four pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (60 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped, broken at the base (90 cm basal girth).
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped, broken (70 cm by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped 60 cm by 80 cm).

Na Nakpo (Sna nag po)

General site characteristics

Na NakpoSna nag po is located at the foot of the lofty meridian range that rises south of MamikMa mig. The site is situated on a broad esplanade that abuts the valley, which parallels the east face of the meridian range. Na NakpoSna nag po is found more than 200 m above the valley floor. The terrain is gravelly, sandy and gently sloping. The site consists of a small array of pillars appended to an edifice, as well as a number of unusually designed funerary structures of considerable morphological complexity. All structures of Na NakpoSna nag po are built of uncut pieces of variable-length white granite. According to local reports, Na NakpoSna nag po was preyed upon in the Chinese Cultural Revolution, but the extent of damage caused at that time is unclear.

Oral tradition

According to residents of MamikMa mig, Na NakpoSna nag po is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The appended edifice (temple-tomb) measures 2.6 m (east-west) by 4.3 m (north-south) and is up to 50 cm in height. The foundation and coherent standing wall fragments up to 50 cm in height are extant. This rectangular structure was built of stones averaging around 30 cm in length, while the largest stones are 75 cm long. Stones dislodged from the temple-tomb litter the area. Nothing of the central chamber remains intact. Given its diminutive dimensions, it is very unlikely that the appended edifice served as a habitat in relation to its ritual functions. Its central chamber may only have been around 1 m wide.

Pillar array

There are nearly 80 stones still standing in the array of pillars, about one-third the original number. The array is not well aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 4.3 m (east-west) by 7.6 m (north-south). The standing stones tend to have a squat form and are 5 cm to 50 cm in height. Originally, there were about 12 rows of pillars, which do not appear to have been laid out with a high degree of precision. Immediately east of the array, three single-course walls form a rectangular enclosure that measures 5.6 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). There is no west wall in this enclosure. This side is delineated by the most easterly line of pillars. The walls of the enclosure are composed of stones 10 cm to 30 cm in length, which are flush with or slightly elevated above the ground surface. There are no signs of walls bounding other sides of the array of pillars.

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (5.5 m by 2.5 m) is situated 30 m northeast of the appended edifice, and was designed and built in a similar fashion to it. FS1 therefore appears to have been an above ground shrine or mausoleum with a rectangular ground plan and straight, uninterrupted walls. Only its foundation and wall segments to 60 cm in height have survived. There is no evidence that FS1 was ever accompanied by pillars.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (14.3 m by 11.7 m) is situated 17.5 m east of FS1. This enclosure was substantially built with double-course walls around 80 cm in thickness. In certain sections as many as three vertical courses of stones are discernable. This structure therefore is likely to have had a significant height above ground. Stones used in the construction of FS2 are primarily 40 cm to 70 cm in length. The ground surface inside the enclosure is uneven and appears to have contained various structural elements. Perhaps the FS2 enclosure was subdivided into various cells, however, not enough remains of the structure to accurately gauge its design characteristics.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5 m by 8 m) is situated 3 m east of FS2. This structure appears to have been comprised of a single-course enclosure that may have been subdivided into two sections. The stones of the perimeter walls are even with the ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4 group

Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 5.6 m) is situated 6.5 m east of FS3. Its east side consists of three short double-course wall segments that run in a north-west-southeast direction. Each of these walls is 25 cm to 30 cm thick and contains upright stones 5 cm to 30 cm in length. The west side of FS4 is highly fragmentary. In close proximity to the three walls there are small square single-course enclosures, which measure 70 cm to 90 cm on each side. It appears that there is structural residuum between FS3 and FS4, making the delimitation between them somewhat ambiguous.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (9 m by 5.4 m) is situated 30 m east of FS4. The west half of this enclosure appears to have single-course perimeter walls flush with the ground surface, but very little still remains intact. The east half of FS5 was built with double-course walls (around 40 cm thick) containing upright stones 10 cm to 35 cm in length. These stones are mostly even with the ground surface. FS5 appears to have been subdivided into three parts.

Khorbuk Doring (’Khor sbug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Khorbuk Doring’Khor sbug rdo ring is located on the northwest edge of the vast basin, which opens on the west side of the Gotang GangriSgo thang gangs ri meridian range. The site is simply called DoringRdo ring and a proximate place Khorbuk’Khor sbug. From the site there are excellent views of the great meridian range to the east and south. The view to the west is cut by the ridge bounding the edge of the basin. The terrain is broad, level and gravelly. The isolated pillar is made of a gray igneous rock, is highly worn and hosts small bits of orange climax lichen. The tabular pillar is now 1.2 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.5 m. It is only 7 cm to 15 cm in thickness. Its broad sides are oriented north and south. Lying on the ground beside the pillar is its broken top, which is 40 cm long. It is reported that this monument was a victim of the Chinese Cultural Revolution. In a small stone crib, on the south side of the pillar, there are some old plaques inscribed with the mani mantra. The plaques are not well arranged and the site is generally neglected.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa elders of RuntorRu ’thor, Khorbuk Doring’Khor sbug rdo ring emerged in primordial times. It is also said to be KatsenpoBka’ btsan po (same as ka nyenpoBka’ gnyan po), a place of much power but potentially dangerous. Untoward acts committed here are believed to be harshly punished.

Zhingsa Doring (Zhing sa rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Zhingsa DoringZhing sa rdo ring is located near the north side of Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho in a place known as ZhingsaZhing sa. The site sits at the northeast foot of Cheri TeldzongPhye ri thal rdzong, a prominent hill of the locale (see E-22). The terrain is level, sandy and overgrown with drama brush. The ground must have presented quite a different and less degraded appearance at the time the monuments were created. In addition to a row of pillars and associated walls, there are four funerary enclosures at the site. All these structures are built of a dark, grained rock. The very sandy ground upon which Zhingsa DoringZhing sa rdo ring was built has taken a large toll on the integrity of the monuments.

According to RuntorRu ’thor elders, ZhingsaZhing sa was farmed in ancient times. Two small perennial streams originating from the flanks of the meridian range flow through this sandy basin. No terracing, retaining walls or other signs of old agriculture were detected at ZhingsaZhing sa. Such structures, however, could have been easily engulfed by the unstable sandy terrain.

Oral tradition

In RuntorRu ’thor, sites such as Zhingsa DoringZhing sa rdo ring are commonly attributed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

Only portions of two east-west running walls have endured. These walls are spaced 6.8 m apart. The north wall segment is 6.5 m long and the south wall segment is 7 m long. The variable-length (10 cm to 30 cm long) stones of the double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) are flush with the ground surface or slightly protrude above it. The two extant wall segments fall far short of embracing the entire row of pillars. This may indicate that the enclosure was not of the standard design or that some pillars were erected outside of it.

Pillars

The nine unhewn pillars form an uneven row 12.6 m long that is roughly oriented north-south. These highly eroded, dark-colored pillars stand just west of the two extant wall fragments. The area around the pillars has been heavily disturbed by drama brush and a build up of sand. Stones scattered around the pillars are likely to have been part of the proximate walls. From north to south, the pillars have the following dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped, (80 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (70 cm by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (90 cm by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (90 cm by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped (70 cm by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided (50 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (35 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR8: irregularly shaped (35 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped (80 cm by 90 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 51 m west of the north end of the row of pillars. Its perimeter walls are composed of smaller stones (up to 30 cm long). No coherent wall fragments have survived in FS1, thus its design characteristics are difficult to ascertain.

Funerary structures FS2, FS3 and FS4 were built on the same sandy bench. These three enclosures appear to be of the heaped-stone wall typology (II.2c).

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (21 m by 11 m) is situated 90 m southwest of FS1. This enclosure has an irregular form. Only swaths of stones (1 m to 1.5 m wide) that do not rise much above ground level form its walls.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (12.6 m across) is situated 65 m south of FS2. Its perimeter is partially intact.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (13 m across) is situated 42 m south of FS3. Its nebulous perimeter has an ovoid form.

Horduk Doring (Hor dug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The isolated pillar of Horduk DoringHor dug rdo ring is located on the north side of the great salt lake Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho. Views to the north and east are constrained by a mountain that rises above the lake basin. On the other hand, the vistas south and west are wide open. The terrain is moderately sloping and sandy. The unshaped tabular pillar is 1 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.1 m. The broad sides of this light-colored granite specimen face north and south, as do most tabular pillars in Upper Tibet. Horduk DoringHor dug rdo ring is firmly anchored in the substrate and is strongly weathered. Its function is enigmatic. There are no funerary structural traces in the vicinity and no obvious boundary lands.

The archaic cultural sites documented on the shores of Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho (see A-96, B-131, C-114, D-70, and D-129) tend to be less extensive than those that arose at the neighboring lakes of DaroktsoDa rog mtsho and Trari NamtsoBkra ri gnam mtsho. The high elevation and the extreme salinity of its waters are likely to be factors in the retardation of sedentary settlement along the margins of Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho. The particularly harsh and barren terrain of the lakeshore must have also discouraged permanent habitation.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Lhalung Doring (Lha lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Lhalung DoringLha lung rdo ring is located in the midst of a relatively large pastoral camp. The site is situated on the right side of the LhalungLha lung valley on a rock-strewn shelf above the watercourse. The relatively narrow valley runs east-west and these are the two directions with open views. LhalungLha lung is an effluent of the Bültok TsangpoBul tog gtsang po valley. There are two small pillars and the vestiges of funerary enclosures at the site. Lhalung DoringLha lung rdo ring has been heavily impacted by grazing and the recent construction of corrals. What remains of the monuments is threatened by continued pastoral activities.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Lhalung DoringLha lung rdo ring are magically formed primordial stones.

Site elements

Pillars

The two irregularly shaped pillars are made of a grayish grained rock. These standing stones are highly worn and their surfaces have undergone some change in color. The pillars measure 90 cm (height) by 70 cm (basal girth) and 65 cm by 80 cm. They stand within 30 cm of one another. The tips of both standing stones have been broken.

Outlying funerary structures

Small fragments of funerary superstructures appear to be distributed across the site. These remains are now so degraded that positive identification is not often feasible. Only one enclosure has been spared from utter destruction. It is located 50 m northwest of the two pillars. The single-course rectangular perimeter measures 2.4 m by 1.7 m. Its walls contain stones 20 cm to 40 cm in length, which are mostly even with the ground surface. This enclosure is not oriented in the cardinal directions. Recently, stones have been extracted from this structure and it is in imminent danger of annihilation. Local drokpa do not appear to be aware of the identity of this structure. This ignorance about archaeological assets seems to account for much of the contemporary destruction of funerary superstructures in Upper Tibet.

Jamri Doring (Byams ri rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Jamri Doring
English equivalent: Future Buddha (Jampa) Mountain Long-stones
Site number: C-115
Site typology: II.1b, II.2a
Elevation: 4840 m
Administrative location (township): Tratsang
Administrative location (county): Tsochen
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: June 17, 2002
Contemporary usage: Buddhist cult site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Pillar inscriptions.
Maps: UTRS VII, UTRS XI
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring is located in the middle of the TratsangKhra tshang valley on a level sandy plain. From the site, the north-south aligned valley provides excellent views in these directions. The east and west vistas are also quite open. Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring consists of three walled pillars, which were transformed into a Buddhist cult monument in pre-modern times. However, like most of the mani wall shrines in the TratsangKhra tshang valley, Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring is now largely neglected. There are at least two funerary enclosures associated with the site.

Oral tradition

According to local elders, Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring magically sprang up in primordial times.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 12 m (east-west) by 6.4 m (north-south). The east, north and south walls of the enclosure are relatively intact, while the west wall is very fragmentary. The double-course walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) are composed of variable-length upright slabs, which average around 40 cm in length and are 2 cm to 12 cm in thickness. The largest stone in the walls of the enclosure is 90 cm long. In the east wall of the enclosure there is a 35 cm long stone set perpendicular to the wall course. This stone may have been part of a “threshold,” as is sometimes found in enclosures of this typology. Mostly, an uncut dark blue metamorphic (?) rock was used to build the enclosure. Many stones dislodged from the enclosure are scattered around the proximity.

Pillars

The three unhewn, irregularly shaped brown pillars of Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring exhibit substantial wear. The main pillar is planted 1.5 m from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure and is well centered. It measures 1.3 m (height) by 1.6 m (basal girth). A Buddhist inscription of six lines is found on the east side of this pillar. This inscription extols the god ChenrezikSpyan ras gzigs and makes note of hundreds of mani mantras that may have been recited to ease the passing of a loved one. The inscription is riddled with spelling errors. Below it the seven syllable mani was carved in much larger letters. These inscriptions are of significant age as evidenced by the degree of repatination. North of the main pillar there are two smaller specimens: a broken tabular one (65 cm by 1 m) and a small four-sided example (25 cm by 40 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 43 m northwest of the northwest corner of the pillar enclosure. This single-course rectangular enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 5.4 m (north-south) by 2.3 m (east-west). Its perimeter walls are mostly composed of variable-length (10 cm to 60 cm long, 5 cm to 10 cm thick) upright slabs. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it a maximum of 10 cm. FS1 is subdivided into three longitudinal sections by two north-south walls. The two outer portions of FS1 are nearly 1 m wide and the central portion is 40 cm in width. There is also a structural extension to FS1 that measures 3.2 m (north-south) by 2.4 m (east-west).

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 32 m north of FS1. This poorly preserved specimen is about 8 m long. It consists of various wall fragments aligned in the cardinal directions. FS2 appears to have been another enclosure subdivided into sections. The variable-length stones of this funerary superstructure are flush with the ground surface or project above it a maximum of 15 cm. There may be another enclosure 66 m west of the pillars but there is not enough structural evidence in place to know for certain.

Takpur Doring (’Thag phur rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The walled pillar monument of Takpur Doring’Thag phur rdo ring is located near the south edge of the TsachuTshwa chu basin. Just south of the site stands an isolated white ridge called Drilkhul DeupoSbril khul rde’u po (sp.?). The holy mountain, Lönpo GangriBlon po gangs ri, is visible 90 km to the east. The terrain is level, sandy and gravelly. The pillars and stones of the enclosure are made of a blue-gray rock, many pieces of which have weathered to a tawny hue. In addition to the walled pillars, there is a quadrate double-course funerary enclosure at Takpur Doring’Thag phur rdo ring.

Oral tradition

In this region (BaryangBar yangs), sites such as Marbuk DoringDmar sbug rdo ring are commonly associated with the primordial epoch and the MönMon tribe of ancient times.

Site elements

Enclosure

The double-course enclosure contains both upright and flush stones. Although the enclosure is fragmentary, parts of all four double-course walls have survived. It measures 4.7 m (north-south) by 10.3 m (east-west). This robustly built structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding plain. The enclosure does not appear to have been well aligned in the cardinal directions. The uncut blocks and slabs of the walls are primarily 20 cm to 40 cm in length. In the east wall (60 cm thick) of the enclosure, the largest stone is 60 cm long and protrudes 25 cm above the ground surface. Also, in the east wall there is a slab (45 cm long, 5 cm thick) that runs perpendicular (east-west) to the axis of the course. This “portal” stone protrudes 8 cm from the ground and is situated 1.45 m from the northeast corner of the enclosure. A south wall segment is 80 cm thick and is elevated 30 cm above the surface. This elevated segment appears to consist of several vertical courses of blocks laid on top of one another. The north wall (60 cm thick) is the most intact in the enclosure; about 50 percent of it has survived intact. The upright stones in the north wall are elevated around 10 cm above ground level. A small section of the west wall has also endured. A tiny wall with two plaques engraved with the mani mantra was installed inside the enclosure.

Pillars

Six of the seven pillars of Takpur Doring’Thag phur rdo ring form an uneven row situated 60 cm to 80 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. From south to the north, the pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (45 cm [height] by 60 cm [basal girth]). This specimen is offset from the main row of pillars.
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (35 cm by 45 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (35 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided, probably broken (45 cm by 65 cm).
Long-stone DR5: four-sided (1.1 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided, probably broken (25 cm by 50 cm).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (50 cm by 70 cm).

Outlying funerary structure

Roughly 150 m north of the pillars there is a double-course funerary enclosure situated in the gravelly plain. This quadrate structure appears to measure 8 m by 8 m. The east wall of the enclosure is almost absent. It was constructed of larger upright blocky stones (30 cm to 70 cm long), which protrude upwards of 20 cm above the ground surface. If there were once companion structures, all traces of them on the shifting surface have disappeared from view.

Tratsang Doring (Khra tshang rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tratsang DoringKhra tshang rdo ring is located in the upper TratsangKhra tshang valley and locally, it is simply known as DoringRdo ring. The site is situated on the left side of the valley above the marshy bottomland. The views are fairly open in all but the eastern direction, which is constricted by the ridge on the opposite side of the TratsangKhra tshang valley. The terrain is well drained, sandy and gravelly. In addition to two pillars there is still at least one funerary enclosure at the site.

Oral tradition

According to local elders, Tratsang DoringKhra tshang rdo ring magically sprang into existence in primordial times.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is now highly fragmentary. There is a 3 m long fragment of the west wall (50 cm thick) still in place, which is situated 60 cm west of the pillars. This double-course wall segment is composed of stones 20 cm to 25 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface. East of the pillars there are two east-west oriented wall fragments, the most southerly of which may have been part of the enclosure’s south wall. A 5 m length of this wall is in situ and it is of the same construction as the west wall. The other east-west wall fragment is located 50 cm north of the south wall fragment. This seems to be an uncharacteristic placement for a wall in this monument typology. This inner east-west wall fragment (2.4 m long, 40 cm wide) is composed of upright stones, 15 cm to 25 cm in length.

Pillars

The two unhewn pillars of Tratsang DoringKhra tshang rdo ring are spaced 35 cm apart. The intact, four-sided specimen measures 80 cm (height) by 1.1 m (basal girth). The other specimen is broken (30 cm by 90 cm). These pillars are made of a white rock that has turned red in certain places. The area in front of the pillars moderately slopes down to the east, in the direction of the valley bottom. When the pillars were originally installed, this ground is liable to have been much more level.

Outlying funerary structure

There is a rectangular enclosure (4.5 m by 2.3 m) situated 17 m north of the two pillars on moderately sloping ground. Its partially intact double-course walls (40 cm to 50 cm thick) are composed of cobbles and blocky stones (10 cm to 50 cm long). The larger stones project upwards of 15 cm above the ground surface. A small mani wall is found 14 m north of this funerary enclosure. One can only wonder if it was created from stones extracted from other funerary enclosures of the site.

Omatsé Doring (’O ma tshe rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Omatsé Doring’O ma tshe rdo ring is located up valley from the village of Oma Tsé’O ma tshe. From the southwest to the northwest directions, the views from this site are constrained by the enveloping mountains. The views in the other directions are quite open. The terrain is sandy and slopes down in a northeast direction. Omatsé Doring’O ma tshe rdo ring consists of seven pillars erected inside an enclosure and four easily recognizable funerary enclosures. There appears to be faint traces of other funerary structures on the sandy surface of the site as well.

Oral tradition

According to villagers of Oma Tsé’O ma tshe, Omatsé Doring’O ma tshe rdo ring spontaneously appeared at the beginning of existence.

Site elements

Enclosure

Only small remnants of the walls that enclosed the pillars have survived. The west wall of the enclosure appears to have been around 6.5 m in length. It is composed of pieces of granite 15 cm to 35 cm in length, which were lain flat on the ground. These stones have almost no protrusion above the surface. In situ fragments of the south wall indicate that it was about 12 m long and built in the same fashion as the west wall of the enclosure. Tiny sections of the north wall are also extant. The double-course south and north walls are about 80 cm thick, and are composed mostly of granite, as well as some pieces of a dark gray metamorphic rock. These stones vary in length up to 40 cm. The east wall of the enclosure has been nearly obliterated.

Pillars

The pillars stand about 40 cm from the inner edge of the west, north and south walls, forming a U-shaped pattern. The pillars next to the west and north walls are made of white granite. The pillars next to the south wall are made of a dark-colored metamorphic stone.

North wall group (from east to west):

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (65 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]). In close proximity there is an uprooted tabular pillar 1.6 m in length with broad faces that are about 40 cm wide. The original placement of this pillar is not clear.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (80 cm by 80 cm).
West wall group (from north to south):
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped (1.3 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided (1.3 m by 1.2 m).
South wall group (from west to east):
Long-stone DR5: broken (25 cm by 50 cm).
Long-stone DR6: broken (20 cm by 40 cm)
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (40 cm by 60 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (13 m by 21 m) is situated immediately west of the walled pillars. This very fragmentary large sub-rectangular enclosure is divided into two parts. The double-course perimeter walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) are mainly composed of stones (up to 40 cm in length) laid flat. There are also some upright stones in the enclosing walls. Stones piled up on the perimeter may indicate that parts of this enclosure were more than one vertical course in height.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (approximately 6 m across) is situated 7.5 m west of FS1. This enclosure is highly fragmentary.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5 m by 6 m) is situated 36 m north of FS2. This enclosure appears to have a quadrate form. Small fragments of the double-course perimeter walls remain in situ. The center portion of FS3 is elevated about 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. Immediately to the northeast of FS3 there may be another funerary enclosure but very little structural evidence is still left to observe.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (7.5 m by 6 m) is situated 24 m southwest of FS3. A double-course wall segment (60 cm thick) is intact on the southwest side of what appears to have been a rectangular enclosure. This wall fragment is composed of stones up to 70 cm long.

Gokdeu Doring (Sgog rde’u rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gokdeu DoringSgog rde’u rdo ring is located on the northeast side of Dawa TsoZla ba mtsho (Moon lake). As the name suggests, the site is found on an eminence, which is situated in the midst of the mostly marshy lake basin. Gokdeu DoringSgog rde’u rdo ring is so located that it occupies the middle of the Dawa TsoZla ba mtsho basin and enjoys a 360° panorama. To the north is the important sacred mountain known as Shel GangchamShel gangs lcam.177 Also in view to the northeast is the local territorial deity (yüllha) YaktsangG.yag tshang, a reddish ridge. The terrain around the standing stone is well drained and sandy. The lone pillar is made of a light gray volcanic rock that has turned red in places due to weathering processes. This well-formed pillar (1.7 m [height] by 1.3 m [basal girth]) has each of its faces oriented in the cardinal directions. Gokdeu DoringSgog rde’u rdo ring tilts slightly to the west.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Gokdeu DoringSgog rde’u rdo ring magically arose in primordial times. It is also associated with the LhandréLha ’dre spirits and thought to be dangerous if disturbed.

Khangmar Dzashak (Khang dmar rdza shag)

General site characteristics

Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag is one of the more extensive and better preserved quadrate arrays of pillars appended to temple-tomb sites in Upper Tibet. The site is located on a narrow bench, rising above the left side of the RonggoRong mgo valley (a feeder of TongtsoStong mtsho), close to the NakchuNag chu prefecture border. The sandy, partially turf-covered bench gently slopes down in a southerly direction, before dropping approximately 20 m to the valley floor. To the north, the site is hemmed in by a ridge, but in other directions there are wide vistas. To the south, Shel GangchamShel gangs lcam, the principal sacred mountain in the region, is plainly visible. Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag consists of three similarly sized and designed complexes: west, central, and east. There are also a few funerary structures dispersed between the west and central complexes. The three complexes are at a considerable distance from one another, an unusual spatial feature in this type of monument. This must be, in part, because the bench on which they were constructed is too narrow to accommodate the complexes side by side.

As per the most common design parameters of this monument typology, both the edifices and concourses of pillars are aligned in the compass points. All structures are made from local brown sandstone. The exterior faces of the slabs and blocks used to build the temple-tombs were hewn flat, as were the faces of the standing stones in some cases. It would appear that the south side (down-slope side) of the three appended edifices was set on a plinth or underpinned by an apron wall. These supporting masonry masses are roughly 50 cm in height and perhaps extending 1 m laterally from the south side of each superstructure. Structural evidence for this constructional feature, however, is fairly obscure. The pillars are all naturally occurring pieces of sandstone that protrude a maximum of 80 cm above the surface. The pillars exhibit heavy weathering and support a considerable amount of orange climax lichen growth.

Oral tradition

The drokpa of the region report that Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag is the burial grounds of the ancient MönMon. Local cultural proscriptions are still in place, which continue to insure that the site is not disturbed by those who live in its general proximity.178

Site elements

West complex

Appended edifice

The west complex edifice is an above-ground temple-tomb, measuring 5.6 m (north-south) by 3 m (east-west), which has been reduced to around 1 m in height. The most intact wall segments are found on the south side of the structure; reaching a maximum height of 60 cm and are comprised of four horizontal courses of masonry. Due to the very pronounced subsidence of the structure, the fabric of the walls is not discernable but they must have been of coursed-rubble, like the mortuary tombs of the central and east complexes. The stones used in construction are of variable length (10 cm to 50 cm in length) and are of the slab (3 cm to 10 cm in thickness) and block (thickness roughly equal to length and width) forms. On the east and north sides of the edifice, only wall footings have endured. On the west side of the temple-tomb, some wall fragments are still intact.

Pillar array

The most westerly pillar in the west complex array is found standing 5.5 m east of the appended temple-tomb. From that point, the dimensions of the array are approximately 26 m (east-west) by 12 m (north-south). Precise dimensions are unattainable because less than one-third of the original pillars are still planted in the ground. Structural evidence from other monuments of this type suggests that the rows of pillars probably extended in closer proximity to the funerary edifice. A portion of the southwest sector of the array has been destroyed by powerful erosive forces. There are a few dislodged pillars lying in the west complex array. As in the central and east complexes, the shorter pillars (15 cm to 25 cm in height) are squat and often pointed. The taller pillars are usually tabular but there are also some four-sided specimens. The average height of the pillars is between 35 cm and 40 cm. The broad sides of the tabular specimens are oriented north and south, in the normal fashion of the typology. Nine meters east of the current extent of the array there is a lone 60 cm high tabular pillar, perhaps indicating that the array was substantially larger than it now appears. In close proximity to this lone pillar there are small, highly fragmentary double-course slab walls. These are comprised of small stones set edgewise into the ground, which are more or less flush with the surface. These are the only slab walls visible in the pillar arrays of Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag, although they appear with a fair degree of regularity at other large sites of this monument typology.

Outlying funerary structures

There are also more than four funerary structures at Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag. The wide spacing of these structures, their limited number and their proximity to the west and central complexes of the necropolis has an exclusive air about it. This seems to suggest that they accommodated burials and/or the contents of mortuary rites of individuals with a relatively high social position.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 70 m northeast of the eastern extent of the pillar array. Its superstructure consists of a slab-wall enclosure divided into two unequal-sized cells (5 m by 9 m and 5.7 m by 5 m). The slabs were laid in parallel courses to form walls 60 cm to 90 cm in thickness. Large stones, up to 90 cm in length and protruding a maximum of 40 cm above the surface, were employed in the construction of the enclosure. In close proximity there are the obscure remains of a smaller funerary structure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 35 m east of FS I. It was recently cut open by a seasonal torrent to reveal a human burial. Several foot bones were extracted from the exposed surface of the corpse for chronometric analysis. The obtained results demonstrate that Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag has been a burial ground since the first third of the first millennium BCE.179 Only fragmentary wall segments covering an area of 3 m by 1.7 m still survived at the time of the survey. A 60 cm high sub-surface wall segment clung to the side of the gully that was formed through the action of turbulent water. It is likely that this tomb has been totally obliterated by more recent summer rains.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (approximately 6.5 m by 4 m) is located 360 m east of FS2. This highly degraded superstructure is situated a little east of a gully. FS3 contains both flat and projecting stones in the perimeter walls, the character of which is no longer discernable. In the same area are the remains of what appear to be the superstructures of two smaller tombs.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (approximately 7.8 m by 7 m) is located 120 m east of FS3. This superstructure is in an advanced state of decay.

Central complex

Appended edifice

The central complex temple-tomb is situated 330 m east of funerary structure FS4. This central complex edifice is in the best state of preservation of the three complexes. It measures 5.1 m (north-south) by 3.1 m (east-west). On its east and south sides, the edifice still attains a maximum height of 2 m. Given the fairly diminutive dimensions of the structure, its original elevation may have not been much higher than its current maximum extent. The coursed-rubble walls are 60 cm to 80 cm thick. They are composed of dressed sandstone blocks and slabs. Structural evidence of the central burial chamber has been largely eradicated.

Pillar array

The most westerly pillar in the central complex array is found 12 m from the funerary edifice, but evidence from both the west and east complexes indicates that more proximate rows of stelae once existed. The array as it now exists measures 33 m (east-west) by 13 m (north-south), yet only around 90 pillars remain in situ. This is perhaps less than 20 percent of the original amount. The pillars project 20 cm to 60 cm from the surface, with a mean height of around 40 cm.

East complex

Appended edifice

The east edifice is sited 155 m east of the eastern edge of the central complex pillar array. The edifice measures 7 m (north-south) by 3.1 m (east-west) and currently stands around 1.2 m in height. Coherent wall segments are found on all four sides of this rectangular structure, showing that it was constructed in the same manner as the central complex edifice. The largest intact wall fragment is found on the south side of the structure. It is 90 cm in height and contains stones up to 60 cm in length. Lying nearby is a dislodged stone, 1 m in length, which at one time may have been part of the same wall.

Pillar array

The first in situ pillar of the east complex array is found 4.5 m east of the temple-tomb. The dimensions of the extant array are 15.7 m (east-west) by 11 m (north-south). There is, however, a lone pillar situated 3.8 m east of the south side of the array, as well as a single small pillar well beyond the north side of the array. These outlying pillars probably signal that the concourse was at one time significantly larger than at present. The east array of pillars gently declines towards the east. The pillars are mostly tabular and have a mean height of around 35 cm. The shortest specimens are only 15 cm in height. By measuring the distances between extant stones in the rows, it can be estimated that only around one-third the total number of pillars are still standing in the east complex array.

Tsengo Doring (Btsan sgo rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tsengo DoringBtsan sgo rdo ring is located on the west edge of the valley through which the main road between TsochenMtsho chenand RakhaRa kha passes. The site is named for TsengoBtsan sgo, a cleft in a sacred red cliff, situated just northwest of the two walled pillars. From the site, views in all directions but the west are open. The terrain is level and covered in gravel and cobbles.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The walls of the enclosure are aligned in the cardinal directions and measure 9 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). The double-course walls of the enclosure vary between 50 cm and 80 cm in thickness. They contain variable-length (10 cm to 80 cm long) slabs, blocks and cobbles of various colors and types of rock. Many of the stones of the walls project prominently above ground level (up to a height of 25 cm). Two stones in the east wall are set perpendicular to the course, creating a space 80 cm in width. However, the north-south wall course continues to run in between these two “portal” stones.

Pillars

There are two highly eroded pillars remaining in the enclosure. Given its size and the position of the pillars, there may originally have been others standing inside the enclosure. The two pillars were planted 90 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. The south pillar is heavily inclined and well centered in the enclosure (80 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). Some of its top section may have been lost. This light brown stele has four uneven sides. The brownish north pillar stands nearer the north wall of the enclosure (70 cm by 1 m). It also has four uneven sides. No other archaeological structures are visible at Tsengo DoringBtsan sgo rdo ring, but the construction of corrals in the vicinity may have obliterated the evidence.

Domilang (Rdo mi lang)

Basic site data

Site name: Domilang
English equivalent: Standing Man Stone
Site number: C-36
Site typology: II.1a
Elevation: 4630 m
Administrative location (township): Puwa
Administrative location (county): Pelgön
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: September 20, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. A cultic site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A couple mani plaques.
Maps: UTRS IX
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

The lone pillar of DomilangRdo mi lang is located in the middle of an eponymous valley. It is situated in a region of NamruGnam ru traditionally known as RingpaRing pa. The watercourse of the DomilangRdo mi lang valley drains into the Jakar TsangpoJa dkar gtsang po. The terrain is level, sandy and turf-covered.

Oral tradition

One common oral tradition of NamruGnam ru holds that DomilangRdo mi lang emerged with existence in the primal epoch. Another oral tradition of the region claims that this pillar is related to the katsik doring (pillar edict) of ZhölZhol in LhasaLha sa. A more elaborate oral tradition relates that the magical she goat, Ramo GyamoRa mo rgya mo (Black She Goat with Brownish Facial Markings), was appointed to carry sand to fill in Oma Tso’O ma mtsho (Milk Lake), in order to prepare for the construction of the JokhangJo khang temple in the center of LhasaLha sa.180 While on her mission, Ramo GyamoRa mo rgya mo was on the lookout for a place suitable for the founding of the RamochéRa mo che temple. This she goat passed by the DomilangRdo mi lang valley and pillar, an important location, but it was determined not to have the qualities needed for the founding of a great Buddhist temple. This location was incomplete, like a monk without his robes (chögö). The location also fell under the influence of the inauspicious mountain, NakguNag gu (Blackness), the residence of an evil spirit (dré’Dre), rather than the auspicious Karru LhatsoDkar ru lha mtsho (White Divine Lake) locale. Furthermore, the mountain, LangchéGlang che (Great Elephant), to the north lacked a trunk and a saddle, and its spring was like a vase (bumpa) without a cloth lid. Finally, the nearby mountain, LangchungGlang chung (Lesser Elephant), lacked kidney fat. The she goat left her droppings at Karru LhatsoDkar ru lha mtsho, causing a scrub willow forest to appear there. According to this well-developed legend, the DomilangRdo mi lang pillar was already erected by the early seventh century CE.

Site elements

The four-sided blue-gray igneous pillar is slightly inclined to the northwest (1.85 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). The top of the pillar narrows until it has a girth of only 50 cm. The southeast and northwest faces of DomilangRdo mi lang are somewhat broader than its other two sides. The pillar is surrounded by five cairns topped with pieces of milky quartz and a couple of plaques inscribed with the mani mantra, a shrine that is no longer maintained. The heads of goats and sheep are tied to the top one-third of the pillar. This is an apotropaic cult practice to protect the remaining animals of the herd from sickness. Butter and red ochre have also been applied to the pillar, a sign of its sacred status and the healing power it is supposed to possess. There are three faint markings on the southeast face of the pillar, which look a little like Tibetan letters. The faint vestiges of a wall running east-west (15 m long) begins 14 m south of the pillar. On both ends it connects with even more obscure walls running north-south. Although no coherent fragments have survived, it could be determined that these walls are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. A dark-colored metamorphic rock (10 cm to 35 cm long) was used in the construction of these walls. They may possibly represent the remains of a separate funerary enclosure.

Ngoring (Sngo ring)

General site characteristics

NgoringSngo ring is located in the ZhungchuGzhung chu valley, which empties into the east side of Gomang TsoSgo mang mtsho.181 The old name of NgoringSngo ring is reported to be NakdongNag gdong (Black Face; the name may have been changed due to inauspicious phenomena associated with it). The site is found on the north flank of the ZhungchuGzhung chu valley and is surrounded by the herder’s hamlet of NgoringSngo ring. The terrain is sandy, turf covered and gently sloping. These white granite pillars were erected inside an enclosure. This enclosure appears to be of a design at variance with the standard double-course enclosures in which type II.1b pillars are planted.

Oral tradition

The enclosure of NgoringSngo ring is locally referred to as a möndo ra (MönMon stone enclosure), and is associated with the ancient MönMon. NgoringSngo ring is one of the most easterly archaeological sites in Upper Tibet that is attributed to the MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure approximately measures 8.5 m by 6 m. The enclosure is highly fragmentary and its lower part has been heavily impacted by geomorphologic changes. Its configuration and mode of construction are not clear. There is a little structural evidence to suggest that the perimeter walls were of the double-course variety. The enclosure was not aligned in the cardinal directions. Uncut pieces of white granite, up to 1.2 m in length, went into its construction. Some of these stones protrude prominently from the ground surface. This enclosure appears to represent a transitional monumental form between the isolated pillars of the far eastern JangtangByang thang (see C-7 and C-36) and those enclosed inside well-delineated walls common farther west. The enclosure of NgoringSngo ring may have been of more rudimentary construction.

Pillars

The pillars stand in the upper portion of the enclosure. The three standing specimens are spread out over a distance of 3 m. Their position relative to the enclosure is not clear. These white granite pillars are heavily worn and discolored in places:

North pillar: four-sided (85 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]).

Central Pillar: irregularly shaped (1.4 m by 1.1 m).

South pillar: irregularly shaped (70 cm by 1.1 m). There is also a collapsed pillar in close proximity, which may still be rooted in the ground.

Doring (Rdo ring)

General site characteristics

DoringRdo ring (pronounced locally as dorang) is located near the northeast shore of Gomang TsoSgo mang mtsho. The terrain is almost level, well drained and turf covered. This uniquely designed site is dominated by two parallel rows of upright stones, which extend for 67 m. It seems likely that DoringRdo ring represents a variant type of archaic funerary monument. It possesses structural features of both isolated pillars and slab wall sites.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, DoringRdo ring was an ancient MönMon site.

Site elements

The two rows of pillars are oriented northwest-southeast, and stand 4.2 m to 4.7 m from one another. Unfortunately, the integrity of the site was recently compromised when stones were extracted in order to line the edge of the neighboring road. Near the northwest end of the site many stones are now missing, making an analysis of the morphological characteristics of DoringRdo ring difficult. It is possible that there were more than two rows of upright stones at the northwest end of the site. The two extant rows consist of uncut light-colored granite and limestone slabs and blocks (20 cm to 90 cm long) embedded in the ground edgewise. These stones are flush with the ground surface or are elevated above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. The only exceptions are a few more prominently elevated stones in the middle portion of the east wall. These taller stones are dominated by a firmly planted pillar-like granite boulder (1 m [height] by 1.4 m [basal girth]). On the southeast end of DoringRdo ring there are traces of a single line of upright stones bisecting the two main rows of stones.

Nyungkar Doring (Nyung dkar rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nyungkar DoringNyung dkar rdo ring is located on the southern margin of the Zimpuk TsoGzims phug mtsho basin. NyungkarNyung dkar is the name of the small hill immediately north of the monument. The view to the west is the most open at the site, but the southern and eastern vistas are also encompassing. The well-drained terrain is broad, level, sandy, and with some grasses. A small stream flows very close to the south and west flanks of Nyungkar DoringNyung dkar rdo ring. The site consists of a small example of a single pillar erected inside a rectangular enclosure. It is very unusual to find this type of monument so close to running water.

Oral tradition

According to an elderly drokpa who resides on the opposite side of the NyungkarNyung dkar hill, Nyungkar DoringNyung dkar rdo ring was erected in the distant past to mark the death of someone. Given the archaeological evidence associated with the walled pillar typology, this oral tradition appears to be historically accurate.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 8.2 m (east-west) by 3.4 m (north-south). The entire enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain. Substantial parts of all four walls of the enclosure are intact. These walls (45 cm to 60 cm thick) are mostly composed of small pieces (around 10 cm long) of blue-gray limestone. These small stones were laid in multiple parallel courses in order to traverse the full width of the walls. There are also double-course wall sections (such as the east wall) made up of larger stones (up to 70 cm long).

Pillar

The single irregularly shaped pillar is 70 cm in height and has a basal girth of 85 cm. The pillar is centered between the north and south walls, 80 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. The highly worn gray pillar has weathered to assume a reddish and blackish color.

Nyenta Doring (Gnyan rta rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nyenta DoringGnyan rta rdo ring is situated in a narrow valley with a perennial watercourse running through it. This stream debouches into the east side of Drakpo TsoBrag po mtsho. The valley is ruled by a red escarpment, the territorial deity (yüllha), NyentaGnyan rta. Nyenta DoringGnyan rta rdo ring is situated near the right edge of the valley. As the NyentaGnyan rta valley is narrow, there are only wide open views west towards the Drakpo TsoBrag po mtsho basin, an unusual orientation. The lake from the site, however, is just out of view. The terrain is gently sloping, sandy and spotted with turf. The site consists of an enclosure with four in situ pillars. The existence of Nyenta DoringGnyan rta rdo ring demonstrates that this region was settled long before the current drokpa tribes began to arrive in the 17th century CE.182

Oral tradition

Nyenta DoringGnyan rta rdo ring is said to be under the protection of the local territorial deity NyentaGnyan rta.

Site elements

Enclosure

The not well aligned enclosure measures 5.3 m (north-south) by 6.1 m (east-west). Parts of all four double-course walls have survived. The enclosure walls are around 60 cm in thickness, and are composed of variable length (20 cm to 60 cm long) blocks and slabs laid flush with the ground surface or which project above it a maximum of 20 cm. A blue-gray metamorphic rock was used to build the enclosure. In the east/downhill wall there is a slab that runs perpendicular to the wall course. This slab may be the remains of a ritual portal.

Pillars

The four well-worn pillars were erected near the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. As is customary, the two broad sides of the tabular specimens are parallel to the north and south walls of the enclosure. From north to south, the pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: tabular, blue-gray (55 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]).

Long-stone DR2: tabular, grayish (60 cm by 65 cm).

Long-stone DR3: tabular, blue-gray (70 cm by 1 m).

Long-stone DR4: a smaller, four-sided reddish sandstone pillar with a broken top (35 cm by 50 cm).

Kyiser (Skyid gser)

General site characteristics

KyiserSkyid gser is located on the western edge of a vast plain. KyiserSkyid gser is the name of a long, low ridgeline that forms the western backdrop of the site. Closed off to the west, the site has profound views to the east and is open to the north and south as well. KyiserSkyid gser is a diverse funerary complex of considerable importance. As the array of pillars appended to an edifice (II.1c) is the largest and most prominent element of the location, it appears to have constituted the central feature of the KyiserSkyid gser necropolis. This prominence is reinforced by the conspicuous location of the array and edifice on the margins of the large plain. The smaller monumental elements of the location were established in more secluded and harder to find sites. The KyiserSkyid gser necropolis also includes an isolated pillar (II.1a), pillars erected inside an enclosure (II.1b), funerary enclosures (II.2b), unusually designed slab walls, and other types of funerary structures. The existence of the three common Upper Tibetan pillar typologies at one site, underscores the integral nature of these monuments in an architectural, cognitive and ritual sense. By virtue of these monuments being found together, it can be surmised that they had complimentary functions. The integrated nature of the various monumental components of the site may also indicate that they were built and used within the same timeframe. The various funerary monuments of KyiserSkyid gser are all constructed of uncut pieces of brown sandstone. This sandstone is found in abundance on the abutting ridge. KyiserSkyid gser is sited in a locale with a scarcity of potable water, as are many other funerary sites in Upper Tibet. Given the size and complexity of KyiserSkyid gser, it is certainly possible that certain outlying funerary structures were overlooked during the survey.183

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of DrabukGra sbug township, the array of pillars at KyiserSkyid gser have ancient MönMon and Ling GesarGling ge sar associations. There is a traditional proscription in place against harming the site. It is also said that the KyiserSkyid gser ridge lies in an inauspicious location. According to these sources, the holy mountains, RigyelRi rgyal to the southwest and MentsiSman rtsis (sp?) to the northeast, have forced KyiserSkyid gser to be more virtuous. The negative aura hanging over the site is probably dim recognition of its archaic funerary identity.

Site elements

Array of pillars appended to an edifice complex (Site 1)

Appended edifice

The remains of the appended edifice (temple-tomb) sits on the edge of the plain. This structure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 5.2 m (east-west) by 16.7 m (north-south). The poorly preserved edifice is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding plain. Originally, it would have been substantially taller. A tiny coherent wall fragment is found in the exterior north face of the edifice. Another intact wall fragment is part of the inner west wall of the edifice. A slight depression on top of the edifice marks the location of the central chamber. Evidence from other sites of the same typology suggests that the central chamber was flanked by very heavily constructed walls. Variable-length (up to 60 cm long) stones were used in the construction of the temple-tomb.

Array of Pillars

The array is aligned in the cardinal direction, as is often the case in this monument typology. The array approximately measures 16 m (north-south) by 16.7 m (east-west). The west half of the array of pillars has been obliterated. The east-west dimensions provided are between the most outlying row of pillars and the east wall of the appended edifice. Originally, there were roughly 20 east-west oriented rows of pillars in the array. There are still around 130 standing stones, less than 15 percent of the original number. As intact lines of pillars are spaced 30 cm to 50 cm apart (with wider spacings more common), it can be extrapolated that there were no less than 1000 standing stones in the array. All of the brown sandstone pillars are highly eroded and extremely weathered. Most of the in situ pillars are tabular but there are also four-sided and irregularly shaped specimens, especially among the smaller ones. The broad sides of the tabular pillars are oriented north and south. There are 26 larger pillars (40 cm and 60 cm high), which are mostly concentrated on the east side of the array. Some uprooted specimens up to 70 cm in length lie about the concourse.

The east side of the array of pillars is bordered by a single-course slab wall. A northern fragment of this wall is 8.4 m long. This wall is composed of slabs 15 cm to 60 cm in length, which are only around 1 cm in thickness. These slabs are flush with the ground surface or slightly project above it. There are also three east-west running double-course slab-wall fragments bordering and inside the pillar concourse. The parallel courses of slabs are spaced 20 cm to 30 apart. These three double-course walls are highly fragmentary and their original configuration and lengths could not be determined. The most intact of these wall fragments (3.3 m long) is found on the north side of the pillar array. The double-course wall fragment bordering the south side of the pillar array is 2.9 m in length. On its west end there is a connecting double-course wall 90 cm in length that runs perpendicular. Little pieces of milky quartz in small amounts are scattered around the array of pillars. These stones must have been used in the ornamentation of the site.

There is an isolated small group of pillars situated 8.5 m south of the temple tomb. These pillars are up to 65 cm in height. They are planted in the ground with no discernable pattern. A square slab-wall structure (1 m by 1 m) is found 5.2 m east of the main pillar array. It is composed of pairs of slabs (50 cm to 1 m in length) arranged side by side, which were inserted into the ground edgewise. These slabs project as much as 30 cm above the ground surface. I have theorized that such structures may represent sikhung, one of the apotropaic ritual structures of the Tibetan archaic funerary tradition.184

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (2 m by 2.6 m) is situated 16 m north of the appended edifice. This fragmentary structure probably had double-course perimeter walls. These walls are composed of variable-length (up to 60 cm long) stones that are flush with the ground surface or which project above it as much as 20 cm.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 24 m west of the appended edifice. The walls of this enclosure are aligned in the cardinal directions, and measure 8 m (north-south) by 6.8 m (east-west). Small segments of the double-course perimeter walls (40 cm thick) are intact.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 11.8 m south of FS2. It consists of a lone pillar (60 cm high) probably erected on the perimeter wall of another enclosure. There appear to be other funerary structures in the proximity of FS3, but there is not enough structural detritus visible to know for certain. The disintegration of FS3 and sister structures was largely caused by water-borne damage to the site (marked by gullies and depositions). The construction of a tent site (nangra) and a corral (lhera) in the vicinity may also have impacted FS3.

Slab-wall network (Site 2)

Slab walls

Site 2 is situated roughly 400 m west of the array of pillars (4510 m). It consists of three unusually designed slab walls, which run east-west (parallel to the axis of the sandy slope) at the base of the KyiserSkyid gser ridge. The south wall (9 m long) consists of parallel courses of slabs set about 1 m apart. This incomplete wall is partitioned in eight spots by single slabs placed at right angles, creating eight discrete box-like structures. The brown sandstone slabs used in construction are up to 95 cm in length and were embedded in the ground edgewise. These slabs are level with the ground surface or are elevated as much as 20 cm above it. The fragmentary middle wall (6.1 m long) and north wall (1.4 m long) are designed and built in the same fashion as the south wall. These three walls span an 8.6 m transverse section of the slope. A similarly constructed wall (7 m long) that runs north-south (perpendicular to the axis of the slope) is situated 2 m south of the south wall. All the walls of Site 2 are likely to have had a funerary ritual rather than a burial function.

Funerary Structure FS4

A funerary structure is situated 14 m west/uphill of FS3. This structure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 3.6 m (east-west) by 5 m (north-south). The forward side of this well-built structure is elevated about 1 m above the slope, while the rear side is flush with the slope. There are small intact double-course masonry fragments along the sides and rear of the structure. They are composed of as many as three vertical courses of blocks and slabs laid flat. The structural evidence remaining suggests that FS4 had a significant superstructure.

Isolated pillar (Site 3)

Pillar

Site 3, which is dominated by a lone pillar, begins 33 m southwest of Site 2 (56.835 / 11. 869΄ / 4500 m). Site 3 occupies a similar aspect to Site 2: a slightly inclined flat at the edge of the slope. The sandy terrain is strewn with pieces of sandstone. The highly worn four-sided sandstone pillar is 1.4 m in height and has a basal girth of 1 m. It is heavily tilted in an east/downhill direction. Some stones have been stacked up around the base of the pillar.

Walled terraces

A walled terrace, measuring 21 m (north-south) by 7 m (east-west), is located 6 m upslope of the pillar. This terrace is subdivided into three sections by partition walls. The perimeter of this lower terrace is of the heaped-stone wall type. Immediately above it there is another walled terrace, which measures 16 m (north-south) by 5.5 m (east-west). It also appears to have been divided by two partitions walls into three units. Portions of the walled upper terrace are composed of upright slabs. These two terraces as an integral part of Site 3 appear to have had a funerary function.

Pillars erected inside an enclosure (Site 4)

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 6.5 m (north-south) by 9.5 m (east-west) (56.738΄ / 11.885΄ 4510 m). It occupies the same type of aspect as Site 2 and Site 3, and is situated 15 m above the edge of the plain. Parts of the east and south walls of the enclosure have been engulfed by drama brush and the mounds of sand that form around it. The double-course perimeter walls in most places are around 70 cm in thickness. They exhibit all three major types of stonework found in this typology: stones laid flat of one vertical course, stones laid flat in multiple vertical courses, and upright stones embedded into the ground. The north wall is composed of slabs of as many as four vertical courses of masonry. The north wall is elevated 30 cm above the adjoining terrain. The double-course south wall is flush with the ground surface and appears to consist of only one layer of flat slabs. The west wall and south portion of the east wall are composed of double-course upright slabs. These slabs project as much as 20 cm above the surface. Mostly larger stones (40 cm to 90 cm long) went into the construction of the enclosure.

Pillars

There are three pillars erected inside the enclosure. The main pillar (Long-stone DR1) is well centered between the south and north walls, and is situated 80 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. The four-sided main pillar is 1.3 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.2 m. Long-stone DR2, an irregularly shaped pillar (60 cm by 1 m), is situated 40 cm east of the main pillar. Long-stone DR3 is also irregularly shaped (80 cm by 95 cm), and is situated 1.8 m north of DR1. What appear to be the remains of a square funerary superstructure are located 40 m north of the walled pillars at the same elevation.

Satellite funerary structures (Site 5)

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (13.7 m by 6 m) is situated in the plain at the edge of the KyiserSkyid gser ridge (56.761΄ / 11.927΄ / 4490 m). This poorly preserved incomplete enclosure is bereft of coherent walls.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 is situated 3 m northwest of FS5. This smaller specimen is even more fragmentary than FS5.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 is located on a level area along the base of the slope (56.660 / 11.851 / 4510). It consists of an east-west double-course wall (runs parallel to the axis of the slope) 6.7 m in length. At its high end there are traces of other double-course wall fragments, which run perpendicular to the axis of the slope. The alignments and construction of these walls are unusual.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (2 m by 1.4 m) appears to be a small funerary structure. The stones forming the superstructure do not seem to have been laid out in an orderly manner. A gully now cuts into FS8, imperiling its long-term survival.

Satellite funerary structures (Site 6)

Site 6 is a cluster of at least three funerary structures built on sandy ground near the north edge of the KyiserSkyid gser ridge (57.198΄ / 11.722΄ / 4510 m). They were established in a small sandy hollow, bisected by a gully. They include a complete enclosure (1.3 m by 60 cm) composed of stones flush with the ground surface or rising above it slightly. There is also a partial enclosure measuring 2.8 m across. Finally, there is an enclosure (3.5 m by 3.5 m) that appears to have both single-course and double-course perimeter walls. The stones in the perimeter walls of this latter specimen are level with the ground surface or project above it to a height of 20 cm.

Chunak Doring (Chu nag rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring is located on the right side of the ChunakChu nag valley upstream of KhardongMkhar gdong/Khyunglung Ngül KharKhyung lung dngul mkhar (A-45) and GurgyamGur gyam (B-112). The site occupies a flat that is elevated a few meters above the ChunakChu nag flood plain. The terrain is gravelly and dotted with grass and drama scrub. The sheer size of Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring makes it one of the most important funerary sites in Upper Tibet. In total, Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring covers approximately 20,000 m², making it the largest ceremonial site surveyed to date. It consists of walled pillars, a large tumulus, and several large and smaller groupings of enclosures. Altogether, there are no less than 330 double-course enclosures at ChunakChu nag. All of these cobble structures appear to be part of an integrated funerary complex. This necropolis may be functionally connected to Khyunglung Ngül KharKhyung lung dngul mkhar as complimentary components (residential and burial) of this area’s monumental infrastructure. These two sites are in eyeshot of one another. The presence of so large a funerary complex as ChunakChu nag seems to enhance the importance of KhardongMkhar gdong, in keeping with the legendary status accorded Khyunglung Ngül KharKhyung lung dngul mkhar in Tibetan literature.185

Oral tradition

According to the monks of GurgyamGur gyam monastery, Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring contains the ruins of an ancient MönMon settlement.

Site elements

Pillar enclosure

The large enclosure is situated just above the right bank of the ChunakChu nag flood plain (31° 09.808΄ N. lat. / 80° 39.087΄ E. long.). It is generally aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 19 m by 19 m. This elaborately built square enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. The enclosure, located near the western extremity of the enclosed pillar typology territorial range, represents a unique variant of the monument. It is bisected into two sections by an east-west running wall. The north section is 12.5 m in width and the south section is 6.5 m wide. The north section is further subdivided by a north-south aligned wall (7.6 m long) that joins the central bisecting wall and an east-west aligned wall (6 m long) that joins the east perimeter wall to form an inner enclosure. The double-course and multiple-course cobble perimeter and subdividing walls (50 cm to 80 cm thick) are composed of different colored (tan, red, gray, and beige) variable-length cobbles (10 cm to 35 cm long). The coherent wall sections are mostly level with the ground surface. There are also disintegrated portions of the perimeter walls composed of stones, which are piled up to a maximum height of 50 cm. These elevated wall sections may have been composed of several vertical courses of cobbles.

Pillars

In the north section of the enclosure there is a single highly weathered pillar (Long-stone DR1), which is centered between the north and south walls. This four-sided grayish pillar (1.3 m [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]) stands next to the inner edge of the west wall. In the south section of the enclosure there is a not well centered highly weathered tan tabular pillar (1.2 m by 1 m) (Long-stone DR2). It was erected next to the inner edge of the west wall. There are two smaller gray pillars (Long-stones DR3, DR4) 60 cm in height, which were planted against the inner edge of the south wall, near the west end of the enclosure. There are also three broken pillars (Long-stones DR5, DR6, DR7) that were erected within the cobble courses of the south wall. Another broken pillar (Long-stone DR8) was raised inside the south wall near the east end of the enclosure. It appears that yet another small specimen was erected within the courses of the central bisecting wall of the enclosure. The erection of standing stones inside the wall courses is a highly unusual morphological feature of the ChunakChu nag site. By virtue of their presence among scores of superficial enclosures, the walled pillars must have fulfilled an extremely important funerary ritual role at ChunakChu nag. The location of the walled pillars at the eastern extremity of the site is also liable to have significant ritual and cognitive undertones.

Tumulus

Approximately 50 m west of the walled pillars there is large quadrate tumulus (bangso) (09.796΄ / 39.008΄). This tumulus is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 17.8 m (north-south) by 15 m (east-west). This flat-topped structure varies between 2 m and 3 m in height. The surface of the mound is covered in loose cobbles; whatever coherent walls there were have completely disintegrated. On the top of the tumulus there are three cobble-filled depressions up to 1 m in depth. They appear to be the result of excavations carried out long ago. The looting of the contents is likely to be the only motive for such excavations in pre-modern times.

On the east side of the tumulus, at its base, there is a large interconnected rectangular enclosure that measures 22 m (north-south) by 8 m (east-west). It is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding plain. This enclosure is comprised of walls such as are found in other enclosures of ChunakChu nag. The appended enclosure appears to have been subdivided into three east-west sections: south (6 m wide north-south), central (8.5 m wide) and north 6.5 m (wide). The occurrence of enclosures at the base of a large bangso is also met with at Darlung GyangroDar lung gyang ro (D-88). These two tumuli more or less circumscribe the eastern and western margins of the core Upper Tibetan paleocultural entity; that region in which walled pillars (II.1b) and pillar arrays appended to edifices (II.1c) are distributed. The tumulus of ChunakChu nag appears to have been a central monumental feature of the site. In sites where there is a large bangso it often is found amid smaller and more superficial funerary structures. These large bangso are probably the burial sites of very high status individuals and/or where collective mortuary rites took place. In any case, it would appear that they constituted the ritual and monumental heart of many necropoli.

Clusters of enclosures

The superficial enclosures are mainly square and rectangular in form but there are also some sub-rectangular examples among them. They range between 3 m by 5 m to 15 m by 16 m in size. The perimeter walls (50 cm to 1 m thick) are composed of different colored (tan, red, gray, and beige) cobbles, which are between 10 cm and 35 cm in length. Many of the extant walls are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. The cobble perimeter walls are double-course or multiple-course in make-up. These walls are typically flush with the ground surface. There are also what appear to be heaped-stone walls 20 cm to 50 in height. In a few enclosures, these elevated wall sections reach 1 m in height. Rather than an inherent design feature, this piling of stones is probably due to the disintegration of neatly built walls, which were more than 1 vertical course in height. In all but a few cases, the area inside the perimeter walls of each enclosure is free of structural elements. There are also a few outlying structures of smaller proportions that are fully covered in stones embedded in the ground surface. The enclosures are interconnected to form clusters or networks of structures. The design and construction of these enclosures most resembles those of Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po (D-41), a site not too far away from ChunakChu nag. Many of the walls of the enclosures have been destroyed and many have depressions inside. These depressions are probably the result of excavations carried out long ago and possibly due to subsidence as well.

Main cluster of enclosures

The main cluster of enclosures begins 24 m west of the large tumulus. This long swath of interconnected enclosures has two obvious breaks, creating three different sectors. Small amounts of white quartz are scattered around the main cluster of enclosures. These pieces of stones may have embellished the structures but in what form is unknown.

The north sector (63 m by 23 m) has a north-south axis. It contains around 30 enclosures, measuring between 2 m by 5 m and 7 m by 10 m. The north end of the north sector is at 09.963΄ / 38.931΄.

The central sector of enclosures begins 40 m south of the north sector. It measures 380 m by 40 m to 60 m and covers some 13,000 m². The central sector contains about 200 enclosures ranging in size up to 16 m by 15 m. In a few places there are small gaps between the groups of enclosures. The northern half of the central sector has a north-south axis, but further south the axis bends to the east. At the northwest corner of the central sector, a large enclosure (16 m by 15 m) contains a smaller enclosure (6 m by 7 m) inside its perimeter walls.

There is a gap of 8 m between the central and south sectors. The south sector measures 88 m by 25 m and terminates near the ChunakChu nag stream (09.669΄ / 39.035΄). This cluster has an east-west axis. The south sector contains perhaps 25 enclosures. In proximity to the south sector there are approximately 15 smaller enclosures aggregated in little groupings. Beginning about 200 m west of the south sector there is another cluster containing about 23 enclosures distributed over a fairly large area.

Upper cluster of enclosures

To the west of the flat in which the main cluster of enclosures is located there is a bench about 30 m higher in elevation. On this bench is the upper cluster of enclosures (09.938΄ / 38.708΄). The principal upper cluster measures 67 m (north-south) by 30 m (east-west), and contains about 20 enclosures of the kind found elsewhere at ChunakChu nag. Many of the perimeter walls have been destroyed and depressions, up to 1.5 m in depth, pockmark the interiors of quite a few enclosures. These depressions are likely to be the remains of excavations carried out long ago (drama grows on some of the depressions). A cluster of around ten enclosures is located 27 m south of the principal upper cluster. This smaller site was very heavily disturbed in the past.

On the southern tip of the bench there are three more enclosures, which have been partially destroyed by the failure of the slope. On the flat, between the main cluster and upper cluster, there are at least four more enclosures of the type found all over ChunakChu nag.

Rinchen Chundé Doring (Rin chen chu ’ded rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Rinchen Chundé Doring
English equivalent: Jewel Water Runoff Long-stones
Site number: C-122
Site typology: II.1b
Elevation: 4670 m
Administrative location (township): Barga
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: October 25, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A fragment of an inscribed plaque.
Maps: UTRS V, UTRS X, HAS C3
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Rinchen Chundé DoringRin chen chu ’ded rdo ring is located not far from the south side of a pass known as Chumik Sharlé LaChu mig shar la’i la. The site is set in the middle of a plain and has long views in all directions. The tip of the holy mountain, Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, is visible 50 km to the northeast. A cross-section of the Uttaranchal Himalaya can be seen in the southwest. The terrain is level, sandy and turf-covered. Rinchen Chundé DoringRin chen chu ’ded rdo ring consists of a typical example of pillars erected inside an enclosure.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Rinchen Chundé DoringRin chen chu ’ded rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9.4 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). Although parts of all four walls are discernable, they are in a state of advanced disintegration. These walls are composed of variable-length (10 cm to 40 cm long) blocky pieces of gray limestone and a harder brown rock. The ground on the east end of the enclosure is uneven. On the west end of the enclosure there is a rise of about 1 m, which can probably be attributed to localized geomorphologic changes. The north side of the enclosure is partly overgrown with drama brush.

Pillars

Close to what was the west wall of the enclosure there is a white tabular pillar (1.2 m [height] by 1.2 m [basal girth]). The two broad sides of the standing stone are oriented north and south. This highly worn menhir (Long-stone DR1) is discolored in places. The pillar is not well centered in the enclosure; it was at least one of two main pillars near the west wall. The other main pillar is dislodged and lies just outside the enclosure. It is a well-formed four-sided white specimen (1.2 m long by 70 cm girth). Along the west wall, near the north side of the enclosure, there are also two small broken dark-colored pillars. They now stand 20 cm in height. Beside DR1 there is a broken inscribed mani plaque.

A small wall fragment of what appears to be a vestige of a funerary enclosure is situated 2 m east of the pillar enclosure.

Tara Doring (Rta ra rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tara DoringRta ra rdo ring is located in a remote part of the region traditionally known as ZhungsaGzhung sa. The views to the east are especially panoramic. They extend all the way to Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, located 65 km to the northeast. A nearby ridge blocks the views to the west. The terrain is level, gravel-strewn and heavily overgrown with drama scrub. The site is dominated by a single tall and slim pillar.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Tara DoringRta ra rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

Only the southeast corner of the enclosure has persisted. The south wall portion of this corner is 4 m in length and the east portion is 2.5 m long. These double-course wall segments (55 cm thick) are composed of variable-length blocky chunks of light-colored limestone. These stones are both flush with the ground surface and slightly elevated above it. The remaining walls of the enclosure have been destroyed or engulfed by drama brush.

Pillar

The lone limestone pillar has a graceful but irregular form. It is 2 m in height and has a basal girth of 85 cm. The broken 13 cm long tip lies on the ground beside the pillar. The highly worn and furrowed pillar was made of a gray stone, which has weathered to a beige and rust color.

Affiliated sites

ChakraLcags ra

On top of a small hill known as ChakraLcags ra (Walled Zone) there is an old mani plaque array, which is supported by pre-existing walls of significant size (30° 43.031΄ N. lat. / 80° 44.890΄ E. long. / 4620 m). It is not clear what type of structures originally stood at ChakraLcags ra. The remains are up to 2 m in height and much more massive than those typically associated with mani walls. Perhaps the dry-stone random-rubble walls are those of revetments, which once supported residential superstructures. The ancient identity of the site is confirmed in the oral tradition of ZhungsaGzhung sa.

Sharma Doring (Shar ma rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring is located in the middle reaches of the SharmaShar ma valley. The narrow SharmaShar ma valley is sandwiched between the mountains Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po to the west and Takri TrawoStag ri khra bo to the east.186 The only open view from the site is down valley, or to the south. It is unusual for enclosed pillar monuments to have such a circumscribed eastern vista. The site is situated in the middle of the valley on level gravelly and grassy terrain. Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring is an example of the extreme western Tibet variant of the walled pillars typology, which is marked by east and west walls that are longer than the north and south walls. There is also an isolated pillar and 15 funerary structures at Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring emerged with the beginning of existence. The site is considered potentially harmful (ka nyenpo). The rocks used as pillars are believed to have been transported from Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po (see E-27).

Site elements

Enclosure

The walls of the enclosure are roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. The enclosure approximately measures 18 m (north-south) by 8 m (east-west). There are no distinguishable signs of its west wall. On the west side of the enclosure, a small trough has formed. Near the northeast corner of the enclosure, a 3.4 m long segment of the north wall is still intact. The incomplete east wall measures 16.3 m, illustrating that this was quite a large enclosure. Near the southeast corner of the enclosure, a 5.2 m long segment of the south wall has also survived. These perimeter walls are around 80 cm thick and composed of double courses or multiple courses (two to four stones laid abreast of one another). The tan, beige and gray blocky stones (15 cm to 40 cm long) were laid flat and are level with, or somewhat raised above, the ground surface. Inside the enclosure near its north end, there are two slab-wall fragments. These two walls run in an east-west direction and are spaced 80 cm apart. The north slab wall is 2.3 m long and the south slab wall is 3.4 long. These double-course slab walls are composed of stones (10 cm to 25 cm long) set into the ground edgewise. The parallel courses of each wall are spaced around 15 cm apart.

Pillars

Across the breadth of the west side of the enclosure there are 22 pillars, all but three of which have collapsed. The three in situ specimens are inclined at severe angles. The fallen pillars are four-sided and irregularly shaped and between 1.5 m and 2.8 m in length. Some of the dislodged pillars are partially submerged, suggesting that they naturally collapsed in place through the agency of gravity and subsurface instability. All but two of the pillars (one of which is still standing: Long-stone DR2) are made of a tan stone (quartzitic sandstone?). The other two in situ specimens are made of a gray metamorphic rock. Another dislodged pillar is found in funerary structure FS15, situated approximately 40 m away. Its original position is unknown. Two of the in situ pillars stand in the middle of the west side of the enclosure. Long-stone DR1 has four irregular sides (1.3 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). DR2 is an irregularly shaped (90 cm by 90 cm) pillar. The third standing stone (Long-stone DR3) is found near the north side of the enclosure. DR3 has four irregular sides (1.6 m by 1.2 m).

An isolated standing pillar (Long-stone DR4) is situated 95 m east of the walled pillars. DR4 is a gray tabular pillar (70 cm by 90 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Northeast or up valley of the walled pillars there are 15 funerary structures, most or all of which are of the double-course enclosure type. These substantial structures are heavily damaged, limiting the amount of design and construction data that could be gleaned. For the most part, the quadrate and possibly sub-rectangular enclosures appear to have been well built with neatly ordered walls. With perhaps a couple exceptions, the enclosures were not aligned in the cardinal directions. As with analogous structures throughout Upper Tibet, these enclosures must have been the tomb superstructures and/or funerary ritual venues of an elite component of ancient society. The exclusivist aura of the Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring enclosures is enhanced by the fact that archaic residential ruins have not been discovered in the area.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (17.5 m by 5.8 m) is situated in the valley bottom. It is not aligned in the cardinal directions; rather its two long walls are aligned with the axis of the SharmaShar ma valley. FS1 is elevated 70 cm to 1 m above the surrounding terrain. It was subdivided by a wall into two roughly equal cells. Small fragments of the double-course perimeter walls (50 cm thick) have survived. They are generally composed of blocky stones, 15 cm to 40 cm in length.

Funerary Structures FS2 to FS15

The remaining funerary structures of SharmaShar ma also appear to have had well built double-course walls. These structures are generally level with the ground surface or slightly elevated above it. Variable-length blocky stones, to 50 cm in length, were used to construct the perimeter walls. In some places the stones of the walls protrude as much as 20 cm to 30 cm above ground level.

Funerary structure FS2 (5.6 m by 10 m) is situated 7 m northwest of FS1 in the valley bottom. It was probably divided into two cells.
Funerary structure FS3 (17 m by 10 m) is situated 13 m southwest of FS2 in the valley bottom. A few small coherent perimeter wall (65 cm thick) fragments have survived.
Funerary structures FS4, FS5, FS6 and FS7 are located near the base of the mountain Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po. These four highly deteriorated specimens are medium (around 70 m²) to large (around 120 m²) in size. They may have been subdivided by walls into smaller cells.
Funerary structure FS4 is situated 40 m northwest of FS3. It is overgrown with drama brush.
Funerary structure FS5 is situated 15 m northeast of FS4.
Funerary structure FS6 is situated 11 m north of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 (10.5 m by 12.5 m) is situated 13 m northeast of FS6.
Funerary structures FS8, FS9, FS10 are situated in the valley bottom.
Funerary structure FS8 (12 m by 12 m) is situated 41 m northeast of FS1.
Funerary structure FS9 (8.2 m by 10.2 m) is situated 10 m south of FS8. Parts of all four walls (70 cm to 80 cm thick) of this enclosure have survived. The walls of FS9 are not aligned in the cardinal directions.
Funerary structure FS10 (21 m by 16 m) is situated 7 m east of FS9. It appears to have been divided into four parts by walls that are aligned with the axis of the valley. Some coherent wall fragments, 60 cm to 80 cm, in thickness are still in place.
Funerary structures FS11, FS12, FS13, and FS14 are in the vicinity of FS1 and the walled pillars.
Funerary structure FS11 (5.4 m by 9 m) is situated 15 m east of FS1. Its two cells combine to give the enclosure an L-shaped form.
Funerary structure FS12 (3.2 m by 2.5 m) is situated in close proximity to FS11. This much less substantial structure appears to have single-course perimeter walls.
Funerary structure FS13 (2.6 m by 2.9 m) is situated 11.5 m east of FS1. The faint remains of the double-course perimeter walls of this small enclosure are around 70 cm thick.
Funerary structure FS14 (3 m across) is situated 14 m west of the walled pillars.
Funerary structure FS15 (8 m by 4 m) is situated 20 m west of FS14.

Mönbu Doring (Mon bu rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is located near the foot of MönbuMon bu; the mountain that is the territorial deity (yüllhaYul lha) of DungkarDung dkar village (situated 11 km to the west). MönbuMon bu, an outlier of the Ayi LaA yi la range, is distinguished from neighboring peaks by the rocky knob on its summit. The MönbuMon bu mountain is referred to as an ancestor (mé) by the residents of DungkarDung dkar, probably indicating a genealogical link with the ancient MönMon tribe. Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is situated in the narrow valley that skirts the east side of Mount MönbuMon bu. The slim, dark blue-gray stele stands on fairly level drama-studded ground. This pillar of three irregular faces stands 2.5 m and has a basal girth of 1 m. mani mantras have been carved on two sides of the pillar. Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is also draped in white offering scarves (khatak) and has been amply smeared with butter. A pile of stones, 1 m in height, has been erected around the base of the pillar. On this pile of stones there is a blue sheep horn (the horns of wild ungulates are often used as ritual offerings on cairns). In close proximity to Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is a ruined complex of all-stone corbelled edifices (B-125).

Oral tradition

According to residents of DungkarDung dkar, Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is an ancient pillar. It plays a role in rituals for the propitiation of Mount MönbuMon bu. The survival of this cult pillar can at least partially be attributed to the remote location of the site, which is far removed from the Buddhist monastic centers of GugéGu ge. On the third day of the third lunar month, a member of each of DungkarDung dkar village’s 15 households comes to Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring for a propitiation and bestowment ritual (lhasöl). At this time, new prayer flags are erected on a mast found located on a nearby hilltop and incense is burnt. The pillar is ornamented as well. A feast for the participants is also held at the site during the lhasöl.

Dralung Doring (Gra lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The single pillar of Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring is located on the northern edge of the DelepSde lebs basin. The views to the north and west are constrained by ridges, while the views to the south and east are open. The famous holy mountain Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se is visible 40 km to the northeast. There is a small cliff immediately to the west of the pillar. The turf and gravel covered terrain is moderately sloping.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

The highly worn gray pillar has weathered to assume a brown color in places. The four uneven sides of Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring are roughly oriented in the cardinal directions. It is 2.3 m high and has a basal girth of 1 m. It is now inclined in an uphill direction. The zone up to 4 m south of Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring is strewn with stones, in contrast to the adjoining areas which are free of stones. Perhaps the pillar was once enclosed by walls but, if so, there are virtually no traces left. Near Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring, a few stones are embedded in the ground, however, no order can be discerned in their placement. Another single, tall and slim pillar in the region was indeed erected inside an enclosure (see C-123).

In the vicinity of Dralung MöndurGra lung mon dur there is a small and a larger wall with old inscribed plaques. These two walls were restored after being used in the Chinese Cultural Revolution to form parts of the walls of corrals. On top of the cliff behind Dralung MöndurGra lung mon dur there is a ruined all-stone chöten of significant age. It has a small bumpa reminiscent of early examples of the monument (pre-13th century CE). Old plaques inscribed with the mani mantra are scattered on and around the chöten. Perhaps these mani walls and the chöten were originally erected to subdue what were construed as negative influences emanating from Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring.

Affiliated sites

Gyamdrak PukGyam brag phug

A cave called Gyamdrak PukGyam brag phug (26 m deep) has a clockwise swastika, conjoined sun and moon (nyida) and a Tibetan letter a scrawled on the ceiling in red ochre (30° 56.4΄ N. lat. / 81° 00.2΄ / 4620 m). Although this cave may have constituted an important ancient shelter in the region, no structural vestiges of the archaic cultural horizon were discovered at Gyamdrak PukGyam brag phug.

Dowa Sumpa (Rdo ba gsum pa)

General site characteristics

Dowa SumpaRdo ba gsum pa is located near the border of the village amalgamations of TridéKhri sde and ZhidéZhi bde. This uninhabited area is known as Burtsé Dok’Bur rtse dog (Hill Peak Earth). The three standing pillars of Dowa SumpaRdo ba gsum pa are found on a shelf that rises above the right bank of the Maja TsangpoRma bya gtsang po. The pillars are firmly planted, not far from the foot of the ridgeline that encloses the west side of the Purang MéSpu rang smad valley. The views from the site are quite open in all directions. The terrain slopes gently down towards the river and is covered in cobbles, which is consistent with the aftermath of a flood event. If there ever was an enclosure around the pillars, it was destroyed by such flooding. The three pillars form an uneven north-south row and are nearly equidistant to one another. All three pillars are made of a soft gray calcareous stone. The pillars are covered in a red encrustation, the result of geochemical processes.187

Oral tradition

Local villagers consider Dowa Sumpa to be an ancient monument. According to a local myth, the three standing pillars are the sons of the prostrate pillar, their mother. They are said to have sprung up after her death.

Site elements

From north to south, the three pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (1.4 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: four-sided (1 m by 1.1 m). DR2 is situated 3.2 m south of DR1.
Long-stone DR3: tabular, its broad sides face east and west (1.3 m by 1.3 m). DR3 is situated 3.5 m south of DR2. Next to DR3 there is a collapsed specimen 1.6 m in length (a portion of this pillar is submerged in the ground so it could be somewhat longer than the figure provided here).

Pelmo Takpur (Dpal mo ’thag phur)

General site characteristics

Pelmo TakpurDpal mo ’thag phur is located on the left side of the mouth of the Tsermo RongMtsher mo rong gorge. The site enjoys broad views to the east towards Tso DepelMtsho sdad spal and has a sweeping panorama of the MukkarSmug dkar range to the south. The views north and west are cut by the mountain ranges hugging these flanks of the site. The terrain is slightly elevated, sloping and covered in grass and gravel. The location of Pelmo TakpurDpal mo ’thag phur is noteworthy in that it appears to form the northeast territorial bounds of the type II.1b monuments. In addition to walled pillars there are four outlying funerary structures at Pelmo TakpurDpal mo ’thag phur.

Oral tradition

According to local mythology, the epic goddess A Tak LumoA stag klu mo/A Tak PelmoA stag dpal mo used the standing stones of Pelmo TakpurDpal mo ’thag phur as the stakes for securing her backstrap loom (takma).

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 12.2 m (east-west) by 7.9 m (north-south). Its four double-course walls (60 cm to 85 cm thick) are largely intact. The enclosure is primarily made up of variable-length (20 cm to 50 cm long) unshaped chunks of blue limestone; however, red sandstone, a beige rock, and a gray rock were also used. Most of these stones were laid flat. The north and south walls of the enclosure are mostly level with the ground surface. The east wall is elevated about 20 cm above ground level and now buckles outwards. In the middle of the east wall there is a gap, which appears to have been caused by damage to the structure. Near the north end of the east wall two or three vertical courses of masonry are exposed. The east side of the north wall terminates in a slab, 60 cm long, which was planted in the ground edgewise. The west wall is elevated about 30 cm above the interior of the enclosure. The elevated east side and sunken west side of the enclosure serve to create a level interior space. There are pieces of milky quartz scattered about the site; these must have functioned as offerings or as a decorative element. There are quite a few stones scattered around the enclosure and the adjoining areas; some of these may have been part of the structure. This disjecta membra suggests that the walls of the enclosure were much better developed than they appear today.

Pillars

There are eight firmly planted unbroken pillars that stand 70 cm to 90 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. They are made of an uncut hard fine-grained gray stone that has uniformly weathered to a reddish brown color (except for Long-stone DR7, which has weathered to a beige color). The line of pillars almost stretches across the full north-south extent of the enclosure. From south to north, the pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (60 cm [height] by 50 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular (75 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped, inclined (80 cm by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped, inclined (1 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR5: tabular (65 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR6: three sided (75 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (80 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR8: tabular (85 cm by 75 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 21.8 m northwest of the walled pillars. Only three walls of this open limestone enclosure are extant: west wall (6.4 m long), north wall (4.5 m long) and the south wall (3.5 m long). There are traces of the double-course composition of these walls. The walls are made of smaller stones (10 cm to 25 cm long) that were laid flat on the ground.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.5 m by around 1.5 m) is situated on a small rise 8.4 m north of FS1. This rectangular structure is primarily made of limestone chunks (up to 70 cm long), which are level with the ground surface or which project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. There are many stones scattered around FS2, giving the appearance that it may have had a solid masonry shell.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (4 m by 1.4 m maximum) is situated 24.4 m northeast of FS2. This specimen is in very poor condition. It appears to be of the same design and construction as FS2.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.8 m by 3.7 m) is a highly fragmentary enclosure.

Gyachung Möndora (Rgya chung mon rdo ra)

General site characteristics

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra is located in the GyachungRgya chung valley, a northeastern effluent of the Jakar TsangpoJa dkar gtsang po. The site is divided into parts: Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra West/Lower (walled pillars) and Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East/Upper (a funerary enclosure). These two parts of the site are separated by a distance of approximately 2 km.

Oral tradition

According to a local resident, Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East is an ancient MönMon tomb and Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra West is also a monument constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra West

Enclosing structure

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra West is found on the open west flank of the GyachungRgya chung valley, at the foot of a rocky conical hill known as NyingriSnying ri (Heart Mountain) (31° 28.904΄ N. lat. / 89° 20.570΄ E. long. / 4700 m). This site has particularly open views to the east and south, but it is somewhat closed in the north, and totally blocked in the west by NyingriSnying ri. This platform-like structure has indistinctly designed walls and no sign of there ever having been ordered segments. It is comprised of a dense covering of stones that are embedded in the ground, giving this structure the appearance of an amorphous dispersion rather than a pen, per se. This structure has a definite rectangular shape, but it is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 5 m (east-west) by 3.9 m (north-south), and is constructed of a variable-length (10 cm to 50 cm long) light-colored igneous rocks. It appears that these stones were quarried from nearby NyingriSnying ri. The stones are flush with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 30 cm.

The lack of formally designed walls may be a design trait related to the site’s position at the eastern extremity of the territorial distribution of walled pillar (II.1b) monuments. Enclosing walls with no set order or arrangement also seem to occur at NgoringSngo ring (C-37), another site situated near the eastern fringe of the sui generis walled pillars. Both of these sites are probably best seen as geographically transitional monuments, which embody characteristics of the isolated pillars of the far eastern JangtangByang thang and the walled pillars of the core region of Upper Tibet.

Pillars

Inside the enclosure stand two highly weathered pillars made of the same type of rock as the enclosure. These pillars are coated in a brown desert varnish and orange climax lichen grows on them. The two pillars are planted around 50 cm from the western edge of the enclosing stones. They are spaced 1 m apart. The north pillar has four irregular sides (75 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]). The south pillar is tabular (65 cm by 85 cm). Some stones are piled up around the base of the pillars.

A depression covered in stones (roughly 3 m²) is situated 25 m east of the pillars. This could possibly represent the remains of a funerary superstructure.

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East is a sub-rectangular funerary enclosure situated in the GyachungRgya chung valley bottom (27.373΄ / 21.032΄ / 4740 m). It is found in the middle of a gravelly flat. This structure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 16.8 m (north-south) by 12.6 m (east-west). Much of the east perimeter wall is missing. The southwest corner of the enclosure consists of stones stacked to around 30 cm in height. Other wall sections are superficial in nature. These walls have no set design or arrangement. They are composed of a variety of variable-length (up to 50 cm long) rocks (igneous and metamorphic) of different colors. The superficial portions of the walls are made up of stones, which are either level with the ground surface or which protrude above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. The highly eroded Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East enclosure is subdivided by a swath of stones into two cells.

Gyachen Möndora (Rgya chen mon rdo ra)

General site characteristics

Gyachen MöndoraRgya chen mon rdo ra is located in the fairly narrow GyachenRgya chen valley. The site is situated on the well-drained west flank of the valley between the marshy bottomland and a granite ridge known as GyariRgya ri. The moderately sloping terrain is alternately rocky or covered in turf. The site consists of more than four funerary enclosures and a walled pillar (now collapsed). As the funerary structures of Gyachen MöndoraRgya chen mon rdo ra are distributed over a wide area, some specimens were overlooked in the time allotted to the survey of the site.

Oral tradition

According to a local sources, Mönpé DoringMon pa’i rdo ring of the Gyachen MöndoraRgya chen mon rdo ra site was erected in ancient times to commemorate the death of an old MönMon chieftain (pönpo). The other structures of the site are also associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Mönpé DoringMon pa’i rdo ring

Mönpé DoringMon pa’i rdo ring (Funerary structure FS3) is situated on a gently sloping rock-strewn slope and enjoys wide views to the east (28.372΄ / 23.882΄ 4720 m). This monument is either identical with or closely related to the walled pillars (II.1b) common farther west in Upper Tibet. The quadrate enclosure is fairly well aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 10 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). The enclosure is highly deteriorated and most of the stones used to build it are now dislodged. The only intact double-course perimeter wall fragments are found in the north wall (70 cm thick) and east wall (80 cm thick). It could not be determined if the entire perimeter was built in a similar regimented fashion. The perimeter walls are composed of variable-length uncut metamorphic blocks and slabs (10 cm to 50 cm long), which are flush with the ground level or which project above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. The west wall is slightly depressed and the east wall is somewhat elevated in order to create a level interior space. In the east wall there is a stone 75 cm in length set perpendicular to the wall course. This stone may have been one side of an opening or “portal” in the wall (as is found is certain other examples of the typology). In the middle of the enclosure there is an arched single line of stones (3 m long) embedded in the ground.

On the west side of the enclosure there is a collapsed tabular white granite pillar. This highly eroded pillar is 2 m in length and has a girth of 1 m. It appears to have stood near the west edge of the enclosure and to have been well centered between the north and south walls. According to the local guide, Shangpa GönpoShang pa mgon po (born circa 1934), this pillar fell down before living memory.

Funerary enclosures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m by 4 m) is the most northerly funerary structure at the site. Only in the north are there long views from FS1. This open ovoid enclosure has perimeter walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick), which are flush or slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. These walls appear to be of the double-course variety but they do not now exhibit much design coherence. Metamorphic stones of various colors, 10 cm to 70 cm, in length were employed to build FS1. It is reported that there are two or three funerary enclosures located roughly 500 m to 1 km to the north. These outlying examples were not surveyed.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (8.6 m by 9 m) is situated 2 m south of FS1. FS2 has long views only in the north. This is a sub-rectangular enclosure whose walls are not aligned in the cardinal directions. The rear/west wall is set about 50 cm below the upper slope and the forward/east wall is elevated about 50 cm above the downhill slope, creating a fairly level interior space. In the south, west and east perimeter walls (70 cm to 1 m thick) there are fairly coherent double-course segments. The variable-length (10 cm to 70 cm long) multi-colored metamorphic stones of the walls are level with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. While there are no original interior structural elements, a rudimentary wind block was built on the west side of FS2.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (7 m by 6 m) is a fragmentary sub-rectangular enclosure, whose walls exhibit no prescribed order or arrangement (27.974΄ / 24.421΄ / 4700 m). The structure gently declines to the east and has an open interior. The perimeter walls are mostly level with the ground surface. They are primarily built of small pieces of a dark-colored metamorphic rock. Some larger stones (up to 50 cm long) were also used.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (13 m by 7 m) is an ovoid enclosure with wide, disordered perimeter walls (28.139΄ / 24.449΄ 4690 m). The entire structure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. It is built of unhewn variable-length (10 cm to 75 cm long) igneous and metamorphic rocks. Inside the enclosure there is an area (2 m by 2 m) with a mass of stones embedded in the ground. This structure may mark the location of a subsurface grave chamber.

Doring (Rdo ring)

General site characteristics

DoringRdo ring North is located near the mouth of the DoringRdo ring valley. It is situated on the left side of the valley on quite level sandy and gravelly bottomland. The site is not far from the ridge that encloses the west side of the valley. From it there are sweeping views to the east and quite open views to the north and south as well. DoringRdo ring North is found on the eastern edge of the walled pillars (II.1b) typology. This site, with its neighbor DoringRdo ring (South) (C-162), form the eastern border of the core region of Upper Tibet, as delineated by the distribution of its two sui generis pillar monuments. Like 40 percent of other sites of this typology, there is a visible outlying funerary enclosure at DoringRdo ring (North).

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, DoringRdo ring (North) was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The square enclosure (17 m by 17.5 m) is aligned in the cardinal directions. This structure slightly declines in an easterly direction. Although much of the enclosure is intact, integral double-course wall segments are in evidence along just a few sections of the perimeter. Most of these wall segments are made up of one vertical course of stones laid flat on the ground. There are also wall segments composed of several vertical courses of flat stones, as well as those of upright stones embedded in the ground that protrude a maximum of 20 cm above ground level. In other words, all three types of stonework (flat stones of one vertical course, flat stones of multiple vertical courses and stones laid edgewise), which regularly occur in enclosures of this typology, are represented at DoringRdo ring (North). The enclosure is constructed of gray and beige metamorphic rocks of variable length.

In the middle section of the west wall (17 m long) there are slabs that run perpendicular (east-west) to the wall course to create a barred pattern. This type of wall has not been encountered in any other enclosure of the II.2b typology. The coherent double-course segments of the north wall (16 m long) are 90 cm thick. On the east end of the north wall there are two or three vertical courses of double-course stones laid flat, with a height of around 25 cm. The east wall (17.5 m long, 75 cm thick) has segments consisting of three or four vertical courses of flat stones with a maximum height of 40 cm. There are also double-course upright stones in the east wall. One of the erect slabs of the east wall projects 30 cm above ground level. There are also longer stones, set perpendicular to the east wall course, which demarcate one or possibly two openings. If indeed, there were two portals or punctuations in the east wall, these were not symmetrically arrayed. The south wall is 17.5 m in length. Inside the enclosure there are three or four parallel lines of upright slabs. These meandering slab courses generally run east-west and extend for 2 m. The network of slab walls lies 5 m from the north wall and 9 m from the south wall of the enclosure. The slabs are between 15 cm and 45 cm in length, and project a maximum of 10 cm above the ground surface. Two more lines of the same type of upright slabs are situated inside the enclosure, 2 m farther west. A similar use of slab walls to mark the interior of an enclosure is found at Doring ChakraRdo ring lcags ra (C-74).

Pillars

There is a single north-south line of 12 pillars, 13 m in length, which is situated near the inner edge of the west wall. Eight of these pillars are made of a grayish or beige metamorphic rock, and three are of a light-colored igneous rock (Long-stones DR8, DR9 and DR11). Some orange climax lichen grows on the pillars, especially on their north side. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of these pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided, heavily inclined (60 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular (60 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped (55 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (45 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped, broken (20 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR6: tabular, broken (30 cm by 90 cm). An upper section of this pillar (30 cm long) lies beside the in situ portion.
Long-stone DR7: tabular, broken (25 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR8: irregularly shaped (70 cm by 70 cm). There is a significant gap between DR7 and DR8 in which there is a tiny in situ pillar. This broken specimen is made of a dark gray rock.
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped (1.3 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR10: tabular (1.6 m by 1.4 m).
Long-stone DR11: (60 cm by 90 cm).

Outlying funerary structure

There is a square funerary enclosure (2.5 m by 2.5 m) situated 25 m east of the walled pillars. It is found on broad and level sandy ground. This structure is made of the same kind of metamorphic rock used to fence the pillars. The funerary enclosure is in quite poor condition. It appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions and to have had double-course perimeter walls. These walls are composed of upright slabs (10 cm to 50 cm long), which project 5 cm to 20 cm above the ground surface. Although stones are scattered around the enclosure, it does not appear to have any interior structural elements.

Doring (Rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Doring (South)
English equivalent: Long-stones (South)
Site number: C-162
Site typology: II.1b, II.1c
Elevation: 4780 m
Administrative location (township): Mentang
Administrative location (county): Pelgön
Survey expedition: HTWE
Survey date: May 19, 2004
Contemporary usage: Minimal cult offerings and light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS IX
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

DoringRdo ring (South) is located in the middle of the broad DoringRdo ring valley, on the west side of the watercourse. The site has good views up and down the valley (to the north and south). The terrain gently descends to the east and is sandy and spotted with turf. DoringRdo ring (South) consists of a unique combination of walled pillars (II.1b) and an array of pillars (II.1c). Rather than a temple-tomb edifice, the walled pillars are appended to the west side of the concourse of pillars. This constitutes a unique ceremonial facility, the design and construction of which probably reflect localized cultural and/or political proclivities. The close physical integration of these two types of monuments underscores their allied temporal, functional and cognitive relationships. In conjunction with neighboring DoringRdo ring (North) (C-128), DoringRdo ring (South) represents the most easterly expression of the sui generis pillar monuments of the core region of Upper Tibet. The two DoringRdo ring sites circumscribe the eastern border of a distinctive paleocultural entity, which in a general sense can be equated with prehistoric and early historic Zhang ZhungZhang zhung.188 DoringRdo ring (South) was discovered in 1928 by Roerich’s Central Asiatic Expedition.189

Oral tradition

In far western NamruGnam ru, sites such as DoringRdo ring (South) are generally ascribed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Walled pillars

The rectangular enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 10 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). The perimeter walls are flush with the ground surface and in a poor state of preservation. The exception is the south wall, which includes a coherent double-course segment (90 cm thick). The walls of the enclosure were built primarily using light-colored stones of variable length. These stones appear to have been laid flat on the ground. The interior of the enclosure is free of structural elements.

There are two standing pillars fixed in the ground near the inner edge of the disintegrated west wall of the enclosure. These two pillars are spaced 2 m apart. The south pillar is an irregularly shaped dark metamorphic rock (65 cm [height] by 70 cm [basal girth]). The north pillar is a four-sided light-colored igneous rock (1 m by 90 cm). The north pillar has been singled out for butter offerings (Marchö). Circular depressions have been carved into the top portion of this pillar and filled with butter. There is also a single line of prayer flags tied to the base of the north pillar. These offerings are probably related to the propitiation of personal, household and territorial deities. There are a few stones scattered around the base of the two pillars; these are likely to be the vestiges of the sacrificial structure, which Roerich reports existed here in 1928.190 There is also a collapsed pillar (1.3 m long) now lying in the middle of the enclosure among a small pile of stones. A photograph taken of the site in 1928 shows that there were four sizable in situ pillars erected more or less in a row at that time.191 One of these pillars appears to be the dislodged specimen. The whereabouts of the fourth pillar (it appears to have been a tabular specimen in the northernmost placement) is unknown. Geomorphologic changes and vandalism probably account for the degradation of the monument.

Array of pillars

The array of pillars begins 1.5 m east of the enclosure with the stelae. There do not appear to have been any intervening structures between these paired monuments. The array of pillars is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 26.5 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). The 14 m long eastern half of this concourse is extremely degraded, and contains less than 40 tiny in situ pillars. Although virtually all structural evidence has been effaced, it seems likely that the array of pillars was originally wider than 7 m, given its length and the usual rectilinear proportions of this monument typology. Water flowing over the locale from one or more flood events (as evidenced by alluvial depositions) has had a detrimental impact on the site.

In the west half of the array there are roughly 100 intact and broken pillars still left standing. Some of these pillars have orange climax lichen growing on them. The tallest specimen (60 cm) is found near the northwest corner of the array. Other unbroken specimens are 15 cm to 30 cm in height. Most of the Doring are tabular and made of a light-colored metamorphic rock. Near the southwest corner of the array there is an uprooted pillar 1 m in length. An analysis of the pattern of spacing between pillars, suggests that originally there may have been around 1000 standing stones in the concourse. There are now roughly 13 east-west rows of pillars with slabs placed edgewise in the ground in the same rows. These slabs are 10 cm to 30 cm in length and are generally flush with the ground surface. Perhaps there were alternating superficial slabs and standing stones in each row (it is now difficult to distinguish pillars that may have been broken off at the base from slabs that were installed at ground level). DoringRdo ring (South) is the only site with this particular slab and pillar configuration surveyed to date. This distinctive design feature, like the absence of an appended edifice, may be related to the site’s position at the extreme eastern edge of the territorial distribution of the monument typology. The lack of an appended temple-tomb raises questions as to where local burials were conducted. Scattered around the array of pillars are small pieces red quartzitc sandstone (?) and milky quartz. These stones must have been used as decorative elements at the site.

Gyamngön (Gyam sngon)

General site characteristics

GyamngönGyam sngon is located in the bottom of an eponymous valley. From the site there is an expansive view east across the plains of upper ZhidéZhi bde. The views north and west are partly constrained by higher ground. The view south is blocked by a low-lying ridge on the opposite side of the watercourse. The intermittent stream of the GyamngönGyam sngon valley runs through a gully immediately south of the monument. The terrain is level and turf-covered. The site consists of a walled pillar and four outlying funerary structures. The small size of the enclosure with the pillar, the high elevation of the site and its far northern geographic position suggest that this region was somewhat marginal to the main concentration of archaic cultural settlement in Upper Tibet. Save for the white pillar, primarily unshaped brown and bluish metamorphic rocks were used to construct the structures of GyamngönGyam sngon. These rocks probably came from the slopes south of the site. GyamngönGyam sngon appears to have been heavily impacted by human activities.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, GyamngönGyam sngon was an ancient MönMon habitation (dösa). It is also believed to have emerged with primordial existence as did the MönMon themselves.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is highly fragmentary and slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. It measures approximately 6.5 m (east-west) by 3.2 m (north-south). All fragments are generally aligned in the compass points. There are two stones (20 cm and 40 cm long) fixed around 60 cm from the pillar, the last remaining vestiges of the west wall of the enclosure. On the east side of what was the north wall there are a few stones in a single line that appear to be the sole surviving structural component of this enclosure wall. Similarly, on the south side of what was the east wall there are three small partially buried stones, which appear to be part of the original structure. There are also small stones embedded on what was the south side of the enclosure, but these exhibit no discernable coherence. Loose stones are scattered around the interior of the enclosure. This contrasts with adjacent areas, which are mostly free of stones.

Pillar

There is a lone broken tabular white pillar (35 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]). The two broader sides of the pillar face north and south, as is typical in this monument typology. The pillar is highly eroded and has weathered to an orange brown color in places. It appears to be fairly well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure.

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 16 m north of the walled pillar on the opposite side of the motorable track that runs through GyamngönGyam sngon. This highly degraded structure appears to have consisted of both an outer and inner enclosure. The square inner enclosure (2.5 m by 2.7 m) seems to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. It contains stones that are flush with the ground surface or slightly elevated above it.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 154 m west-northwest of the walled pillar. This quadrate funerary enclosure was established on sandy ground, and its walls appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. FS2 measures approximately 4 m by 5 m. Its north wall (50 cm thick) is the most intact. It is composed of double-course blocks and slabs (15 cm to 40 cm long) set into the ground edgewise. These stones are level with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 15 cm. The south wall fragment (2.8 m long) consists of a single line of stones (30 cm to 60 cm long) embedded in the ground, which protrude about 10 cm above ground level. The west wall has been nearly destroyed. The east wall has only one or two in situ stones remaining. Inside the enclosure there is a single-course slab-wall inner enclosure, which measures 1.5 m (north-south) by 1 m (east-west). Perhaps marking the location of a burial chamber, the four walls of the inner enclosure are mostly intact. The north and south walls are composed of smaller stones that project about 10 cm from the ground surface. The east and west walls are each dominated by a slab about 50 cm in length. This inner enclosure is situated 1.1 m from the inner edge of the south wall of the outer enclosure, 1.4 m from the north wall, 2.2 m from the east wall, and 1 m from the west wall of the outer enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 34 m west of the walled pillar. This single-course quadrate enclosure consists of variable-length blocks and slabs (up to 60 cm long), which are level with the ground surface or which project above it a maximum height of 10 cm. The north wall of FS3 has been destroyed by the local road. The south wall (5.1 m long) has an east-west axis. The west wall appears to be double-course and has been reduced to 4 m in length. Some of the west wall was cut by the road. The east wall of the enclosure was almost completely destroyed by the road. The highly fragmentary south wall appears to be of the double-course variety. Between FS3 and the walled pillar there is a small unused corral, consisting of a ring of stones. This structure was probably built with stones extracted from the funerary structures.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.7 m by 4.2 m) is situated roughly 200 m north of the walled pillar (34.137΄ / 20. 543΄). This quadrate enclosure is highly deteriorated. It appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter walls are composed of variable length-blocks and slabs that project a maximum of 25 cm above ground level. In the north wall there is an insecurely fixed slab 80 cm in length. There also appears to have been an inner enclosure that is offset towards the west wall of the outer enclosure.

Sokpo (Sog po)

General site characteristics

SokpoSog po, named for the Central Asians of yore, is located on the west side of a large basin. There are long views in all directions except for the west (the direction of a low-lying ridge). The terrain is sandy, well drained and gently declines towards the east. Although the extant structural evidence is inconclusive, with its profound eastern vista, SokpoSog po has locational characteristics commonly associated with the walled pillar monument typology. The general morphological configuration of the site is also in conformance with such monuments. SokpoSog po appears to have been heavily impacted by human activities.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, SokpoSog po is an ancient site.

Site elements

Enclosure

About 1 m west of the in situ pillars there may be vestiges of the west wall of the enclosure. No other wall traces are discernable. Some small stones are scattered around the site in contrast to adjoining areas that are largely free of stones. These stones may have formed part of the enclosure.

Pillars

There are three small in situ pillars that form a north-south oriented row 3.2 m in length. From north to south, these pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped white granite pillar, inclined (50 cm [height] by 70 [basal birth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped brown metamorphic pillar (40 cm by 65 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four-side light-colored igneous pillar (30 cm by 55 cm). In close proximity there is a dislodged white igneous specimen 1 m in length. It is reported that this pillar was rooted in the ground until a few years ago. Northwest of the pillars there are the possible traces of funerary superstructures.

Dröwo Doring (Gros bo rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Dröwo DoringGros bo rdo ring is located in an expansive basin, which is drained by an effluent of the Sau TsangpoSa’u gtsang po river system. This site has deep views to the east, and is also open in the south and west. The view to the north is cutoff by a proximate ridge. The terrain is level, sandy and gravelly. Dröwo DoringGros bo rdo ring consists of two pillars erected inside an enclosure and at least nine outlying funerary enclosures.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 8.1 m (north-south) by 4.2 m (east-west). Much of the double-course slab-wall enclosure has survived intact. The individual slabs are flush with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 15 cm. The double-course east wall (50 cm thick) consists of slabs 20 cm to 40 cm in length. There is an opening or “portal” in the east wall, demarcated by two slabs (40 cm and 50 cm long), which run perpendicular to the wall course. This 30 cm wide portal is fairly well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. The north wall (50 cm to 65 cm thick) of the enclosure is composed of slabs up to 55 cm in length. The first 5.5 m of the east side of the north wall is largely intact, while the remaining segment to the west has lost the inner course of parallel slabs. Most of the outer line of slabs in the south wall and the inner line of slabs in the west wall are also in situ. These slabs are up to 65 cm in length. The south wall is punctuated by an opening 1.1 m in width, which is demarcated by two slabs (40 cm and 50 cm long) placed perpendicular to the wall course. This opening begins 3.9 m from the southwest corner of the enclosure. This appears to be the only example of a “portal” in any but the east wall surveyed to date, but due to much degradation of the enclosure, the structural evidence is somewhat ambiguous. The horns of goats and sheep are scattered around the enclosure. It is a fairly common practice for drokpa to deposit the horns of livestock at such sites as a magical means to protect the herds.

Pillars

There are two highly eroded pillars planted inside the enclosure. The unbroken specimen is situated 40 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. This irregularly shaped gray pillar has weathered to a reddish brown color (1.2 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). The unbroken pillar slightly tilts to the north. There is also a broken tabular or irregularly shaped pillar standing to the north of the unbroken specimen (55 cm by 1.3 m). The massive girth of the broken pillar indicates that originally it must have been of substantial height. Like its unbroken counterpart, this uncut gray piece of rock has weathered to a reddish brown color.

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary structures FS1 to FS5 are all located on the level floor of the basin.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 52 m northwest of the walled pillars. This quadrate double-course upright slab-wall enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 6.8 m (north-south) by 7.2 m (east-west). Surviving double-course wall fragments are 40 cm to 80 cm in thickness. In the west wall there is a segment 1.6 m in length and 60 cm in thickness, which is composed of multiple courses of small slabs. There are five to seven of these slabs (10 cm to 30 cm long) running abreast of one other in meandering lines.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 30 m north of the walled pillars. This structure has been reduced to just three adjacent slabs (50 cm to 85 cm long). Two of these upright slabs run perpendicular to the alignment of the third one. FS2 appears to be a small remnant of a more elaborate funerary structure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 56 m north of the walled pillars. There are just six slabs (30 cm to 70 cm long) laid edgewise into the ground in the south wall of this highly fragmentary quadrate enclosure. There are also three in situ slabs in what appears to be the northwest corner of the structure and one slab in place in its northeast corner. The surviving structural evidence suggests that FS3 may have had single-course perimeter walls.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 5.3 m) is situated 26 m north of FS3. The perimeter walls of this quadrate enclosure consist of a single line of blocky stones flush with the surface. FS4 is not aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 4 m north of FS4. This highly deteriorated quadrate enclosure roughly measures 14.2 m (north-south) by 6 m (east-west). Only a few blocks and slabs of the walls are still in place. The largest in situ slab is 75 cm in length. FS5 may have consisted of several interconnected cells.

Funerary structures FS6 to FS8 are located on the foot of the ridge that bounds the north side of the basin.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (6 m by 5.3 m) is situated 71 m northwest of FS5. FS6 is not aligned in the cardinal directions. Only some blocks and slabs are still in place in the perimeter walls of this enclosure. These stones are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. There appears to be a highly fragmentary enclosure in close proximity to FS6, which extends 7 m to the north.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 is situated 7.7 m northwest of FS6. This poorly preserved enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 13.8 (east-west) by 7.4 m (north-south). Only small bits of its slab and block walls have survived. FS7 is elevated about 70 cm above the adjacent terrain on its south side, while its north/uphill side is level with the slope. The north wall, with its small double-course fragments (around 50 cm thick), is the most intact portion of FS7. There is a depression in the interior of this enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (1.6 m by 1.7 m) sits between FS6 and FS7, on gently sloping sandy ground. The perimeter walls of this small enclosure are composed of a single line of upright slabs (10 cm to 25 cm long). The south side of this structure has been destroyed. Given its diminutive size, FS8 may have served a very different funerary function from that of neighboring structures.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (2.3 m by 2 m) is situated 8.4 m north/uphill of FS8. Only a few slabs (15 cm to 50 cm long) are still in place and upright in this highly degraded enclosure. The slab that attains 50 cm in length projects 25 cm above ground level. There are possibly other minor funerary structures in the vicinity but virtually all evidence of them has been effaced.

Dolhé (Rdo lhas)

Basic site data

Site name: Dolhé
English equivalent: Stone Corral
Site number: C-132
Site typology: II.1b, II.2x
Elevation: 4830 m
Administrative location (township): Metok
Administrative location (county): Tsochen
Survey expedition: HTWE
Survey date: June 11, 2004
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Plaques inscribed with the mani mantra and other prayers.
Maps: UTRS VII
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

DolhéRdo lhas is located on a high strip of ground between two watercourses and marshes. The site is situated outside the pastoral village of DolhéRdo lhas. It has moderately long views to the east and west. The view to the south is very open, while the view to the north is constrained by a mountain. The terrain is well drained, sandy and gravelly. DolhéRdo lhas consists of walled pillars, most of which are made of a light-colored granite. There were at least 20 menhirs erected inside the enclosure. There is also a small tumulus and traces of another structure at DolhéRdo lhas. These outlying structures are probably funerary in nature.

Oral tradition

According to Mertsa TsetopMer rtsa tshe thob (born Tiger Year, 1938) of DolhéRdo lhas village, the DolhéRdo lhas pillars appeared at the beginning of existence, echoing a common mythological theme found across much of Upper Tibet.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 12.5 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). Only a few stones are still in place in the walls of the enclosure. The east wall has been nearly obliterated. The west half of the north wall is partially intact. It consists of parallel courses of granite blocks (20 cm to 60 cm long) that form a wall around 70 cm thick. These stones are flush with the surface or rise above to a maximum height of 10 cm. There are also in situ traces of the inner course of the west wall. The outer course of the west wall has all but disappeared. Only fragmentary bits of the south wall of the enclosure have survived.

Pillars

All the pillars are heavily eroded and some geochemical induced discoloration of their surfaces occurred. There is also a little orange climax lichen growing on some of the pillars. Each of the pillars has four irregular sides. Unless otherwise noted below, all them are made of light-colored granite.

There is a row of pillars situated against the west half of the south wall of the enclosure. These pillars stand among a heap of old broken inscribed plaques. From east to west, the dimensions and characteristics of these pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: radically inclined (1.3 m [height] by 1.2 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: made of a darker gray igneous rock, moderately inclined (70 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR3: (60 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR4: (80 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR5: radically inclined (50 cm high).
The main row of pillars is 4 m in length. This uneven row stands 40 cm to 90 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of these pillars are as follows:
Long-stone DR6: (90 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR7: (35 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR8: radically inclined (75 cm high).
Long-stone DR9: (1.5 m by 1.4 m). Between DR8 and DR9 there are two uprooted specimens, 65 cm and 1.1 m in length.
Long-stone DR10: radically inclined (80 cm high).
Long-stone DR11: radically inclined (1 m high).
Long-stone DR12: made of a fine-grained darker gray rock that has weathered to a reddish color in places (1.1 m high). It has a broken top. Beside DR12 there is a tiny standing four-sided pillar made of a dark gray metamorphic rock (20 cm by 35 cm).
Long-stone DR13: (90 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR14: made of a darker gray igneous rock (95 cm by 90 cm). Beside DR14 there is a dislodged pillar 1.3 m in length.
Long-stone DR15: is situated near the north wall of the enclosure, 4.6 m from the west corner. This is a dark gray igneous pillar (30 cm by 65 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

There is a mound situated 17 m south of the walled pillars. This mound appears to be aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9 m (north-south) by 5 m (east-west). This highly eroded structure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. A few stones are strewn around its surface and there is a concavity on the top. The mound must be a funerary structure of some kind. In close proximity, there are the faint traces of what appears to have been another funerary structure.

Donak Doring (Rdo nag rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Donak DoringRdo nag rdo ring is located just east of a dark-colored rocky formation known as DonakRdo nag. DonakRdo nag sits on the eastern edge of the huge Drapyé TsakhaGrab ye tshwa kha basin. A low saddle to the east admits morning sunlight between the summits of DonakRdo nag. The view to the west is extremely encompassing. The terrain is sandy and gently declines in a westerly direction. Donak DoringRdo nag rdo ring consists of two dark gray irregularly shaped pillars spaced 1 m apart. The pillars measure 70 cm (height) by 85 cm (basal girth) and 40 cm by 70 cm. These standing stones are heavily worn and are naturally polished, probably through the action of blowing sand. A few loose stones are scattered around the pillars.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Donak DoringRdo nag rdo ring was erected by the ancient MönMon.

Affiliated sites

It is reported that there are two sites with superficial structures in the same general area as Donak DoringRdo nag rdo ring. These structures are associated with the ancient MönMon. There are supposed to be two of these at a locale called GyapraRgyab ra, and others on the southern margin of the Drapyé TsakhaGrab ye tshwa kha basin at a place known as BakdoBag rdo (sp.?).

Domilang (Rdo mi lang)

General site characteristics

DomilangRdo mi lang is located on the western edge of a basin. The longest vista is in the east, while the view to the west is hemmed in by a closely bound ridge. The terrain is level, well drained and sandy. The site consists of a single pillar erected inside an enclosure. Although this monument has geographic and morphological traits associated with walled pillars, only ill-defined vestiges of the enclosure are still visible. It is reported that a Chinese military patrol camped at DomilangRdo mi lang in 1959 and removed stones from the enclosure.

Oral tradition

It is said by local sources that DomilangRdo mi lang was named for its resemblance to a standing person. Local drokpa also report that this site is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

Very little of the enclosure has endured to the present day. Tiny traces of its south wall run for nearly 5 m, beginning just east of the pillar. The few extant metamorphic (?) stones are around 20 cm in length and are level with the ground surface. These stones are uncut and blocky. There are also a few in situ stones comprising a 1 m long segment of the north wall. These two wall segments appear to be oriented east-west, suggesting that the entire enclosure was aligned in the cardinal directions. The distance between the north wall and south wall fragments is 3.8 m, indicating that this was a smaller example of this enclosure type. There is a double-course slab wall 4.2 m in length situated 6.2 m east of the pillar. This slab wall appears to be quite well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. Its relative position indicates that it constituted an interior structural feature of the enclosure. The slab wall is generally oriented east-west, but its course is not perfectly straight. Slabs (10 cm to 30 cm long) inserted into the ground edgewise make up the wall. The slabs project a maximum of 5 cm above the ground surface. Two different types of rock were selected for use as slabs. Some loose stones are scattered in and around the enclosure.

Pillar

The single pillar appears to stand near what was once the west wall of the enclosure. This pillar seems to have been well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. The irregularly shaped blue-gray metamorphic (?) menhir is 90 cm in height and has a basal girth of 1.3 m. The pillar is highly eroded, somewhat discolored, and is gently inclined towards the east.

Drakbuk Doring (Brag sbug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Drakbuk DoringBrag sbug rdo ring is located in the PenchéPhan che region on the south side of the Somé TsangpoBso med gtsang po valley. The views east and north are wide open, while the views west and south are much more constrained. The terrain is level, open, sandy and turf-spotted. Drakbuk DoringBrag sbug rdo ring consists of two walled pillars, the entire monument being made of blue limestone.

Oral tradition

According to the local drokpa’Brog pa, Drakbuk DoringBrag sbug rdo ring is an ancient site.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the intermediate directions, and measures 9.6 m (northwest-southeast) by 4.3 m (northeast-southwest). The double-course perimeter walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick) are mostly comprised of smaller uncut pieces of limestone (10 cm to 45 cm long). These stones are flush with the ground surface or are elevated above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. There are also a few slabs that were laid flat on the ground near the south corner of the enclosure. The southeast wall of the enclosure is largely intact and the other walls are partially so. There is possibly an opening (around 30 cm wide) in the southeast wall. This apparent opening is situated 1.65 m and 2.6 m from the corners of the enclosure.

Pillars

The main pillar is well centered in between the longer walls of the enclosure. This irregularly shaped tabular pillar (90 cm [height] by 1.3 m [basal girth]) is planted 70 cm from the inner edge of the northwest wall. The broad sides of this pillar are oriented parallel to the long walls of the enclosure. Orange climax lichen grows on the north side of the main pillar and there are brown encrustations on this side of the standing stone as well. Near the west corner of the enclosure there is a much smaller irregularly shaped pillar (30 cm by 70 cm).

Trachap Doring (Khra chab rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Trachap DoringKhra chab rdo ring is located in the wide valley bottom of TrachapKhra chab, in the PenchéPhan che region. The site is open up (north) and down (south) the valley, and has a more closed aspect in the east and west directions. The terrain is level, well drained and gravelly. Trachap DoringKhra chab rdo ring consists of a single gray and pink four-sided granite pillar.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Trachap DoringKhra chab rdo ring appeared with the emergence of primordial existence. It is also said to be in the possession of a local territorial deity (yüllha), DrupwaBrub ba (sp.?). The pillar is considered potentially harmful (ka nyenpo) and no religious rituals take place here.

Site elements

Each of its four sides of the pillar (1.1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]) is aligned in the cardinal directions. The pillar is slightly inclined to the south. In close proximity there are three pieces of gray granite (35 cm, 50 cm and 70 cm long), which may have been part of other pillars at one time. Between 50 cm and 1.4 m from the pillar, four granite slabs (around 15 cm long) are embedded edgewise into the ground. These stones must be the remains of a slab-wall structure.

Tsendo (Btsan rdo)

General site characteristics

TsendoBtsan rdo is located in a locale known as Gakchen’Gag chen, in the PenchéPhan che region. The Gakchen Chu’Gag chen chu forms the traditional border between PenchéPhan che and Drongpa Tsogu’Brong pa tsho dgu. Immediately to the north of the site there is a dark-colored rocky hill known as TsenriBtsan ri. To the south there is a white calcareous outcrop named tsenkhangBtsan khang. TsendoBtsan rdo has quite wide vistas in all directions. The terrain is sandy and gravelly. The site consists of an extremely degraded array of pillars and the faint vestiges of other structures.

Oral tradition

TsendoBtsan rdo is so named because it is believed to be the haunts of a tsen spirit. The site is considered potentially dangerous (ka nyenpo) and is generally avoided by the area’s drokpa. The identification of the site with the tsenBtsan spirits may possibly be implicit recognition of its ancient funerary status.

Site elements

Possible edifice

A small white calcareous outcrop is situated 5 m west of the most westerly pillars in the array. The appended edifice (temple-tomb), if indeed it ever existed, must have been built on or in front (to the east) of this outcrop. A few sandstone blocks lie on and around the little outcrop. These may have been part of the appended edifice. The stones around the outcrop are up to 90 cm in length.

Pillar array

The array has been reduced to only around 40 in situ pillars, about half of which are broken near the base. The unbroken specimens are uncut naturally pointed pieces of stones, 20 cm to 40 cm in height. The extant standing stones are made of gray and brown quartzitic sandstone (?), and are arrayed in eight different rows. These rows are oriented east-west, as is common in this monument typology. Four upright slabs in two parallel courses, situated east of the pillars, may mark the easternmost extent of the array. These parallel slabs (up to 35 cm long) appear to have been part of a double-course wall around 25 cm thick. The distance from this tiny wall fragment to the most westerly standing stone (broken at the base) is 13.3 m. The maximum east-west extent of the array is 4.9 m. These dimensions and the topographical constraints of the locale indicate that this was a fairly small example of an array of pillars. Originally, this array must have boasted several hundred standing stones.

Large chunks (up to 70 cm long) of the soft white calcareous material, which is found at TsendoBtsan rdo, are situated 14 m east of the pillar array. These chunks may have been part of an enclosure around 10 m in length (east-west). Pieces of brown and gray sandstone are also found in this disintegrated structure. As reflected in the spatial characteristics of the dispersion, this structure may have had interior structural elements. It is likely to have had a funerary function.

Drankhor Do (Sbra ’khor rdo)

General site characteristics

Drankhor DoSbra ’khor rdo is located east of the dark-colored mesa known as Drankhor DoSbra ’khor rdo. This site is situated on the northern margin of the huge Sele PukSe le phug basin. The views in all directions but the east are constrained by higher topographical features. To the east one can see a great distance all the way across the Selé PukSe le phug basin to the Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho basin. The terrain is sandy and gently slopes down towards the east. Drankhor DoSbra ’khor rdo consists of three in situ pillars.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The highly weathered pillars of Drankhor DoSbra ’khor rdo are mostly made of a dark gray volcanic (?) rock. The three standing specimens form a north-south line 2.4 m in length, which is oriented perpendicular to the axis of the slope. From south to north, these three pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (50 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (60 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (90 cm by 1 m). The broad sides of this pointed pillar are anomalously oriented east and west.

There are also two uprooted pillars at the site; a pinkish tabular specimen (90 cm long) and a partly submerged dark gray specimen (90 cm long).

Kanyin Doring (Ka nyin rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Kanyin DoringKa nyin rdo ring is located in a relatively narrow valley south of the Salé PukSa le phug basin. This locale is also called DotsupRdo rtsub (Rocky). Kanyin DoringKa nyin rdo ring is situated near the bottom of a relatively narrow valley. The views in all directions are quite circumscribed. The terrain is sandy and gently declines to the east. The site is named after a rocky ridge known as KanyinKa nyin, which bounds the northeast side of the valley. Kanyin DoringKa nyin rdo ring consists of five pillars erected inside an enclosure. All structural elements of the monument are made of the same type of gray rock.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is roughly aligned in the intermediate directions. It approximately measures 9.2 m (northeast-southwest) by 6.1 m (southeast-northwest). This orientation may have been adopted due to the exigencies of the local topography. The valley in which it is found is aligned in the southeast (upstream) and northwest (downstream) directions. The enclosure walls are all highly disintegrated. However, parts of all but the southwest wall are extant. The southwest wall must have been parallel to the row of pillars and in close proximity, as suggested by the dispersion of unfixed stones. The perimeter walls contain both flush blocks and upright slabs, up to 60 cm in length. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it as much as 20 cm. The specific design traits and thickness of the perimeter walls is no longer evident. Two prominent stones set perpendicular to the course of the northeast wall form the sides of an opening 1.1 m in width. These two upright “portal” slabs are 70 cm in length (with a 20 cm projection above the ground surface) and 60 cm in length (with a 25 cm projection above the surface). The portal is situated 2 m from the southeast corner and 3 m from the northwest corner of the enclosure. The northeast wall course seems to span the portal thus it is not completely open. Many stones are scattered around the enclosure. At one time, these must have been part of this structure.

Pillars

The five pillars of Kanyin DoringKa nyin rdo ring form a southeast-northwest row 2.8 m in length. From northwest to southeast, they have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (60 cm [height] by 75 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (45 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR3: tabular, broken (45 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (80 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped (60 cm by 80 cm).

A superficial funerary structure is possibly situated 30 m northwest of the walled pillars. Nevertheless, not enough of this structure has survived to secure a positive identification.

Gyungnak Tsuk Doring (Gyung nag gtsug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gyungnak Tsuk DoringGyung nag gtsug rdo ring is located on the southwestern margin of the Salé PukSa le phug basin. This site is close to the road that links the RuntorRu ’thor and YakraYag ra regions. The site is named for Gyungnak TsukGyung nag gtsug, a proximate rocky ridge that bounds the Salé PukSa le phug basin. Gyungnak Tsuk DoringGyung nag gtsug rdo ring enjoys profound views to the east. The site consists of three in situ pillars erected on a well-drained gravel flat.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The three standing pillars form a southeast-northwest aligned row 6.1 m in length. From northwest to southeast, these three pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: tabular (40 cm [height] by 50 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (75 cm by 1 m). Lying beside DR2 is an irregularly shaped pillar 1 m in length.
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped (60 cm by 1.1 m). There are two uprooted pillars in close proximity to DR3, 1.2 m and 1 m in length.

There is a small concentration of stones 5.4 m east of the pillars. This may possibly be the ill-defined remains of a funerary structure.

Affiliated sites

In the vicinity of Gyungnak Tsuk DoringGyung nag gtsug rdo ring there is a lone gray pillar stub (31° 16.566΄ N. lat. / 82° 46.394΄ E. long. / 4800 m). It is planted on open, level gravelly ground. This highly worn four-sided standing stone has been reduced to 40 cm in height. Some smaller stones are scattered about the site, but traces of other structures are not discernable.

Nyerma Gyam Doring (Gnyer ma gyam rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nyerma Gyam DoringGnyer ma gyam rdo ring is located near an eponymous ridge. The site is named for the many furrows in this ridge, which are thought to resemble the wrinkles on a forehead. The views south and west are blocked by Nyerma GyamGnyer ma gyam, while the views north and east are wide open. The site is situated upon a high, level bench on turfy and rocky ground. There is a gully just east of the site. Nyerma Gyam DoringGnyer ma gyam rdo ring consists of a single pillar erected inside an enclosure.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Nyerma Gyam DoringGnyer ma gyam rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

Very little of the enclosure has managed to survive. It is made of uncut blocky blue and white limestone. The enclosure was probably roughly aligned in the intermediate directions, and approximately measures 3.1 m by 2.5 m. Nyerma Gyam DoringGnyer ma gyam rdo ring is a smaller example of the walled pillars typology. Immediately west of the menhir, four stones form a southeast-northwest aligned structure 1.4 m long. These four stones, the remains of the west wall of the enclosure, are each 25 cm to 45 cm in length and project a maximum of 15 cm above ground level. A fifth stone is offset from these four stones, the sole surviving element of the second course of the west wall. At the southeast corner of the enclosure, a double-course wall fragment 1.9 m in length and 50 cm in thickness has endured. This wall fragment contains stones (20 cm to 40 cm long) that are flush with the ground surface or which project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. A tiny portion of the east wall of the enclosure is also intact. Partially submerged stones are strewn in and around the enclosure.

Pillar

The lone, irregularly shaped pillar (1.4 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]) is inclined towards the west. This gray pillar has undergone a significant degree of weathering and has turned a reddish color in places. Although the pillar is firmly fixed in the ground, it appears to have been replanted sometime in the past. This is indicated by a wide flange situated above the current ground level. This splayed section of the standing stone, as is found in many other Upper Tibetan pillars, is normally buried underground. Such a bulge adds to the stability of the pillar. The original height of the pillar above ground level was probably in the vicinity of 1 m.

Jiri Buk (Byi ri sbug)

General site characteristics

Jiri BukByi ri sbug is located in the RongRong valley, an effluent of the Rukyok TsangpoRu skyog gtsang po. The site occupies a well-drained, turf-carpeted bench on the south side of the valley. To the north, the valley bottom is swampy. The ridge of Jiri BukByi ri sbug is situated only about 100 m to the south. On the north side of the valley there is the mountain known as GyabukRgya sbug. Both JibukByi sbug and GyabukRgya sbug are local territorial deities (yüllha). There are long views up (east) and down (west) the RongRong valley. Jiri BukByi ri sbug consists of a medium-sized example of an edifice (temple-tomb) appended to an array of pillars. The pillars, slab walls and edifice are primarily made of a grayish volcanic (?) rock.

Jiri BukByi ri sbug is the most easterly example of its monument typology surveyed south of the Transhimalaya ranges. It is situated 65 km northwest of the sacred mountain, Tsanglha PudarGtsang lha phu dar (and just 40 km west of the meridian that passes through it), the border marker of Tibet and Zhang ZhungZhang zhung, according to the BönBon text Trowo WangchenKhro bo dbang chen.192 Jiri BukByi ri sbug, a sui generis monument of the core Upper Tibetan region, furnishes independent verification of information contained in this text concerning the territorial range of Zhang ZhungZhang zhung.

Oral tradition

According to some local drokpa, Jiri BukByi ri sbug is where the invading Gorkhas (late 18th century CE) hitched their horses (tandok). Other local drokpa’Brog pa contest this tale but were unable to provide an alternative oral tradition.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The temple-tomb edifice is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9 m (north-south) by 6.5 m (east-west). No coherent wall fragments have survived in this highly degraded structure. It has been reduced in appearance to a mound ringed with stones. This structure is elevated 80 cm to 1.5 m above the surrounding terrain. Variable-length (up to 75 cm long) stones were used in its construction.

Pillar array

The concourse of pillars approximately measures 20 m (east-west) by 17 m (north-south). It is in very poor condition: only about 130 specimens are still left standing. There are also a few uprooted pillars strewn around the concourse. These standing and dislodged pillars are but a small fraction of the perhaps 1000 menhirs that originally stood at the site. The individual pillars range between 10 cm to 60 cm in height, with an average height of approximately 20 cm. Most of these unhewn standing stones are irregularly shaped, and some of them support orange climax lichen growth. The majority of the in situ pillars are in the southwest portion of the array. Only the tallest pillar at the site and one other specimen still stand in the northern half of the array (nothing else has survived in this obliterated part of the array). A maximum of three pillars adjacent to one another stand in any one row, providing some idea of how fragmentary the array has become.

Four meters east of the most easterly in situ pillar there is a double-course north-south running slab-wall fragment (approximately 6.5 m long). This wall is composed of parallel courses of upright slabs, (7 cm to 40 cm long) set about 25 cm apart from one another. These slabs are level with the ground surface. The south end of this slab wall seems to coincide with the southeast corner of the pillar array. A single line of upright slabs forms a roughly square enclosure (70 cm by 70 cm), which lies adjacent to the east side of the double-course slab wall, 4.5 m north of its southern end. A zone of tiny slab fragments oriented both east-west and north-south is situated 3.5 m east of the south end of the double-course slab wall. The precise configuration of these wall fragments is no longer discernable. The north-south running, double-course slab wall bounding the east side of the pillar array is connected to an east-west aligned slab wall of the same type (6.3 m long). This east-west wall bounds the south side of the pillar array.

Tsoksum Doring (Tshogs gsum rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tsoksum DoringTshogs gsum rdo ring is located on the west side of the Bupzhung TsangpoSbub gzhung gtsang po valley. The site is just west of TsoksumTshogs gsum and on the opposite side of the valley from TakchenStag chen. These two small mountains are local territorial deities (yüllhaYul lha). There are quite wide vistas to the east, west and north. The terrain slightly dips to the east, and is well drained, sandy and grassy. The site consists of two walled pillars. No outlying funerary structures were detected at the site.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Tsoksum DoringTshogs gsum rdo ring emerged with primordial existence.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9.3 m (east-west) by 4.5 m (north-south). It is constructed of a bluish and reddish volcanic rock. The partially intact east wall of the enclosure is punctuated by an opening, which is demarcated on either side by a slab placed perpendicular to the wall course. This 90 cm wide opening begins 1.6 m from the southeast corner of the enclosure, thus it is not particularly well centered. The south “portal” stone is 60 cm long and projects upwards of 30 cm above ground level. The north portal stone is 55 cm long and projects around 20 cm above ground level. The opening itself is divided into two parts by a smaller transverse stone (30 cm long, 20 cm projection above the surface) set right in the middle of it. On either side of the portal there is a large upright slab (around 70 cm long, 10 cm projection above the surface), which dominate the east wall course. In all probability, the east wall was of double-course composition, but this cannot be confirmed with the structural evidence at hand. The south wall of the enclosure is mostly intact and indeed has a double-course composition. The south wall is around 50 cm thick and is made up of variable-length (10 cm to 60 cm long) stones set in the ground edgewise. These stones are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 10 cm. The double-course west wall of the enclosure is now highly fragmentary. The north wall also has been mostly destroyed. Many stones that were once an integral part of the structure now litter the enclosure.

Pillars

There are two small pillars standing inside the enclosure. They are located about 30 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. These two pillars are in very close proximity to one another, 3 m to 3.5 m from the south wall. They are, therefore, not well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. Their position suggests that other pillars may have once shared the enclosure as well. The gray grained pillars have weathered to a reddish color. Some stones have been piled up around the base of the pillars. The north pillar (55 cm [height] by 60 cm [basal girth]) has four irregularly shaped sides. The south pillar (70 cm by 75 cm) is three sided. The tips of both pillars have been broken off. What may have been a smaller pillar lies in close proximity to the two in situ specimens.

Doring (Rdo ring)

General site characteristics

DoringRdo ring is located below the confluence of two canyons known as SuyakSu yag (sp.?) and Jashang ShangBya shang shang. The site is situated on a well-drained gravelly prominence elevated about 10 m above the east side of the canyon floor. The canyon floor boasts a perennial stream and tall grass, which is cut for fodder. The site is dominated by a single pillar that was erected on moderately sloping ground.

Oral tradition

According to residents of DongpoGdong spo, DoringRdo ring magically arose on its own in ancient times. It is considered a good fortune stone (yangdo).

Site elements

The highly weathered main pillar is made of a gray rock (1.3 m [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]). It has four sides that are generally aligned in the intermediate points. The tip of the pillar has been partially broken. A few stones are scattered around its base. The base of a second, much smaller pillar (15 cm by 18 cm) is situated 1.45 m to the north. Reportedly, this pillar was broken by a youth in the early 1960s. A tabular stone (50 cm basal girth) that projects 20 cm above ground level is situated 75 cm north of the broken pillar. There are also two slabs fixed in the ground 90 cm north of the tabular stone. These slabs are 20 cm and 40 cm in length and protrude about 10 cm above ground level. The three projecting stones were deliberately planted in the ground. Given the scant structural evidence, however, it is not clear what type of structure these and other stones on the site may have constituted.

Affiliated sites

NgöyuDngos g.yu

NgöyuDngos g.yu, a site with substantial arable land, lies downstream of DoringRdo ring in the same drainage system (31° 07.080΄ N. lat. / 80° 11.399΄ E. long. / 4210 m). No farming has taken place here in living memory. An attempt was made in the Chinese Cultural Revolution to restore water to NgöyuDngos g.yu but this project proved a failure. The loss of water resources for irrigation can largely be attributed to the long-term desiccation of the GugéGu ge region. Recently, two houses were built by herders amid the old agricultural holdings. In close proximity to these houses there is a rammed-earth residential carcass (13 m by 7 m) that has been converted into a livestock pen. Downstream of the benches on which the defunct farm fields lie there is a bifurcation in the canyon. On the tip of the spur dividing the two branch canyons there is a ruined chöten and above it, a rammed-earth structure (7 m by 13 m by 2.5 m). Above the rammed-earth structure there is a stone building foundation (15 m by 5 m). These residential structures straddling the spur are said to be the castle ruins of a local chieftain, who had the title of ngöyu chupön. (sp.?). These ruins can be confidently ascribed to Buddhist architectural styles that became common after 1000 CE.

About 1 km upstream of the ngöyu chupön site, at the next bifurcation in the canyon, there are several ruined chöten and an adobe-block carcass, the remains of a Buddhist chapel (lhakang) in all probability (4260 m). Nearby, there are two clusters containing a total of around 15 caves that were hewn from the earthen formation. These cave complexes may have constituted the original locus of settlement in NgöyuDngos g.yu.

ShediShel did

The remains of a large dispersion are found in the bottom of the DongpoGdong spo valley, above the west bank of the Dongpo TsangpoGdong spo gtsang po (31° 07.4΄ N. lat. / 80° 07.2΄ E. long. / 4130 m). This site known as ShediShel did (sp.?) consists of contiguous piles of stone rubble and depressions in the ground. No authoritative oral tradition about ShediShel did could be collected. It is said that some of the pits on the site are the remains of old gold mines. ShediShel did may possibly represent the traces of an early settlement in the DongpoGdong spo valley, a valley without cave complexes to speak of. The site was constructed from red, blue and gray cobbles. ShediShel did can be divided into two sectors: northwest (170 m by 200 m) and southeast (90 m by 100 m).

The northwest sector dispersion of ShediShel did is devoid of stone wall fragments. There is, however, a rammed-earth carcass (5 m by 13 m by 3.5 m) in the northwest sector. It is built on a prominence that overlooks the Dongpo TsangpoGdong spo gtsang po. The long straight walls and truncated west end of this structure are in conformance with Buddhist temple construction, particularly that of the 11th to 15th century CE. The existence of this ruin confirms the testament of one elderly resident, claiming that a Buddhist facility once existed at ShediShel did. This high elevation edifice appears to belong to a latter phase of construction than the superficial stone dispersions surrounding it. The main link road in DongpoGdong spo cuts right through the northwest sector, and stones taken from it were used to line the roadbed. The southeast sector contains disintegrated revetments, a clear indication that superstructures of some kind once stood here. The revetment fragments reach a maximum height of 1.5 m. A corral and chöten were recently built in the southeast sector.

Rokhung (Ro khung)

General site characteristics

RokhungRo khung is located northwest of TongtsoStong mtsho. This important funerary site has lent its name to the entire valley in which it is situated. This fairly narrow north-south oriented valley has no permanent water source in the vicinity of the archaeological site (further upstream there are springs). Mountains in the range that rises above the north side TongtsoStong mtsho basin hem in the site. RokhungRo khung features two walled pillar complexes as well as a variety of outlying funerary structures. The site is divided into two sectors: east (walled pillars, a funerary enclosure and two tumuli) and west (a set of 13 uniquely designed square funerary structures). The integrity of the east sector of RokhungRo khung is potentially threatened by an ill-placed link road that runs through the valley.

Oral tradition

The name of the site clearly indicates that RokhungRo khung is thought of as a burial ground. RokhungRo khung is believed to have been built and used by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

East sector walled pillar complexes

The east sector is situated in the valley bottom on gently sloping gravelly ground. The two walled pillar complexes were established in the middle of the valley bottom and command good views north and south. Small pieces of red sandstone and milky quartz are lightly scattered around the site. These stones may have been used as decorative elements at the walled pillar complexes and/or other funerary structures.

South enclosure

The south enclosure is part of the smaller down valley, walled pillar complex. This enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9 m (east-west) by 6 m (north-south). It is primarily built of brown sandstone and a bluish metamorphic rock. The entire structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding terrain. Parts of all four double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) of the enclosure are intact. These walls are constructed of uncut variable-length slabs and blocks (less than 10 cm to 50 cm long), which were laid flat. The stones are even with the ground surface or slightly rise above it.

South pillars

There are four in situ pillars inside the south enclosure, all of which are made of the same type of bluish metamorphic rock. These pillars are fairly well centered in the enclosure. Two of these unshaped pillars (Long-stones DR1 and DR2) are set against the inner edge of west wall. The north pillar (Long-stone DR1) is tabular and slightly inclined (65 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]). Its broad sides are oriented north and south. The adjacent pillar to the south (Long-stone DR2) is also tabular (65 cm by 80 cm), but its broad sides face east and west. Long-stone DR3 is situated a little south of DR2 and is offset 35 cm from the west wall. DR3 is a three-sided specimen (50 cm by 65 cm). Long-stone DR4 is situated 40 cm east of DR3. DR4 is a tabular specimen (30 cm by 50 cm), whose broad sides are oriented east and west.

North enclosure

The enclosure of the north pillar complex is located 7 m north of the south pillar complex. It is unusual to find two such installations in such close proximity. The north enclosure (10.1 m by 10.5 m) is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. Its square form is an uncommon design variant in this monument typology. The north enclosure is primarily built of brown sandstone and a bluish metamorphic rock. As in the south enclosure, the slabs and blocks of the enclosing walls were laid flat in parallel courses (60 cm to 70 cm thick). These stones are level with the ground surface or project above it slightly. Parts of all four walls of the enclosure have survived intact. The east wall is somewhat elevated above the adjacent terrain.

North pillars

There are about 50 pillars erected inside the north enclosure, the largest number of pillars found in a single enclosure of this typology. The pillars were erected in uneven rows that gravitate towards the west and north walls of the enclosure. The pillars extend along the north wall 5 m east of the west side of the enclosure. Most of the menhirs are made of that bluish metamorphic stone common at RokhungRo khung. However, several other types of rocks were also used, including brown sandstone and at least two types of lighter colored rocks. The use of no less than four different kinds of rocks lends the pillars a multi-colored aspect. The various pillars are three-sided, irregularly shaped and tabular (with the broad sides oriented in various directions). The pillars range in size from 20 cm by 40 cm to 90 cm by 1.1 m. The average height of these standing stones is around 50 cm. A tabular pillar with a broken top (40 cm by 1 m) is found 3.5 m east of the west wall of the enclosure. The broad sides of this isolated specimen are oriented east and west.

East sector outlying structures

Minor arrays of stones

A zone of stones embedded in the ground (1.8 m by 75 cm) is situated 2.1 m west of the west wall of the north enclosure. These stones form a dense array, level with the ground surface. They do not exhibit any discernable design pattern or form. Another dense amorphous mass of stones embedded in the ground (6.5 m by 1.5 m) is found 1.7 m to the west of the smaller array. This larger array is elevated as much as 30 cm above the surrounding ground level. These two concentrations of stones do not appear to be geofacts, but rather funerary ritual structures of some kind.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (5.5 m by 7.5 m) is a quadrate enclosure situated 11 m north or up valley of the north walled pillars complex. The fragmentary double-course perimeter walls (60 cm to 80 cm thick) of FS1 are primarily composed of bluish metamorphic stones. These stones are 10 cm to 40 cm in length and were laid flat on the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 47 m north of FS1. This quadrate mound is aligned in the cardinal directions and appears to have had a modified L-shaped plan. It measures 15 m (north-south) by 8 m (east-west: south half) and 6 m (east-west: north half). FS2 has a height of around 1 m. This well-built structure, constructed primarily of brown sandstone, has undergone much degradation. Originally, it may have been somewhat longer than the length given above. There is much rubble around FS2, at least a portion of which was once an integral part of the structure. The most intact element of FS2 is its east wall. The east wall is comprised of as many as eight vertical courses of slabs and attains a height of 50 cm. This wall shows that FS2 was endowed with significant freestanding walls. A small portion of the west wall has also endured. A right angle bend in the west wall demonstrates that FS2 did not have a simple rectangular plan. The top of FS2 undulates, due to the effects of erosion. A small hole was dug on top of this structure, probably in an attempt to recover valuable artifacts.

Approximately 2 m south of the mound there is some evidence that a low-lying wall delineated this side of FS2. The structural traces of this ostensible wall are obscured by rubble. The effects of minor flood events have come quite close to the east side of FS2. Stones found north of the mound, which merge into the flood damaged area, may also have been part of an enclosing wall or an alternative type of ancillary structure. There is a dense zone of stones sticking out of the ground (2.2 m by 1.7 m) 2.7 m west of FS2. An analogous dispersion (6.7 m by 1.8 m) is located 6 m farther west.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3, another low-lying funerary mound, is situated 41.5 m west of FS2. This highly degraded structure approximately measures 18 m (north-south) by 6.5 m (east-west), and has a maximum height of 1 m. FS3 is primarily built of brown sandstone. The top of FS3 is highly eroded and undulating. Some small remnants of walls have persisted along the edges of the structure. These double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) are of the same design and construction as the walls enclosing the pillars. Other walls of the same type seem to have divided the structure into three or four cells. An analogous double-course wall fragment (5 m long) is located 3 m east of FS3. This poorly aligned east-west wall remnant may have been a constituent element of the mound, forming a portion of an east cell or other type of structural extension.

West sector

Square funerary structures

The west sector of RokhungRo khung is located on the opposite or west side of the valley. The west sector consists of 13 square funerary structures of uniform design and size. They are set about 10 m above the intermittent streambed, on well-drained sandy and grassy slopes. These structures occupy a 65 m long swath of terrain that rises to the west at a moderate angle. The highly degraded square structures of the west sector generally measure 2 m by 2 m, and are built of brown sandstone slabs and blocks (10 cm to 30 cm in length). Integral walls have been reduced to 15 cm to 35 cm in height and, together with the rubble lying on top of them, these structures attain a maximum height of 50 cm. They were skillfully built masonry constructions, which may have reached a height that would have given them a cubic form. One specimen has a rubble-filled depression in the middle of the base, suggesting that these structures possessed central chambers. These chambers most plausibly served as reliquaries or ossuaries.

The morphological affinities that the west sector structures share with the mountaintop cubic tombs are self-evident. There being 13 of these structures at RokhungRo khung is liable to have significant cognitive and procedural significance. In any event, the number 13 played a prominent role in Upper Tibetan and other old Inner Asian cosmological and ritual traditions. While the functional and chronological interrelationships between the east and west sectors of RokhungRo khung are not yet clear, it seems likely that they formed an integrated necropolis. If so, each of the various architectural components of the site and their spatial relationships to one another were constituent parts of a cultural narrative and ritual regimen.

The 13 structures of the west sector are aggregated in five groups plus one isolated specimen. Several specimens are found side by side. These groups are separated from one another by a distance of 4 m to 12.5 m.

Funerary structures FS1, FS2 and FS3 make up the north group:

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 98 m west of FS3 of the east sector. FS1 has an east wall 30 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS2 is situated 2.6 m west of FS1.
Funerary structure FS3 is situated 1.6 m south of FS1. FS3 has what appear to be traces of a central chamber.

Funerary structures FS4 and FS5 constitute intermediate group 1:

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 5.3 m south of FS3. FS4 has significant coherent wall traces.
Funerary structure FS5 is situated 1.7 m south of FS4. FS5 also has significant coherent wall traces.

Funerary structures FS6, FS7 and FS8 constitute intermediate group 2:

Funerary structure FS6 is situated 12.5 m south of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 is situated 2.4 m south of FS6.
Funerary structure FS8 is situated 1.8 m west of FS7.

Funerary structures FS9 and FS10 constitute intermediate group 3:

Funerary structure FS9 is situated 5.2 m south of FS7.
Funerary structure FS10 is situated 2 m west of FS9.

Funerary structures FS11 and FS12 constitute intermediate group 4:

Funerary structure FS11 is situated 9.2 m south of FS10.
Funerary structure FS12 is situated 2.4 m south of FS11.
Funerary structure FS13 is situated 4 m south of FS12, and is the most southerly specimen in the west sector. FS13 is especially disintegrated.

Drarong Möndur (Gra rong mon 'dur)

General site characteristics

Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur is located within 200 m of the southeast foot of the limestone mount upon which Drarong Mön DzongGra rong mon rdzong (A-21) sits. It is named for drama, a woody shrub that grows in many places in Upper Tibet. The site occupies a well-drained gravelly plain that is bound in the north by the valley’s watercourse. The site has fairly constrained views in most directions. Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur is comprised of a highly deteriorated array of pillars appended to an edifice. These structures were of middling size for this type of site. The rows of pillars and edifice appear to have been aligned in the cardinal directions, a common feature in this monument typology. Reportedly, the site was dismantled during the Chinese Cultural Revolution in order to build corrals and other structures. Two such corrals stand abandoned near the foot of the Drarong Mön DzongGra rong mon rdzong formation. The structures of Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur were constructed using uncut pieces of local blue limestone and a greenish stone. The chronological and functional links between Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur and Drarong Mön DzongGra rong mon rdzong are still unclear. It is certainly possible that they formed interrelated parts of the monumental infrastructure of the area, reflecting the lifecycle of the ancient builders.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Appended edifice

It is reported that, until the Chinese Cultural Revolution, the edifice (temple-tomb) had standing walls around 1 m in height. This structure is now leveled and most of its stones having been carted off. It was primarily built of unshaped blue limestone blocks. The edifice roughly measures 5 m by 5.5 m, and has been reduced to 70 cm or less in height. There are no surviving coherent wall fragments. The structure now presents itself as nothing more than a stony mound.

Array of pillars

Only around 40 in situ pillars remain in the array, most of which are broken. Originally, there must have been at least 500 pillars, erected in rows, in this array. Those few surviving pillars and broken stubs are concentrated in what was the central portion of the array. Most of the pillars are made of a greenish stone. There is a distance of 11.6 m from the east edge of the edifice to the most easterly pillar. The width (north-south) of the array is conjectural (it appears to have been at least 8 m wide). The largest in situ pillar is irregularly shaped (30 cm [height] by 55 cm [basal girth]). The second largest in situ specimen is only 15 cm in height. The other unbroken pillars are even shorter. Some of the broken examples are tabular in form with their broad side oriented north and south.

Beyond the most easterly standing pillar in the array there is a network of double-course slab-wall fragments, extending 9 m further east. As would be expected, these slabs walls are also aligned in the cardinal directions. They are composed of lines of parallel slabs, spaced about 20 cm apart. The slabs (10 cm to 45 cm long) were placed in the ground edgewise, and are level with the ground surface or project above it slightly. Three of the slab-wall fragments are oriented north-south. The first of these north-south segments (1.6 m long) is found 60 cm east of the last pillar in the array. This wall segment connects with an analogous east-west slab-wall fragment that extends 8.6 m to the east. This east-west slab wall seems to coincide with the southern delimits of the pillars array. The second north-south running slab-wall fragment, a highly dissolute structure, is located 2.6 m east of the one described above. The third north-south oriented slab-wall fragment (5.2 m long) is found 2.3 m east of the second example. It runs between the east-west running slab wall to the south and another east-west aligned slab-wall fragment (3.6 m long) to the north.

Dolang Nyidrik (Rdo lang gnyis sgrig)

General site characteristics

Dolang NyidrikRdo lang gnyis sgrig is located just outside the village of PusumSpu gsum on high ground in the Pundri TsangpoPhu ’bri gtsang po/Putö TsangpoSpu stod gtsang po valley. The site is situated on a sandy bench that gently slopes down towards the west, in plain view of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho and the TagoRta rgo range. A ridge to the east partly blocks the view in this direction. Dolang NyidrikRdo lang gnyis sgrig consists of four pillars erected inside a rectangular enclosure. No outlying funerary structures were detected at the site, but they could have been easily engulfed by the sandy terrain. Dolang NyidrikRdo lang gnyis sgrig is one of six walled pillar monuments (C-49, C-50, C-68, C-69, C-71, C-72) in the Pundri TsangpoPhu ’bri gtsang po valley, one of the greatest concentrations of such sites in Upper Tibet. This cluster of funerary pillar sites is probably associated with the chain of residential sites that were located near the shores of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho, as complementary parts of its archaic monumental assemblage.

Oral tradition

The elders of PusumSpu gsum are uncertain as to whether Dolang NyidrikRdo lang gnyis sgrig is an ancient MönMon or Zhang ZhungZhang zhung monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 6.5 m (south wall) by 7 m (north wall) by 5 m (west wall) by 4.5 m (east wall). Parts of all four double-course walls (50 cm to 80 cm thick) are extant. These walls are composed of uncut pieces of gray limestone, 10 cm to 50 cm in length. These stones were laid flat and inserted edgewise into the ground, and are generally level with the surface or project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. The west/lower side of the enclosure is somewhat elevated in order to compensate for the slope gradient. The interior of the enclosure is entirely open.

Pillars

The four pillars form a somewhat uneven north-south oriented row. These highly eroded, beige to brownish standing stones have a white grain, a well developed patina and orange climax lichen growing on them. As there are no suitable stones in the vicinity, these pillars must have been transported from somewhere else. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of the pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four uneven sides, located 1 m from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure (1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular, located 1.5 m north of DR1 and 50 cm from the west wall (1.1 m by 1.25 m).
Long-stone DR3: three irregular sides, broken tip, situated 50 cm north of DR2 and about 1.2 m from the west wall (75 cm by 85 cm).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided, broken top, located 20 cm north of DR3 and about 1.2 m from the west wall (30 cm by 70 cm).

Lukdo Möndur Khung (Lug rdo mon dur khung)

General site characteristics

Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung is located near the foot of a large light-colored limestone outcrop of the same name. The views north and west of the site are somewhat constrained by distant ridges, while the views to the south, southwest and east are wide open. The site has been heavily disturbed by the construction of houses and corrals in the adjoining village of LukdoLug rdo. Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung consists of two main complexes of walled pillars as well as outlying funerary enclosures. Many stones have been extracted from the archaeological monuments in order to build the residential and pastoral facilities. Even though the local inhabitants believe that this location is an ancient MönMon burial grounds, it did not deter them from founding a modern settlement here. This colonization seems to reflect a breakdown in native proscriptions barring such settlement. Fortunately, the local inhabitants now appear to be committed to preserving what remains of Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of LukdoLug rdo, Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung is an ancient MönMon burial grounds. Reportedly, the site was also desecrated in the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

Site elements

West sector

The west walled pillar complex of Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung is situated northwest of the LukdoLug rdo formation. There are also six well demarcated funerary enclosures between the pillars and the rock formation.

Enclosure

Unfortunately, the enclosure, like all other ancient structures at Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung have been heavily damaged by the pilferage of stones (31° 00.425΄ N. lat. / 85° 53.542΄ E. long.). The enclosure (14.2 m by 5.7 m) is found on fairly level sandy ground strewn with rocks. Only small sections of the four walls of the enclosure have survived. The enclosure appears to be generally aligned in the intermediate directions. It is built of local unshaped variable-length (up to 50 cm long) pieces of white limestone. The stones of the double-course perimeter walls are flush with the surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. The level interior of the enclosure is set a little below the northeast/upper wall and is slightly elevated above the southwest/lower wall.

Pillars

There are now two pillars erected inside the enclosure. These two pillars are made of a dark-colored rock that has a distinct white grain. Given their relative positions and the size of the enclosure, it seems likely that, originally, there were more standing stones inside the enclosure. The south pillar has a non-uniform tabular form (85 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). It stands 2.2 m from the inner edge of the west wall. The north pillar (70 cm by 1.2 m) is irregularly shaped and is situated 1.8 m from the west wall.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (4 m by 4 m) is situated 12.5 m northeast of the walled pillars (00.429΄/ 53.545΄). This heavily impacted quadrate enclosure appears to have had double-course perimeter walls. Limestone chunks up to 35 cm in length went into the construction of FS1. The enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain and it has an open interior. A small enclosure (1.3 m by 1 m) is situated 9.5 m north of FS1. Each wall of the small enclosure is comprised of just three or four stones. Stones are also embedded in the interior as well. The stones of this diminutive structure project 5 cm to 20 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (7 m by 7 m) is situated 31 m east of the walled pillars (00.425΄ / 53.565΄). This heavily built, double-course square enclosure is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. Parts of all four perimeter walls have survived. The north wall of the enclosure is elevated around 30 cm above the adjacent ground and the south wall is level with the ground surface, in order to compensate for the gentle gradient. These walls (70 cm to 80 cm thick) contain stones up to 70 cm in length, which were laid flat or edgewise in the ground. These stones are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. Many stones have been extracted from FS2.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3 m by 3 m) is situated 24 m east of FS2 (00.419΄ / 53.581΄). This structure has been partially excavated and its perimeter walls torn up. Stones 30 cm to 70 cm in length went into its construction.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 4.8 m) is situated 33 m southeast of the walled pillars (00.415΄ / 53.563΄). This quadrate double-course enclosure is not aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter walls (60 cm thick) are composed of stones (up to 50 cm long) that were laid flat in the ground. These stones are level with the ground surface or protrude above it a maximum of 25 cm.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (4 m by 4 m) is situated in closer proximity to the LukdoLug rdo formation on very rocky terrain (00.438΄ / 53.578΄). This highly disturbed funerary structure is not very recognizable. The stones of the perimeter walls project as much as 30 cm above ground level. The construction of corrals in the vicinity has had a catastrophic impact on FS5.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (1.8 m by 2 m) is situated 12 m southeast of FS5 (00.431΄ / 53.587΄). Like FS5, FS6 has been nearly destroyed through the construction of corrals. The stones of this structure project a maximum of 30 cm above ground level. Between FS5 and FS6 there appear to be three more small funerary structures. There also appear to be no less than six funerary enclosures south of FS5 and FS6, but the faint structural evidence is inconclusive. Other possible funerary structures extend over a transection of 100 m or more. These highly obscured structural vestiges suggest that the west sector was a much more extensive funerary site than what is now presented to the eye.

East complex

The east complex is dominated by an enclosure in which at least 18 pillars were erected (00.240΄ / 53.730΄). This monument is located in the middle of the LukdoLug rdo settlement and suffers from the dumping of refuse and other human impacts.

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 10 m (east-west) by 11 m (north-south). This is one of the only pillar enclosures surveyed to date, outside of far western Tibet, in which the north-south dimension is larger than the east-west one. Only small sections of the four walls are still intact. The double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) are composed primarily of upright stones, up to 75 cm in length. These white limestone blocks and slabs are even with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. The open interior is covered in gravel and smaller stones. A fragment of a plaque inscribed with the mani mantra is propped up against a central pillar.

Pillars

The 18 pillars form a north-south row 9.8 m in length, which parallels the west wall of the enclosure. These pillars stand about 50 cm from the inner edge of the west row. In those standing stones with two broader sides; these are usually oriented to the north and south, as is typical in this monument typology. Most of the pillars are made of a dark reddish and grayish volcanic (?) rock. Several specimens are made of white limestone. Ten of the pillars are broken; having been vandalized during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Four of the pillars are around 70 cm in height, while the other specimens are shorter.

Another pillar enclosure

There are the remains of another quadrate enclosure 9 m west of the walled pillars. A portion of its north wall (6.7 m long) and a portion of the west wall (3 m long) have survived. These double-course walls are around 60 cm in thickness and contain stones 20 cm to 50 cm in length. The pieces of white limestone are flush with the ground surface or project above it as much as 20 cm. There are what appear to be traces of the south wall just 3.6 m from the north wall, suggesting that this was a very narrow enclosure. There is also a single irregularly shaped pillar (50 cm [height] by 80 cm [length]) standing 1 m from the west wall of the enclosure. The relative placement of this enclosure and its general form constitute an unusual addition to the east sector structural ensemble.

Jori Doring (Jo ri rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Jori DoringJo ri rdo ring is located near the west foot of the sacred mountain JoriJo ri (approximately 5200 m elevation). The site overlooks a vast plain to the east. There are also long views in the north and south (in the direction of the Great Central Himalaya). Jori DoringJo ri rdo ring is found on a broad grassy and sandy slope, which gives way to steeper slopes in the west. It consists of three main pillars standing inside an enclosure.

Oral tradition

According to a local folktale, the mountain god JoriJo ri (a tsenBtsan spirit) tied his dog to the pillars of Jori DoringJo ri rdo ring.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 8 m (east-west) by 5.7 m (north-south). Only small fragments of the walls of the enclosure have endured. The enclosure is so degraded that the composition of its walls is no longer discernable, but they are most likely to have been double-course. A grayish and brownish metamorphic (?) rock of variable length (20 cm to 70 cm long) was used to construct the enclosure. In order to maintain a level interior, the east wall of the enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the downhill slope. There is a well-centered opening (75 cm wide) in the east wall, which is demarcated by two large stones that are set perpendicular to the wall course. These threshold stones are 80 cm long with a maximum projection of 40 cm from the ground surface and 50 cm long with a 20 cm projection. There is virtually nothing left of the west wall. It appears to have been laid within 1 m of the pillars. There is also very little remaining of the south and north walls of the enclosure. Many smaller stones (5 cm to 15 cm long) are scattered about the interior of the enclosure. These stones must have been an integral part of the structure at one time.

Pillars

There are three pillars inside the enclosure, the middle one being the tallest among them. These pillars are grayish to brownish in color and are heavily worn and darkened. The pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

South pillar: a metamorphic rock of four uneven sides, (70 cm [height] by 1.1 m [basal girth]). Just north of the south pillar there is a small broken pillar (20 cm by 70 cm).

Central pillar: a sedimentary tabular rock whose broad sides are oriented north and south, (1.6 m by 1.3 m). The central pillar is situated 1.4 m north of the south pillar.

North pillar: a gray crystalline irregularly shaped rock (80 cm by 1.6 m). The north pillar is situated 80 cm north of the central pillar.

Affiliated sites

Jori TsenkhangJo ri btsan khang

Higher up the west flanks of JoriJo ri there is a ruined Buddhist monastic facility known as Jori TsenkhangJo ri btsan khang (30° 04.6΄ N. lat. / 83° 05.7΄ E. long. / 4870 m). This Nyingma institution was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. It has never been rebuilt, despite there being no other monastic centers in HorpaHor pa. This smaller monastic complex was built just below a line of red crags. The core of the site is the Jori TsenkhangJo ri btsan khang cave, which is located behind what was the main building of the site (contained a chapel, lama’s residence and kitchen). It is reported that a stone pillar used to stand inside this cave. JoriJo ri is also an important BönBon holy site. It is the abode of the BönBon protective deity MakpönDmag dpon.

Droklhé Doring (Grog lhas rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring is located on a sandy and grassy gentle slope that abuts a vast plain, which spreads out far to the east. To the west, the site is skirted by an adjacent ridge. Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring consists of three pillars erected in a north-south oriented row. There is a rocky area east of these pillars, which may be the remains of some type of walled structure. There may even be wall traces around all sides of these pillars but the evidence is inconclusive. If it was fenced, Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring actually belongs to the II.2b typology. In any event, areas adjoining the site are largely free of stones. Like nearby Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo (C-170), Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring probably had a funerary ritual function. Nevertheless, there are no traces of other mortuary structures in the proximity. These structures, if they do exist, may lie buried under the sands of the site.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

The three pillars are made of rocks of sharply contrasting colors. These pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

South pillar: a red non-uniform tabular specimen with its broad sided oriented north and south (60 cm [height] by 1.1 m [basal girth]).
Central pillar: a blue non-uniform tabular specimen with its broad sides oriented north and south (80 cm by 1.3 m). The central pillar is situated 45 cm north of the south pillar.
North pillar: a red broken specimen (30 cm by 90 cm). The north pillar is situated 40 cm north of the central pillar.

Zangdong Möndo (Zangs gdong mon rdo)

General site characteristics

Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo is located just west of a red escarpment known as ZangdongZangs gdong. To the east, a vast plain stretches to the horizon. In the south, this plain is bounded by the Great Central Himalaya range and in the north, by the Transhimalaya range. Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo consists of groups of pillars erected on a sandy slope at the foot of the red escarpment, as well as funerary enclosures established on the sandy and gravelly edge of the plain. The pillars and enclosures are primarily built of a bluish metamorphic (?) stone. These two types of structures occupying adjoining but different types of terrain appear to belong to the same integrated necropolitan complex. Pillar group 1 was possibly erected inside a quadrate enclosure, but this could not be determined with any surety.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Pillar group 1

Pillar group 1 consists of a north-south oriented line of pillars 4.3 m in length. The slope upon which they were erected is quite steep and very sandy. It appears to have undergone significant geomorphologic changes over time. The uneven row of mostly smaller pillars is aligned perpendicular to the angle of the slope. Many of the bluish pillars are broken, and gaps in the row suggest that some of them are missing altogether. The north end of the row may have had upwards of 10 diminutive pillars. The 1.7 m long south end of the row contains five larger standing stones. From south to north, they have the following dimensions: 40 cm (height) by 95 cm (basal girth), 50 cm by 75 cm, 70 cm by 85 cm, 1.3 m by 1.2 m, and 80 cm by 95 cm. The tallest specimen is quite tabular in form and its two broad sides are oriented north and south. There appears to have been walls around this line of pillars, which were aligned in the cardinal directions. This prospective enclosure approximately measures 5 m (east-west) by 7.2 m (north-south). Virtually nothing but a faint outline remains of the possible enclosure. Its highly nebulous form and the sharply sloping terrain make positive identification of this structure difficult.

Other pillars

A non-uniform tabular pillar (1.1 m by 1.9 m) is situated 16.5 m uphill/west of pillar group 1. This standing stone is made of the same bluish rock and its broad sides face north and south. There are two smaller pillars (30 cm and 50 cm high) situated 37 m north of pillar group 1. The vestiges of other small pillars and walls seem to be distributed over nearby sandy slopes. Due to stringent time limitations, these more superficial dispersions could not be surveyed.193

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (9.6 m by 9.6 m) is a square enclosure aligned in the cardinal directions (05.44΄ / 10.44΄ / 4600 m). FS1 occupies an isolated position on the edge of the plain. This enclosure appears to primarily have single-course perimeter walls, but there are also a couple sections along the perimeter that may be of double-course construction. The upright variable-length unshaped stones (20 cm to 70 cm long) of the walls project 10 cm to 40 cm above the ground surface. The interior is free of structural elements.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is a single-course rectangular enclosure aligned in the compass points (05.60΄ / 10.47΄). It measures 5 m (east-west) by 2.8 m (north-south). The south and east walls of this enclosure have been largely destroyed. The walls contain variable-length rocks (up to 70 cm long) that were laid edgewise in the ground. These unshaped stones project as much as 30 cm from the ground surface. The interior is free of structural elements.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.9 m by 3.9 m) is situated 13 m north of FS2. This single-course enclosure has an open interior. Its perimeter walls are single-course and are composed of unshaped upright stones 20 cm to 70 cm in length, which project 5 cm to 40 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 4 m north of FS3. This unusually designed funerary structure is comprised of 12 interconnected square cells. FS4 is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 29.4 m (north-south) by 2 m (east-west). This structure has single-course perimeter walls, which contain upright stones up to 70 cm in length, which project as much as 35 cm from the ground surface. The 12 cells (2 m by 2 m) form a single line of structures, and are separated from one another by a distance of 40 cm to 90 cm. These cells appear to have open interiors despite the presence of many small stones strewn all over FS4.

II.2. Superficial structures: Primarily funerary superstructure

Superficial structures, mostly consisting of stone enclosures, many of which appear to be the superstructures of tombs or funerary ritual venues, are found all over Upper Tibet. In this work 92 such sites are detailed. Without the benefit of excavation, the analysis of subsurface grave architecture and the study of grave goods, the typological classification proposed here must be seen as provisional. It is based on a visual appraisal of the morphology, orientation and constructional qualities of the various kinds of superficial structures, and makes no provision for chronological development or cultural affiliation. Superficial structures are found in large numbers throughout Upper Tibet, demonstrating that burial was once a dominant form of corpse disposal in the region. The archaeological evidence shows that the culture of burial spread widely and took a number of distinctive forms in the region. Very significant chronological, social, economic and even cultural variability is likely reflected in the diverse types of tombs found in Upper Tibet. It has not yet been determined which funerary superficial structures overlie tombs and which were only used in mortuary rites.

Superficial structures are frequently attributed in the oral tradition to the MönMon in all areas east of the 89th meridian. They are commonly labeled möndur (MönMon tombs), mönpé durkhung (tombs of the MönMon), möndo (MönMon stones), mönra (MönMon enclosures), and mönkhang (MönMon houses). In the eastern JangtangByang thang, the MönMon do not figure as a legendary motif; rather, large tomb complexes are often fancied to be the remains of monasteries that were destroyed by Mongol groups such as the 18th century CE Jungarjun gar.

Drak Tsangpo (Brag gtsang po)

Basic site data

Site name: Drak Tsangpo
English equivalent: Rock Formation River
Site number: D-41
Site typology: II.2b, II.2c
Elevation: 4680 m to 4710 m
Administrative location (township): Hor
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: April 23, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. Stones are also being extracted from the archaeological monuments in order to build corrals.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS X, HAS C4
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po is the name of the locale, as there does not appear to be a specific name attached to the archaeological ruins. The site is situated on the edge of a shelf overlooking the north bank of the Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po, the largest volume river that feeds into the famous sacred lake Tso MapamMtsho ma pham/Tso MapangMtsho ma pang. The terrain is slightly sloping, sandy and covered in grasses and drama brush. On the opposite side of the Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po is the KharchenMkhar chen site (A-52). It is not clear what kind of relationship (chronological, functional and cultural) these residential and ceremonial archaeological sites had. Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po is composed of no less than 60 sizable rectangular and rectangular enclosures aggregated into at least 15 main groups, which stretch over a northwest-southeast transection of about 1 km. The walls of many enclosures consist of neatly built double-course white igneous cobbles that have a height of just a single stone. These stones (mostly 15 cm to 35 cm in length) are embedded into the ground surface. Other enclosure walls contain multiple courses of cobbles along their breadth, while still others are made of stones heaped up to a height of 50 cm to 1 m. The enclosure walls vary between 50 cm and 1 m in thickness, with many around 70 cm thick. The enclosures of Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po are almost certainly funerary in nature. The walls are not of a design typically associated with freestanding structures. Further archaeological inquiry is required if we are to understand the subsurface characteristics of the site. In terms of design and construction, Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po is closely akin to the enclosures of Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring (C-121), another large site in extreme southwestern Tibet.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Most groups of enclosures consist of interconnected cells of various rectilinear proportions. In addition to the 15 groups of enclosures delineated here, there are many others (in whole or in part) distributed over the site. More survey work is needed to properly quantify the extent of Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po. Starting from the northern extremity of the site, the dimensions and aspects of the 15 main groups of enclosures is as follows:

Funerary structure FS1 (12.5 m by 13.5 m).
Funerary structure FS2 (10.5 m by 10.5 m) is situated 75 m south of FS1.
Funerary structure FS3 (14 m by 13.5 m) is situated 17 m south of FS2.
Funerary structure FS4 (26 m by 15 m) is situated 108 m south of FS3.
Funerary structure FS5 (5 m by 5 m) is located in close proximity to FS4.
Funerary structure FS6 (14 m by 14 m) is situated 21 m south of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 is situated 30 m south of FS6. FS7 is a large zone of interconnected enclosures disturbed by the construction of corrals.
Funerary structure FS8 (14 m by 16 m) is situated 30 m south of FS7.
Funerary structure FS9 (15 m by 22 m) is situated 65 m south of FS8.
Funerary structure FS10 (16 m by 25 m) is situated 33 m south of FS9.
Funerary structure FS11 (21 m by 19 m) is situated 7 m south of FS10.
Funerary structure FS12 (170 m by 20 m to 30 m) is situated 53 m south of FS11.
Funerary structure FS13 (22 m by 29 m) is situated 30 m east of FS12.
Funerary structure FS14 (extending for 65 m) is situated 35 m east of FS13.
Funerary structure FS15 (extending for 25 m).

Purang Khyöl (Spu rang ’khyol)

Basic site data

Site name: Purang Khyöl
English equivalent:
Site number: D-42
Site typology: II.2
Elevation:
Administrative location (township): Khyunglung
Administrative location (county): Tsamda
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date:
Contemporary usage: None.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Nearby there is a cairn and prayer flags marking the summit.
Maps: UTRS V, UTRS X, HAS C3
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Purang KhyölSpu rang ’khyol consists of highly eroded upright slab-wall remnants that were erected on the top of the pass connecting KhyunglungKhyung lung village with the higher tablelands to the south. The terrain is level, sandy and with some grass cover. Large slabs and blocks of stones form a large single-course rectangular enclosure. These stones prominently protrude up to 40 cm above the ground surface. This enclosure appears to be funerary in function.

Oral tradition

According to a myth circulating around KhyunglungKhyung lung, Purang KhyölSpu rang ’khyol is named for the movement of a giant black serpent. This serpent slithered across the Purang KhyölSpu rang ’khyol pass after its den was disturbed in Khyunglung YülméKhyung lung yul smad during the construction of a mani wall. Khyöl is the local variant of khyil; a twisting or winding motion).

Dziden Chungwa Möndur (Brdzi gdan chung ba mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Dziden Chungwa Möndur
English equivalent: Lesser Scent Block Mön Tombs
Site number: D-43
Site typology: II.2a, II2b
Elevation: 4500 m to 4630 m.
Administrative location (township): Götsang Mé
Administrative location (county): Gar
Survey expedition: UTAE and THE
Survey date: May 17, 2001 and May 25, 2006
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. Stones have been recently extracted from the monuments to use in local building projects.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS V
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

The funerary superstructures of Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur are widely scattered across a large flat above the left bank of the Tritso TsangpoKhri tsho gtsang po (a tributary of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po). These plain and adjoining elevated areas are known as DzidenBrdzi gdan. Funerary structures FS1 to FS8 are located near a ridge that encloses the west side of DzidenBrdzi gdan. The structures of Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur were constructed from variable-length (15 cm to 80 cm) blocks and slabs of a tan, dark-grained rock. There are also other superstructures in more outlying locations (Dopo TagaRdo po rta sga and Mönnak DzongMon nag rdzong) that are subsumed under this catalogue entry. The enclosures of this composite site have quadrate and sub-rectangular forms. As a monumental counterpoint to these various funerary structures, there are a number of archaic residential loci in the TritsoKhri tsho basin and the adjoining Pangar ZhungDpa’ ngar gzhung basin (see A-31, A-32, A-137, A-138, B-135).

Oral tradition

It is understood by local shepherds that the structures of Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur are tombs. It is reported that human remains have been unearthed here during excavations. The tombs are believed to hold the remains of the MönMon, an ancient tribe of Upper Tibet.

Site elements

Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 has been reduced to a 1 m deep pit that is 8.5 m in diameter. In recent years local drokpa have removed most stones from the monument for local building projects and in the search for valuable artifacts. Only one coherent wall fragment (3.5 m long by 60 cm thick) remains. It is situated on the east side of the pit and was built with smaller stones. This wall fragment indicates that the superstructure of FS1 consisted of a quadrate enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated approximately 2 km north of FS1. It was built on level, sandy ground near the foot of a range of hills. FS2 measures 14.2 m (north-south) by 9.1 m (east-west), but it is not very well aligned in the cardinal directions. The structure is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain, on its downhill flank. The walls of the quadrate enclosure are double-course (60 cm to 1 m thick) and built mostly with larger blocks and slabs (50 cm to 1.1 m long). Some of the stones of the walls are flush with the ground surface, but many project prominently above it to a maximum height of 40 cm. The enclosure appears to have been divided into two unequal parts by an east-west running wall. There may have been other walls further subdividing the enclosure but not enough is intact to know for certain. Parts of all four perimeter walls are missing due to the predations of the local population. Stones have been recently extracted in order to build a corral.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is located south of FS2 in close proximity. Only poorly preserved vestiges of the enclosure (approximately 13 m by 4.7 m) are left. An integral wall fragment (4.7 m long by 80 cm thick) of the enclosure has endured. This double-course wall fragment is primarily made up of blocky stones around 20 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface or protrude above it to a height of 30 cm. On the west side of the structure there are the remains of a smaller enclosure (1.8 m by 1.1 m) that is liable to have had a funerary ritual function. It is also made of smaller stones that are flush with the ground surface or that are slightly raised above it. This ancillary structure appears to have had double-course perimeter walls.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 appears to have been roughly aligned in the compass points. This highly fragmentary structure may have been around 9 m long (north-south). An east-west wall fragment (5.8 m long) connects to a lesser wall fragment (3.2 m long) to create an L-shaped remnant. These double-course walls are around 60 cm thick. The stones of the walls are flush with the ground level or rise above it to a maximum height of 30 cm.

Funerary Structures FS5, FS6 and FS7

Funerary structures FS5, FS6 and FS7 (4610 m) form a compact northwest-southwest running row of structures situated at slightly lower elevation than their counterparts to the north. They are likely to represent an integrated funerary unit. The three enclosures were built with stones (20 cm to 50 cm long) that project 10 cm to 30 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary structure FS5 is a small quadrate structure (2.1 m by 2.2 m), which is generally aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter of the structure is elevated about 20 cm above the surrounding plain. Many small pieces of blue-gray limestone are found strewn on top. This limestone residuum must have formed a structural element of FS5. Funerary structure FS6 (4 m by 4 m) does not appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. The entire structure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. It is mostly composed of smaller stones, however, its perimeter walls have been largely destroyed. Funerary structure FS7 is roughly aligned in the compass points and measures 5 m (east-west) by 6.9 m (north-south). These dimensions represent what may have been just the west cell of the structure. There may also have been a contiguous east cell but the structural evidence is inconclusive. The three partially intact perimeter walls are 80 cm to 90 cm in thickness, and contain mostly blocky stones (20 cm to 50 cm long). In the north wall there are sections made up of two vertical courses of blocks laid flat. These walls reach a maximum height of 30 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (1.7 m by 1.1 m / 4610 m) is the smallest structure surveyed at Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur. It is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions and is mostly composed of smaller stones. The perimeter walls are only partly intact. FS8 is elevated about 20 cm above the circumjacent plain.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (approximately 11.5 m by 7 m) is found near a hill enclosing the east side of DzidenBrdzi gdan. Situated on a slightly sloping sandy plain, only small coherent wall segments of the enclosure are still intact.

Dopo TagaRdo po rta sga

There are two more enclosures at a location known as Dopo TagaRdo po rta sga (Rocky Horse Saddle). The more intact specimen (approximately 8 m by 6.5 m) was recently excavated. This structure is elevated 70 cm above the surrounding terrain, giving it the appearance of a funerary mound (bangso). Its enclosing walls were constructed from smaller blocky stones. In close proximity there is another highly fragmentary möndur with little evidence remaining as to its form of construction.

Mönnak DzongMon nag rdzong

Mönnak DzongMon nag rdzong (Black MönMon Fortress) is comprised of two enclosures that integrate large boulders in their walls. They were built on hard, gently sloping ground east of Dziden ChungwaBrdzi gdan chung ba. Funerary structure FS1 has been reduced to a 3.5 m line of five boulders and dispersed stones of the superstructure. Funerary structure FS2 (approximately 6 m by 6 m) is situated 45 m north of FS1. Along its perimeter (which is quite closely aligned in the cardinal directions) there are now 14 boulders, less than half the amount needed to fully enclose the space. It would appear that smaller stones dispersed around the vicinity were also originally part of the perimeter walls. The largest boulder has a cubic form, and measures 60 cm across and projects 75 cm above ground level.

Jorkhok (’Byor khog)

General site characteristics

Jorkhok’Byor khog is the name of a locale east of old Oma’O ma. In a sandy plain, just south of the main road running between GertséSger rtse and TsakhaTshwa kha, are the remains of a number of large single-course quadrate enclosures. Sadly, since circa 2000, the site has been decimated by local residents intent on extracting stones for local building projects. The plain of Jorkhok’Byor khog has few naturally occurring stones and easy access to the site has made it highly vulnerable to drokpa families expanding their homesteads in the area. At the time of the survey, many of the uprooted stones still lay on the site, ready for pickup. Little or no excavation seems to have taken place within the enclosures.

Oral tradition

Local residents associate Jorkhok’Byor khog with the ancient MönMon. Its ostensible name suggests that it is traditionally perceived as being very inauspicious.

Site elements

The dimensions, locations and characteristics of the superstructures are as follows:

Funerary structure FS1 (12 m across) has only small wall fragments that remain in situ. Two dislodged stones at the enclosure are 1.5 m and 1.2 m in length.
Funerary structure FS2 (11 m across) is situated 47 m south of FS1. FS2 was recently damaged and very little remains intact.
Funerary structure FS3 is located immediately south of FS2. Three walls of this square enclosure are still partly intact. Aligned in the cardinal directions, FS3 measures 5.7 m (east-west) by 5.3 m (north-south). The variable-length (up to 85 cm long) stones of the walls are elevated 10 cm to 15 cm above ground level.
Funerary structure FS 4 was a smaller enclosure of which little still remains. It was recently shorn of stones.
Funerary structures FS5, FS5, FS6, and FS7 formed a row 60 m in length. Every single stone in these structures has been wrenched from the ground. These enclosures were composed of many larger stones (50 cm to 70 cm long). There are traces of other funerary superstructures of the same typology in the proximity.

A rectangular enclosure (6.3 m by 3.7 m) on the south side of Oma Tso’O ma mtsho was built on level sandy ground. More than 50 percent of stones in the enclosing walls were recently removed. In situ stones reach a maximum length of 70 cm and project as much as 30 cm above ground level. There is also reported to be a similar enclosure on the north side of Oma Tso’O ma mtsho at a locale called LorpukLor phug (sp.?).

Burkar Zhung (’Bur dkar gzhung)

General site characteristics

Burkar Zhung’Bur dkar gzhung is located in a sandy plain east of the Kongchen ChuKong chen chu. There are probably eight or nine quadrate and sub-rectangular funerary superstructures at Burkar Zhung’Bur dkar gzhung. However, the integrity of the site is significantly threatened by local drokpa, who are removing stones from the structures in order to build pastoral facilities. A couple of corrals (lhera) belonging to a seasonal encampment are found at Burkar Zhung’Bur dkar gzhung. The double-course perimeter walls of the larger enclosures contain variable-length blocky stones (primarily 20 cm to 60 cm long), which are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a height of 50 cm. Some of these walls appear to have been more than one vertical course in height. The larger enclosures are free of superficial structural elements within the perimeter walls.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (9.5 m by 6 m) is the most northerly structure at the site. The well-built double-course walls are 60 cm to 70 m thick. The corners of the FS1 enclosure appear to be somewhat rounded.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated beside FS1. Very little of this smaller specimen has survived.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (8 m by 9 m) is the largest enclosure at the site. It is situated 76 m southwest of FS1.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (80 cm by 1 m) is situated 11 m north of FS3. This tiny sub-rectangular enclosure is comprised of just ten stones 40 cm or less in length. Most of the stones of the enclosure protrude above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (2 m by 2.7 m) is situated 40 m west of FS3. This fragmentary structure is partially obscured by stones that have broken free of it and it is slightly elevated in the center. The design characteristics of FS5 are now ambiguous.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 is situated 30 m south of FS3. Not much of this smaller specimen is still intact. There are probably at least two or three more funerary structures at Burkar Zhung’Bur dkar gzhung, but they are too highly degraded for clear identification.

Nakra Möndur (Nag ra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Nakra MöndurNag ra mon dur is located on a small sandy plain sandwiched between an eponymous watercourse and escarpment. The plain gently rises toward the approximately 200 m tall vertical walls of the NakraNag ra escarpment. The permanent pastoral settlement of NakraNag ra is situated about one-half km from the archaeological site. The bulk of the site is comprised of slab-wall funerary superstructures that form a line about 60 m in length (oriented 330° by 150°). This line of structures runs perpendicular to the axis of the NakraNag ra escarpment. The site consists of a complex array of well-built quadrate enclosures. Unfortunately, not one structure has survived with all its walls fully intact. The fragmentary nature of the remains makes an analysis of the design of the structures difficult. It appears that there was an almost continuous line of enclosures, many of which were subdivided by walls into smaller cells. The survival of at least 50 wall segments of 1 m or more in length indicates that these were intricately designed enclosures with many subdivisions or cells.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Nakra MöndurNag ra mon dur is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Most enclosure walls were of the double-course variety, but there appear to be several single-course slab walls as well. There are also a few examples of multi-course slab walls, whereby several parallel courses of stones were set into the ground edgewise to make up a perimeter wall. Walls subdividing the enclosures into smaller units appear to have been less massively constructed than the perimeter walls and to be primarily of the single-course type. The double-course slab walls are 60 cm to 90 cm thick. Grayish stone slabs (averaging 30 cm to 60 cm in length) were used in the construction of the walls. The maximum length of slabs is 80 cm to 1.1 m and the smallest examples are less than 25 cm in length. Many of the slabs protrude prominently above the ground surface. The maximum projection of slabs above the ground is 40 cm.

The longest single wall segment at Nakra MöndurNag ra mon dur is 9.5 m in length. There are around ten wall fragments 5 m or more in length at the site. Near the south end of the site, three walls (only one of which is whole) were part of an enclosure approximately measuring 8 m by 5 m. Near the north end of the site, the area with the densest collection of walls, there may have been even larger enclosures. Fifteen meters north of the 60 m long interconnected line of structures there is a zone of approximately 100 m² with highly fragmentary walls. The 15 m intervening between these two dispersions appears to be free from structural traces, but as so many disturbances to the site have occurred, it is difficult to be certain. About 20 m west of the interconnected line of structures there are many scattered stones but no coherent wall segments. This is possibly all that remains of another funerary dispersion at Nakra MöndurNag ra mon dur.

Tsapo Deumbur (Tshwa po rde’u ’bur)

General site characteristics

Tsapo DeumburTshwa po rde’u ’bur is the name of a rocky ridge near the southern rim of the Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin, which I refer to as the “Valley of the Dead” (see C-91, C-92, C-153, D-68). There are profound views east from this zone of funerary sites. In the sandy valley floor south of Tsapo DeumburTshwa po rde’u ’bur there are six structures (probably enclosures) forming a cruciform alignment. This alignment does not conform to the compass points; it appears rather to have a localized spatial orientation. In addition to the enclosures there are double-course slab-wall fragments at the site. This network of slab walls seems to have circumscribed intricate patterns on the ground surface. All structures at Tsapo DeumburTshwa po rde’u ’bur are primarily made of pieces of a grayish grained rock, primarily 30 cm to 80 cm in length. Some of these stones may have been partially dressed to produce flat, even faces.

Oral tradition

Among the drokpa of this region (GegyéDge rgyas), sites such as Tsapo DeumburTshwa po rde’u ’bur are commonly identified as MönMon burial grounds.

Site elements

Funerary structure FS1 (13 m by 9 m), the most northerly structure of the north-south oriented row, has deteriorated into a rocky tumulus 1.5 m in height. No coherent wall segments remain in FS1.
Funerary structure FS2 (10 m by 6 m), the middle structure in the cruciform array, is situated 25 m south of FS1. It appears to have been a rectangular enclosure, but it has disintegrated into an incoherent mass of stones. Within the FS2 enclosure there is a 1.5 m long pillar-like prostrate stone.
Funerary structure FS3 (6 m by 11m) is situated 41 m south of FS2. Small intact wall fragments have survived in FS3, which appears to have had a rectangular form.
Funerary structure FS4, the most westerly structure of the east-west oriented row, is a small, very poorly preserved specimen.
Funerary structure FS5 (9 m by 5.5 m) is situated 17 m east of FS4. Small integral wall segments have survived in FS5. FS2, the centrally-located structure, is situated 25 m east of FS5.
Funerary structure FS6 (1.6 m by 2.6 m) is situated 14 m east of FS2. There appear to be the faint remains of even more minor structures in outlying areas.

Just east of funerary structure FS3 (the most southern structure) there is a group of fractional double-course walls. They include a 2.5 m long wall made from slabs (generally 20 cm to 30 cm long) set edgewise into the ground. The two parallel courses of slabs are set at a distance of about 25 cm from one another. Another double-course wall segment is now just 1.4 m long. In one of its parallel courses, only three slabs remain in situ. In the other course there are 13 blocky stones each averaging 10 cm in length. In close proximity there is an L-shaped double-course wall fragment (each arm is 1 m in length). It was constructed with tiny stones (mostly 3 cm to 4 cm long) set in parallel courses, 15 cm apart from one another. Much smaller fragments of the same wall are found nearby.

Drakratar Möndur (Brag ra thar mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Drakratar Möndur
English equivalent: Freed Goat Rock Formation Mön Tombs
Site number: D-47
Site typology: II.2a
Elevation: 4850 m to 4890 m
Administrative location (township): Dungru
Administrative location (county): Rutok
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: May 30, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. Probable extraction of stones for the construction of nearby pastoral facilities.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS II
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

DrakratarBrag ra thar is the name of a small pastoral winter encampment (Günsa) and the dark-colored rock formation behind it, located in the Arula GyapA ru la rgyab region. In the vicinity there are several funerary superstructures of the so-called möndur type. They appear to be of rudimentary construction. These are among the most northern archaeological assets surveyed to date. The presence of Riu GönpaRi’u gdon pa, an important archaic residential site (B-25) and good pasturage to the south, may have had some bearing on the founding of funerary structures at this site.

Oral tradition

In this region (RutokRu thog), sites such as Drakratar MöndurBrag ra thar mon dur are generally ascribed to the MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (6.8 m by 8 m) is situated on a shelf at the edge of the DrakratarBrag ra thar formation (33° 57.751΄ N. lat. / 81° 52.789΄ E. long. / 4890 m). Only a few vestiges of this highly degraded enclosure are extant. Nearly all the large stones in the enclosing walls have been removed. Nearby, on a slope below the shelf, there are the possible remains of a smaller enclosure, but not enough is intact to make a positive identification.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2.6 m by 2.4 m) is a single-course enclosure, whose larger upright stones reach 70 cm in length and project as much as 40 cm above the ground surface (57.724΄ / 52.923΄ / 4880 m).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (1.8 m by 1.8 m) is a single-course enclosure made up of upright rocks, up to 75 cm in length, which project upwards of 30 cm above the ground surface (57.631 / 53.026 / 4880 m). Stones of the perimeter walls have broken free and lie scattered inside the small enclosure.

Affiliated sites

AyakA g.yag

Farther up valley, at a location called AyakA g.yag there is what appears to be another funerary superstructure (56.131΄ / 56.209΄ / 4850 m). This rocky tumulus (3 m across by 1 m high) has no visible coherent wall segments remaining. A few meters up valley of this structure there are the remains of a small enclosure approximating a rectangle (2 m by 1.1 m). The perimeter walls consist of a single line of stones inserted into the ground edgewise. These slabs are up to 55 cm in length and project as much as 15 cm above the ground surface. On the down valley side of the tumulus there are small wall fragments of other funerary structures.

Between DrakratarBrag ra thar and AyakA g.yag there is an area of light-colored rock formations known as Dranpa NakkhaDran pa nag kha (sp.?). It is reported that two or three “möndur” are located here.

Deumbur Nakri Möndur (Rde’u ’bur nag ri mon dur)

General site characteristics

Deumbur Nakri MöndurRde’u ’bur nag ri mon dur is situated in the sandy valley bottom around the Deumbur NakriRde’u ’bur nag ri formation. This site is located in a region known as Arula GyapA ru la rgyab. This site consists of a slab-wall funerary superstructure with extremely high walls, a row of standing stones and a long wall of unknown provenance.

Oral tradition

In this region (RutokRu thog), sites such as Deumbur Nakri MöndurRde’u ’bur nag ri mon dur are often associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Pillars

A row of about 14 small standing stones is found in sandy ground at the base of Deumbur NakriRde’u ’bur nag ri (33° 53.483΄ N. lat. / 82° 00.294΄ E. long. / 4890 m). At the time of installation, it is likely that the terrain was more stable than it is in the contemporary period, with its shifting sands. These pillars form a curved row, 10 m in length. The irregularly shaped stones are raised 20 cm to 75 cm above the current ground level, broken specimens notwithstanding. Mostly dark-colored, naturally occurring rocks were selected for erection. It is possible that there is more to this monument than meets the eye: parts of it may lie buried under the deep sand.

Long wall

Near the row of pillars there is a small highly deteriorated superstructure in the valley bottom (53.457΄ / 00.716΄ / 4880 m). On its uphill side there are the remains of a partly submerged wall 60 m in length that follows the same elevation contour. This wall, made of a single line of small upright stones, appears to be an ancient feature. On one end of this wall there are the remains of another highly degraded, small superstructure.

Slab-wall enclosure

A prominent slab-wall enclosure is found near the confluence of the Arula Gyap ChuA ru la rgyab chu and a stream flowing from the south (53.281΄ / 00.004΄ / 4880 m). It was built on flat sandy ground. Measuring 3 m by 2.5 m, the single-course perimeter of this enclosure is made up of thin upright slabs, 11 of which are still in situ. Other slabs lie broken on the ground beside the structure. Each of the in situ slabs is elevated more than 20 cm above ground level. The largest among them (45 cm long) is raised 70 cm above the surface. These slab walls may have been aligned in the cardinal directions, but they have shifted too much for a definite assessment. All the slabs are inclined at various angles through the effect of gravity. These naturally occurring, dark gray rocks are just 3 cm to 5 cm thick. All in all, this superstructure exhibits the most highly elevated slab walls of any superstructure surveyed to date. Due to its design, it superficially resembles tombs of the Slab Grave culture of north Inner Asia.194

Rindzin Möndur (Ri ’dzin mon dur)

General site characteristics

Rindzin MöndurRi ’dzin mon dur consists of a series of highly degraded, single-course superstructures situated on wide, unobscured, slightly sloping ground. The remains of at least three enclosures are found at the site. They are constructed primarily of an unhewn, grayish metamorphic rock of variable length (20 cm to 75 cm long).

Oral tradition

In this region (GegyéDge rgyas), sites such as Rindzin MöndurRi ’dzin mon dur are frequently associated with the MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7 m by 4 m) consists of a quadrate single-course perimeter whose stones are mostly flush with the ground surface (33° 27.596΄ / 81° 58.306΄ / 4680 m). About 30 stones, 50 cm to 75 cm in length, remain in situ.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated several meters from FS1. FS2 consists of highly fragmentary walls. It appears to be of the same design and construction as FS1.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 consists of small single-course wall fragments covering an area of 24 m by 9 m (27.700΄ / 58.168΄ / 4870 m). It appears that more than one enclosure was built here. The extant wall segments (up to 2.4 m long) include uncut blocks flush with the ground and upright slabs that protrude above the surface. The largest in situ stone slab is 75 cm long and is elevated 40 cm above ground level.

Affiliated sites

Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha

At Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha (Child Summer Plain) there are the remains of a single rectangular enclosure (33° 30.39΄ N. lat. / 81° 52 58΄ E. long. / 5020 m). This small enclosure (2.5 m by 1.5 m) has three single-course walls and one double-course wall (east), and is divided into two parts by a double-course wall, consisting of three stones in each course. The enclosure walls are primarily made of pieces of gray granite (up to 50 cm long), which protrude upwards of 20 cm above ground level. This structure is not aligned in the cardinal directions. Located on level shelf in a limestone formation, it is in close proximity to an old abandoned pastoral camp.

In the limestone formation, near the funerary structure of Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha, there is a small cave with around one dozen obscured swastikas on its walls. They were drawn using orange-red ochre. Probably all but one of these swastikas face in a counterclockwise direction. Some have been dabbed with butter, possibly in the worship of the local territorial deity (yüllha). There are also two or three conjoined sun and moon (nyida) pictographs on the walls of the cave as well as one or two unrecognizable motifs. Near the mouth of the cave there are a couple old mani plaques. Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha boasts a perennial stream fed by 6000 m tall peaks to the north and a spring. The spring is the residence of a water spirit known as Lutsen ChukmoKlu btsan phyug mo. Local sources say that this female deity came to the locale from the south, on her way to northern India. However, upon breaking a leg at Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha, she remained at this location.

Rirung Möndur (Ri rung mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Rirung Möndur
Site number: D-50
Site typology: II.2a, II.2c
Elevation: 4700 m
Administrative location (township): Ombu Tangzang
Administrative location (county): Gegyé
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 4, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing and the probable extraction of stones from the monuments.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS II
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

The four superstructures of Rirung MöndurRi rung mon dur are situated on a shelf set on the east shoulder of RirungRi rung mountain. The vistas to the north and east are particularly wide open. The shelf declines in an eastern direction, forcing the downhill walls of the heaped-stone wall enclosures to be elevated in order to maintain level interiors. The walls of these rounded enclosures consist of stones heaped to a height of 60 cm. The heaped-stone walls are as much as 1 m to 2 m thick, reflecting a great deal of subsidence over the centuries. Stones are strewn around the site while adjoining areas of the same shelf are free of such debris. This probably indicates that these loose stones were once part of the superstructures. The rocky backbone of RirungRi rung, the probable source of stones for the construction of Rirung MöndurRi rung mon dur, is situated west of the site. The structures are made from variable-length (20 cm to 1 m long) stones. These stones are light-colored with a dark grain and have acquired a reddish varnish. There is a small corral on the site which was probably built with stones pilfered from the monuments.

Oral tradition

Rirung MöndurRi rung mon dur is attributed by local sources to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

From south to north, the characteristics of the three superstructures are as follows:

Funerary structure FS1 (19 m long) is kidney shaped and has a level interior. The uphill wall is sunken about 60 cm into the ground and the downhill wall is raised a like amount in order to create a level interior. The interior is free from visible structural elements.
Funerary structure FS2 (6 m long) is located 17 m northwest of FS1. This is an irregularly shaped enclosure with single-course perimeter walls. The stones in the enclosure are up to 90 cm in length and project as much as 35 cm from the surface of the ground.
Funerary structure FS3 (17 m across) is situated 7 m northwest of FS2. This heaped-stone wall enclosure is nearly round. Like FS1, its uphill wall is set prominently into the ground, while its downhill wall is elevated in order to create a level interior. The interior is free from visible structural elements.
Funerary structure FS4 (19 m across) is located 32 m northwest of FS3. This ovoid heaped-stone wall specimen may have been divided into two cells by a heaped-stone wall.

Sergam Möndur (Ser sgam mon dur)

General site characteristics

Sergam MöndurSer sgam mon dur, a contiguous group of double-course funerary enclosures, is located in a side valley about 12 km southwest of TongtsoStong mtsho (this lake is visible from the site). The terrain is level and gravelly. The variable-sized quadrate enclosures of SergamSer sgam are joined together, and encompass an area measuring 48 m (north-south) by 17 m (east-west). The size and prominence of these structures indicates that SergamSer sgam was a relatively important funerary site. The slab walls (40 cm to 60 cm thick), the predominant type at the site, are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. Primarily, an unhewn light brown stone of variable length (30 cm to 80 cm) was used in their construction. Many of these stones host orange climax lichen. The light brown stones were installed in the ground edgewise and project 5 cm to 25 cm above the surface. There are also a few contrasting wall sections made from pieces of gray limestone (10 cm to 25 cm long) that are set flush with the ground surface.

Oral tradition

In this region (GertséSger rtse), sites such as Sergam MöndurSer sgam mon dur are closely associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

The fragmentary nature of the SergamSer sgam superstructures precluded a detailed assessment of their ground plans. Not one enclosure has survived fully intact. The better-preserved, south half of the site consists of six interconnected enclosures in two rows of three each. These six enclosures all share the same central wall. The east portion of the north half of the site appears to have supported three more analogous enclosures. These are now highly fragmentary. The west portion of the north half of SergamSer sgam may have contained a symmetrical array of three enclosures, but virtually all evidence of them has been effaced from the surface.

Luma Drak Möndur (Lu ma brag mon dur)

General site characteristics

Luma Drak MöndurLu ma brag mon dur, a network of funerary superstructures, is located near the south side of Drangné TsoSbrang sne mtsho. The site is found on a wide open, grassy plain that gently declines in the direction of Drangné TsoSbrang sne mtsho, a relatively small salt lake. Now reduced to fragmentary walls, Luma Drak MöndurLu ma brag mon dur covers an area of 14 m by 20 m. The site can be divided into north and south sectors. The walls are made of variable length (primarily 30 cm to 70 cm long, maximum length 90 cm) light-colored calcareous blocks and slabs. These stones are level with the ground surface or project above it a maximum of 25 cm.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The north sector of Luma DrakkarLu ma brag dkar is comprised of a dense agglomeration of dissolving single-course walls that appear to have been part of two rows of small enclosures of various configurations. There were perhaps ten enclosures in a row, each of which measured in the vicinity of 1 m by 1.7 m. The south sector appears to consist of one large double-course enclosure subdivided into two or three cells. The north wall is the most intact feature in this enclosure. It is 12 m long and 90 cm thick.

In the vicinity there appears to be a wall remnant of another funerary superstructure (31° 29.845΄ / 87° 23.395΄ / 4660 m). Other minor structural remains may exist at this site.

Nyenmar (Gnyan dmar)

General site characteristics

NyenmarGnyan dmar is the name of a small village on the east side of sacred Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho. Bounding the village to the northeast is a range with a rock outcrop also called NyenmarGnyan dmar. This is the local territorial deity (yüllha), who is considered a bodyguard (kusung) in the circle of the TagoRta rgo mountain gods. At NyenmarGnyan dmar there are at least seven funerary structures spread out across the sandy plain on the outskirts of the village. This mortuary site is divided by a gully into south and north sectors.

Oral tradition

On the shores of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho, structures such as those found at NyenmarGnyan dmar are considered the tombs of the ancient MönMon. Funerary structure FS5, the largest funerary structure at NyenmarGnyan dmar, is locally known as Tso DeugoGtso rde’u mgo (Chieftain’s Head Hill). It is thought to be the burial mound of an ancient MönMon chieftain.

Site elements

South sector

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8 m by 8 m) is a square tumulus raised 80 cm above the surrounding terrain. There are no coherent wall segments left in this rock and earthen mound. FS1 seems to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. Stones up to 50 cm in length went into its construction.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (14.5 m by 5.5 m minimum) is situated 3 m east of FS1. The fragmentary walls of this double-course enclosure are flush with the ground surface. The width of FS2 is uncertain because many stones have been removed in order to build walls in the settlement of NyenmarGnyan dmar. Stones up to 50 cm in length went into building FS2.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (6 m across) is a highly deteriorated enclosure situated 25 m north of FS2. The remaining wall segments are around 90 cm thick and contain variable length (up to 60 cm long) stones flush with the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (9 m across) is another highly dissolute funerary structure situated 25 m north of FS3.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (18 m by 18 m), the largest funerary structure at NyenmarGnyan dmar, is situated 98 m north of FS4. This square tumulus (bangso) is elevated about 1.7 m above the surrounding plain. Only tiny wall sections are still extant along the flanks of this rock and earthen mound. The random-rubble double-course fragments that have survived are composed of smaller stones. Reportedly, in the 1980s, stones were extracted from FS5 in order to build adjacent houses. Interestingly, several years after being built, these houses were abandoned, probably because of the perceived negative effects associated with using stones from a so-called möndur. Roughly 70 m northwest of FS5 there is a small rocky tumulus (under 50 cm high) on which old mani plaques rest. This may be another funerary structure.

North sector

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (11.5 m by 12.5) is situated on the north side of a gully that cuts through the benches of NyenmarGnyan dmar (53.934΄ / 37.492΄ / 4640 m). Although all four walls of this enclosure are intact, there is no discernable coherence to these structures. The walls are flush with the ground surface and their corners are rounded. Stone piled inside the enclosure were probably removed from the perimeter walls affecting the integrity of FS6.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (6.5 m) is a highly dissolute structure situated immediately north of FS6. FS7 appears to be identical in construction to FS6.

Chöser Möndur (Phyod ser mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Chöser Möndur
Site number: D-55
Site typology: II.2x
Elevation: 4740 m to 4750 m
Administrative location (township): Drowa
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 23, 2001
Contemporary usage: Stones have been extracted wholesale from the monument.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A small mani wall.
Maps: UTRS VIII
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Chöser MöndurPhyod ser mon dur is located on the flanks of a small hill called ChöserPhyod ser, which rises above the marshy Nyawa TsangpoNya ba gtsang po valley bottom. The entire hillside, including the funerary superstructures, has been intensively mined for stones. These stones have been used to construct substantial homes and corrals in the area. On the summit of ChöserPhyod ser there is a small mani wall.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang) such sites are often associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1, a small enclosure, has been heavily mined for stones. It was built on the clear, level ground of a saddle. Stones up to 80 cm in length went into the construction of FS2.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (3 m across) is another small enclosure, situated east of FS1, near the hilltop of ChöserPhyod ser. It sits on clear, level ground. The probable double-course perimeter walls (around 50 cm thick) are flush with the ground surface, but only small traces remain. Sheep horns have been placed inside the fragmentary enclosure. In the vicinity there appears to be the traces of another superficial structure.

Funerary Structures FS3 and FS4

Funerary structures FS3 and FS4 are situated 35 m south of FS1 at the south foot of the ChöserPhyod ser hill. They were built on moderately sloping, rocky and gravelly terrain. These structures have been so heavily impacted that they could not be positively identified. Local residents deny their MönMon associations, but their protestations do not seem very credible. It is said that this location was once inhabited by a woman from southern Tibet who built a corral here. FS3 consists of a dispersion that is 6 m across. A slight depression in the ground, encircled by dislodged stones, is all that remains. FS4 (5 m by 4.5 m) is situated 4 m south of FS3. Its downhill wall is elevated 1 m above the slope, while its upslope wall is elevated 50 cm above the slope. The remaining wall traces appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. The middle of FS4 has been excavated to a depth of 1 m, probably in the search for valuable artifacts. Stones remaining in the vicinity of FS3 and FS4 are up to 40 cm in length. Larger stones have been carried off.

Nelé Drak (Ne le brag)

General site characteristics

Nelé DrakNe le brag is named for the Nelé, a species of small eagle or possibly the sparrow hawk. The site is located on open, sandy and grassy ground on the northern edge of the vast Nya TsangpoNya gtsang po basin. It consists of two large interconnected, ovoid enclosures, which appear to be funerary in nature.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The enclosures measure 30 m and 10 m across. These structures are elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the surrounding plain on their north and east sides. The perimeter walls appear to be composed of stones that were heaped up above ground level (type II.2c), but they are not very well developed. The general form of the enclosures is also in keeping with type II.2c structures. The perimeter walls were built primarily from smaller stones, although some stones reach 50 cm in length. On the west side of the large enclosure there is a 13.5 m gap in the perimeter wall. A slight concavity has formed inside the large enclosure.

Nakra Drakseng Mönra (Nag ra brag seng mon ra)

General site characteristics

Nakra Drakseng MönraNag ra brag seng mon ra, the site of two large enclosures, is located at the south foot of the dark-colored NakradrakNag ra brag seng formation. In the heights above the site there is a rampart network stronghold (A-76). The terrain is sandy and moderately slopes down towards the lush Nyawa TsangpoNya ba gtsang po basin. The not well-preserved enclosures of Nakra Drakseng MöndurNag ra brag seng mon dur appear to be funerary superstructures. They are comprised of thin slabs of stone that seem to have been cut from the parent formation. These slabs form both double-course walls and heaped-stone walls. While most stones now lie prostrate on the surface, it is likely that some of those belonging to double-course walls originally were erected upright. It would appear that they collapsed en masse in the unstable sandy substrate. Other double-course walls may have been composed of several vertical courses of slabs laid on top of one another. The two enclosures of Nakra Drakseng MöndurNag ra brag seng mon dur, with their prominent slab walls, must have once cut an imposing sight.

Oral tradition

According to local elders, the structures of Nakra Drakseng MöndurNag ra brag seng mon dur were constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (16 m by 13 m) has three walls fairly well aligned in the cardinal directions, while the north side of the structure is made up of the rock formation itself. The south/downhill wall is elevated upon an earthen embankment around 1.2 m in height. The three well-built, double-course perimeter walls (50 cm thick) are composed primarily of smaller slabs (1 m long maximum) that lie flat on the ground. There are also some small upright slabs in the south wall that project upwards of 50 cm above ground level. These upright stones are pillar-like in aspect. Some portions of the east wall are missing. There is much building debris scattered about, both inside and outside the enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (38 m by 45 m) is situated a couple hundred meters west of funerary structure FS1. This structure appears to consist of heaped-stone and double-course walls that form a sub-rectangular enclosure. Much of the structure is elevated around 1 m above the surrounding terrain. The enclosure gently slopes down towards the east. The perimeter walls are now very fragmentary. Either there was no north wall (the side adjacent to the NakradrakNag ra brag seng formation) or it has been fully obliterated. Within the perimeter walls, near the upper end of the enclosure, there is an inner enclosure (5 m across). This apparently square subsidiary structure is composed of double-course slabs that lie flat on the ground. Its walls are now quite fragmentary. Beside it is another subsidiary enclosure that also appears to have been square in form (2.3 m by 2.3 m). This example exhibits a single-course slab-wall perimeter. The two subsidiary enclosures may have been erected to mark the precise locations of burials.

Beltsa Gyangtrok (Bal tshwa gyang khrog)

General site characteristics

Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog, a group of funerary structures, is located on the right side of the Rukyok TsangpoRu skyog gtsang po valley bottom. The site is situated on level ground spotted with turf, gravel and stones, which rises a little above the flood plain of the river. The northern end of the site is within one-half km of Beltsa Gyangtrok DoringBal tshwa gyang khrog rdo ring (C-82), and these two monuments are likely to be functionally interrelated (insomuch as walled pillars are often found near funerary structures). Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog consists of 17 well-built but highly dissolute rectangular and sub-rectangular funerary superstructures spread out over a transection of one-half km. Most of these enclosures appear to have had single-course perimeter walls, but there is also evidence for double-course walls. These walls contain variable length (20 cm to 70 cm long) blocks and, to a lesser degree, slabs, most of which appear to have been laid flat on the ground. Some stones used in construction may have been dressed. These enclosures appear to have been heavily disturbed sometime in the past. Most of the enclosing walls are severely denuded of stones, and many of those stones that remain on the site are not fixed in their original configurations. Furthermore, larger stone members lying on the surface are of the type regularly employed in the subsurface architecture of Upper Tibetan tombs.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Southeast sector

Funerary structure FS1 (5 m by 8.5 m) is elevated to a maximum height of 50 cm above the plain. Four dislodged stones between 1 m and 1.5 m in length are found within the enclosure. Most of the perimeter wall has been destroyed.
Funerary structure FS2 (3.5 m by 4 m) is a small sub-rectangular single-course enclosure that is level with the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS3 (10.8 m by 7.2 m), a highly dissolute enclosure, is elevated 30 cm to 50 cm above the surrounding plain.
Funerary structure FS4 (3.7 m by 2.8 m) is a relatively well-preserved, single-course seemingly ovoid enclosure, which is nearly flush with the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS5 (5.5 m by 4.3 m) is flush with the ground surface. Within the enclosure are two desultory stone members 1.2 m and 1.3 m in length.
Funerary structure FS6 (5.2 m by 9 m) has more than 50 percent of its single-course perimeter intact (33.060΄ / 57.270΄). This structure is level with the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS7 6.4 m by 9.3 m by 11.4 m) appears to have been an L-shaped enclosure. The west side of this structure is raised 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. A portion of the east wall of the enclosure has maintained its coherency. On the perimeter there is a stone member 1.6 m in length and inside the enclosure there is a large slab (1 m by 1 m). A small wall upon which rest plaques inscribed with the mani mantra was built on top of the enclosure.
Funerary structure FS8 (6.8 m by 11 m) is elevated 30 cm to 70 above the surrounding plain. A portion of its single-course perimeter walls are intact. A large broken stone lies within the enclosure.
Funerary structure FS9 (5.6 m by 3.1 m) has only small portions of its enclosure walls intact. The structure is elevated up to 30 cm above the surrounding plain. Large stones (up to 1 m long) are scattered within the enclosure.
Funerary structure FS10 (7.1 m by 10.4 m) with its single-course perimeter walls is largely intact. There are some upright slabs in the east wall of the enclosure.
Funerary structure FS11 (5.6 m by 9.3 m) is elevated around 50 cm above the surrounding plain. Many parts of the enclosing walls (60 cm thick) are intact, and include segments that are double-course. These walls contain slabs (up to 80 cm long) set in the ground edgewise. Within the enclosure, a 1.8 m long slab of stone lies partially submerged.
Funerary structure FS12 (9 m by 3.5 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen that is level with the ground surface
Funerary structure FS13 (4.8 m by 8.7 m) is elevated 50 cm to 1 m above the surrounding plain. The perimeter walls are partly intact and include one upright slab. FS13 is only 7 m away from the main road.

Northwest sector

Funerary structure FS14 (10.7 m by 8.2 m) is elevated 50 cm to 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. Most parts of the perimeter walls have been destroyed.
Funerary structure FS15 (2.9 m by 4.9 m) is a very small specimen.
Funerary structure FS16 (7.8 m by 9.1 m) is elevated 70 cm to 1.2 m above the surrounding valley floor. Parts of its north and east walls are extant. Cobbles are deposited on top of this structure; these are likely to have been part of the original superstructure.
Funerary structure FS17 (measurements unavailable).

Affiliated sites

In Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog, at the edge of the Rukyok TsangpoRu skyog gtsang po valley, there is a partial enclosure containing four massive upright stones (up to 2 m high) of unknown function and age (29° 32.842΄ N. lat. / 84° 57.252΄ E. long. / 4580 m). The rear wall of this fragmentary enclosure was built against a steep slope and contains three of the very large upright stones. There is no forward wall in this well-built structure. Several large dislodged stones lie within the walls.

Gyamnak Mönkhang (Gyam nag mon khang)

General site characteristics

Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang is an important archaic burial grounds. The site is named for GyamnakGyam nag, a small dark-colored escarpment in the vicinity, at which there is a summer pastoral encampment (yarsa). The terrain gently slopes down towards the northeast and is strewn with rocks, gravel and brush. The view east towards Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog (C-82 and D-58) is especially wide open. Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang consists of 19 major funerary structures. These structures, most or all of which were used for burial purposes, are not aligned in the cardinal directions nor could any pattern in their overall distribution be discerned. The tombs are spread out over an area of several hectares. Most of the superstructures are either quadrate constructions elevated significantly above the ground surface or non-descript enclosures level with the ground surface. It appears that these superstructures of variable size were of the superficial enclosure or bangso type, however, most structural evidence on the surface has been severely disturbed. The superstructures contained variable length (20 cm to 80 cm) unhewn light-colored stones, which were embedded in the ground along the perimeter. The subsurface architecture (at least where visible) consists of well-built masonry-lined walls, generally built with large slabs (up to 1 m or more in length). Massive capstones (up to at least 2.1 m long) were placed upon these walls. The floors of the cists are not visible; rather they are obscured by soil and debris. It could not therefore be determined what type of base the burial chambers possessed. Due to the obscuring of the cists by rubble, capstones and the soil overlay, their precise dimensions could not be determined. It appears that many of these cists were relatively long and narrow with wider chambers at each end. In addition to the 19 major structures of Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang, there are several smaller highly fragmentary constructions scattered about. These include the only extant slab-wall fragment left on the surface at the site.

According to local sources, several years ago a road construction crew of perhaps eight men came to Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang in order to extract stones. They smashed the superstructures to reach large stones capping the burial chambers. They removed no less than 30 stones, up to 2 m in length, from the so-called mönkhang. A number of tombs were very seriously damaged in this operation and are now exposed to the full fury of the elements. The stones were transported several kilometers away to the GangchenGangs chen flood plain and used to build culverts along the main road to southwestern Tibet. More stones were pilfered than were needed for this work and now lie unused on the roadside. The opened tombs have been cleared of any contents they might have once held. Inquires as to what was recovered by the road gang did not turn up any hard information. No artifacts, bones or other materials were detected at the site, but only a cursory search was conducted. In addition to the recent case of vandalism, there are tombs with highly eroded subsurface members on the surface, which may well be evidence of an earlier pilferage of the site. The destruction of Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang underlines the urgency of an effective conservation program being instituted in Upper Tibet.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang is the vestiges of an ancient MönMon habitation.

Site elements

Funerary sructure FS1

Funerary sructure FS1 (5.6 m by 3.2 m) consists of an incoherent perimeter level with the ground surface. On top of the structure there is a large dislodged stone slab (1 m²), which is likely to have been part of its subsurface architecture.

Funerary sructure FS2

Funerary sructure FS2 (7.5 m by 7.5 m) is situated 8.4 m west of FS1. FS2 is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. Due to the excavation of the tomb, two in situ capstones are now exposed. These capstones measure at least 1.5 m by 1 m and 1.2 m by 1 m.

Funerary sructure FS3

Funerary sructure FS3 (11.6 m by 16.2 m) is situated 50 m south of FS2 (36.544΄ / 38.360΄). This large structure is elevated 1m above the surrounding terrain on its north side and as much as 2 m on its south side. The superstructure consists of two mounds, the north one of which was partially opened by road workers in order to remove capstones. There are still two in situ capstones (2 m by 60 cm, 2.1 m by 50 cm) suspended over the opened grave chamber. This rectangular cist currently has a maximum depth of 1.4 m. The subsurface walls of the cist were either partially or completely lined in random-work masonry (containing stone slabs that regularly attain 1 m in length). These walls act as the structural support for the capstones. The southeast extremity of the north burial chamber has four more large in situ capstones. These capstones are tightly pressed against one another. One of them is partially exposed while the other three are still covered by soil and small cobbles. The configuration of the four capstones indicates that the entire burial chamber was sealed by a tight-knit series of large stones. The south mound of the FS3 superstructure does not appear to have been recently disturbed.

Funerary sructure FS4

Funerary sructure FS4 (3.8 m by 2.8 m) is situated 2.8 m east of FS3 (36.542΄ / 38.369΄). The poorly preserved superstructure is level with the ground surface.

Funerary sructure FS5

Funerary sructure FS5 (5 m by 3 m) is situated 5.3 m east of FS4 (36.538΄ / 38.369΄). Although the perimeter walls of the superstructure are clearly delineated, their design could not be determined. The superstructure is even with the ground level.

Funerary sructure FS6

Funerary sructure FS6 (9.8 m by 7 m) is situated 9 m east of FS5 (36.531΄ / 38.383΄). Like FS3, FS6 was cloaked in earth and small cobbles. The superstructure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. The entire breadth of the structure was opened in order to remove stones. Only two large capstones remain in place. The walls of the cist are generally made of large slabs, 1 m or more in length. The current maximum depth of the burial chamber is 1.2 m. Although the burial chamber is not entirely visible, it appears to have been long and narrow with a wider extension or compartment on each end.

Funerary sructure FS7

Funerary sructure FS7 is situated 5 m northeast of FS6 and has similar dimensions (36.535΄ / 38.387΄). The superstructure is elevated as much as 1.5 m above the surrounding terrain. The burial chamber has been partially opened and now has a maximum depth of 1.2 m. What appears to have been the largest capstone (2 m long) is still in place. On the northwest end of the cist there are two small compartments (60 cm to 70 cm wide, 80 cm to 1.2 m wide) at right angles to one another.

Funerary sructure FS8

Funerary sructure FS8 (5.5 m by 5.5 m) is situated 12 m northeast of FS7 (36.543΄ / 38.396΄). Its poorly-preserved perimeter wall is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain.

Funerary sructure FS9

Funerary sructure FS9 (4.4 m by 2.6 m) is situated 6.7 m northeast of FS8 (36.549΄ / 38.399΄). Its flush perimeter is well marked with stones.

Funerary sructure FS10

Funerary sructure FS10 (2.5 m across) is situated 9 m east of FS7 (36.535΄ / 38.398΄). This small structure, which is even with the ground surface, has been mostly destroyed.

Funerary sructure FS11

Funerary sructure FS11 (4.4 m by 2.6 m) is situated 10 m east of FS6 (36.530΄ / 38.397΄). The perimeter is still well marked but of an indeterminate construction type.

Funerary sructure FS12

Funerary sructure FS12 (3.3 m by 3.5 m) is situated 11.4 m south of FS11 (36.522΄ / 38.394΄). This poorly preserved enclosure is level with the ground surface.

Funerary sructure FS13

Funerary sructure FS13 (2.3 m by 2.5 m) is situated 8 m east of FS12 (36.522΄ / 38.390΄). This highly dissolute enclosure is even with the ground surface.

Funerary sructure FS14

Funerary sructure FS14 (6.5 m by 9.3 m) is situated 25 m west of FS13 (36.521΄ / 38.367΄). The partly preserved enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain.

Funerary sructure FS15

Funerary sructure FS15, a prominent specimen of indeterminate dimensions, is situated 9 m south of FS14 (36.517΄ / 38.359΄). FS15 is elevated as much as 1.5 m above the adjacent terrain. It was excavated by road workers in two places. On the east end of the opened chamber there is an exposed in situ capstone more than 2 m in length. Three more exposed capstones are suspended above the west end of the burial chamber.

Funerary sructure FS16

Funerary sructure FS16 (3.7 m by 6.4 m) is situated 2.7 m east of FS14 (36.514΄ / 38.373΄ ). A heavily eroded dislodged large capstone (2.1 m long) lies on top of the structure. There are also smaller capstones that have been lying on the surface of FS15 for a considerable amount of time.

Funerary sructure FS17

Funerary sructure FS17 (6.6 m by 7.7 m) is situated 26 m southeast of FS16 (36.503΄ / 38.390΄). This structure is elevated as much as 1.2 m above the surrounding terrain. Excavations have exposed three capstones.

Funerary sructure FS18

Funerary sructure FS18 (2.5 m by 4.6 m) is situated 10.7 m east of FS17 (36.500΄ / 38.402΄). FS18 is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain. Capstones exposed to the elements for a long time lie on the surface.

Funerary sructure FS19

Funerary sructure FS19 (4.3 m by 4 m), the highest specimen at Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang, is situated 52 m northeast of FS2 (36.554΄ / 38.329΄). The fragmentary enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. The presence of large eroded stones on the surface, probably from an underlying cist, suggests that FS19, like many other specimens at the site, was desecrated in the distant past.

Nyerma Gyam Möndo (Gnyer ma gyam mon rdo)

General site characteristics

Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo, a site of ambiguous identity, is named for various cuts along its slopes, which are said to resemble the wrinkles on a forehead. The Nyerma GyamGnyer ma gyam ridge overlooks the north side of Gunggyü TsoGung rgyud mtsho. The site consists of a series of mani walls, two of which appear to be modified funerary structures. These six mani walls sit on three dark-colored rock outcrops situated at different elevations. The inscribed plaques are all of considerable age. Although these structures are included among superficial structures (II.2) for the purposes of this catalogue, they may be better classified under type II.3 monuments (cubic tombs). Positive identification, however, is still pending. Indications that the mani walls of Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo, may in some cases, be modified cubic tombs include:

Their persistent attribution among local sources to the ancient MönMon.
The resemblance of two of the structures to mountaintop cubic tombs.
Their location on the top of lofty rock outcrops.

Indeed, there seems to be little cause for building mani walls on ridgelines without compelling circumstances. It may be that they were designed to subdue or recast archaic monuments in a Buddhist light. It must be remembered that the site is within the ambit of the Gangritso SumGangs ri mtsho gsum, a region of exceptional importance to Tibetan Buddhism. This strong Buddhist territorial association may have acted as the motivation for the rebuilding of earlier remains. Cubic mountaintop tombs that were modified into Buddhist mani monuments are encountered at GomkhorSgom ’khor (E-15).

Oral tradition

According to various drokpa of the Gunggyü TsoGung rgyud mtsho region, the remains at Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo were founded by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

The highest elevation mani wall at Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo is the specimen that most resembles a cubic tomb (30° 39.971΄ N. lat. / 82° 12.196΄ E. long. / 5090 m). This structure (1.6 m by 1.6 m by 1.2 m) is built in the fashion of tombs with random-rubble walls composed of thin blocks. Plaques inscribed with the mani mantra have been laid on top of the structure. From this point on the ridge there are long views to the east. On the same outcrop, directly below this structure, there are three other walls with mani plaques: two small round walls and a small quadrate platform. On a lower outcrop there is another mani wall. On the lowest outcrop of the site there is another mani wall that somewhat resembles a cubic tomb (39.776΄ / 12.149΄ / 5010m).

Jiu Möndo (Byi’u mon rdo)

Basic site data

Site name: Jiu Möndo
English equivalent: Little Bird Mön Stones
Site number: D-61
Site typology: II.2a, II.2b
Elevation: 4620 m
Administrative location (township): Barga
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: May 8, 2002
Contemporary usage: The excavation and wholesale extraction of stones from the funerary structures. Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS VI, UTRS X, HAS C4
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Jiu MöndoByi’u mon rdo is the name given to funerary structures found all around the J iuByi’u locale, the site of an ancient citadel (A-82). The majority of these enclosures and the subsurface graves have been recently dismantled to feed the local appetite for building stones. It is widely reported at J iuByi’u that many of these funerary structures contained human bones, which were indiscriminately discarded. The wholesale destruction of the J iuByi’u funerary monuments, a function of greed and ignorance, is a significant cultural loss. Wrought by the Tibetans themselves, this comes on top of the highly destructive Chinese Cultural Revolution. Only the remains of five so-called möndo still lend themselves to documentation.

Oral tradition

According to residents of J iuByi’u, the tombs of Jiu MöndurByi’u mon dur contain the remains of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated near the northern-most line of chöten at Jiu GönpaByi’u dgon pa (30° 46.031 N. lat. / 81° 21.993΄ E. long.). It is found on sloping ground in the vicinity of where a couple of contemporary residences have come up. FS1 has been totally destroyed. Reportedly, the excavation of this structure turned up charcoal at about 1 m in depth. At 60 cm deep a ceramic vessel (35 cm across) was smashed during the excavation. A large portion of this vessel was still in situ at the time of the survey.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated north of Jiu GönpaByi’u dgon pa on the lower flanks of a hillside, in close proximity to FS1. FS2 has been reduced to a double-course wall fragment 80 cm in length and around 25 cm thick (46.048΄ / 22.003΄). It is composed of variable-length pebbles (2 cm to 7 cm long) embedded into the ground. It is reported that human skeletal remains were discovered in the ground at this location.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (8.5 m by 6 m) is situated in a sandy and grassy plain approximately 1 km north of J iuByi’u (46.322΄ / 22.154΄). It consists of a rectangular single-course enclosure subdivided into at least two cells of unequal size. FS3 is composed of stones up to 85 cm in length. The stones of the enclosing walls protrude a maximum of 20 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6.5 m by 2.7 m) is situated in close proximity to FS3 (46.334΄ / 22.170΄). Adjacent to this enclosure there is a small area of various wall segments. These structures are primarily composed of variable length (20 cm to 40 cm) slabs embedded in the ground edgewise. These slabs are flush with the surface or rise above the ground level to a maximum height of 15 cm.

Funerary Structure FS5

Reportedly, the superstructure of FS5 was dismantled in 2002 (46.491΄ / 22.112΄). There are cavities in the ground where the stones of the enclosing walls were extracted.

Dripra Möndur (Grib ra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur is located on a wide tableland, bordered on one side by a small white mountain known as ShartséShar rtse. The site forms the geographic nexus of the confluence of four valleys. The celebrated holy mountain, Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, is visible from Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur. The terrain at this important funerary site is level and gravelly with some turf and drama brush. Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur consists of no less than 45 square, rectangular and sub-rectangular enclosures. Some of the enclosures appear almost oval in form, but this is most likely due to the deterioration of the perimeter walls and the migration of the constituent stones. A number of enclosures are elevated as much as 50 cm to 60 cm above the surrounding terrain. Aligning walls to the cardinal directions is not a dominant feature of the site. A few enclosures still have coherent wall fragments (60 cm to 85 cm thick). These double-course or multiple-course walls are composed of smaller beige, tan and grayish stones (10 cm to 40 cm long), which are even with the ground level or slightly elevated above it. Due to the disintegration of the superstructures, it could not be determined if other wall types are also represented at Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur. While most enclosures are free of internal structures, certain specimens are completely covered in stones, which may possibly signal another form of design. The monuments of Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur do not appear to have been disturbed in recent times.

Oral tradition

Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur contains structures commonly known as möndur (MönMon tombs) and Mönra (MönMon enclosures). According to one local drokpa, the remains found here are those of SingpaSing pa (invaders from the northwest) fortifications. According to another local account, the structures of Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur were the residences of a band of sinmo (a class of man-eating female spirits) in ancient times.

Site elements

The funerary superstructures of Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS1 (6.5 m across) is situated at the northwest end of the site. Three of its walls are somewhat intact.
Funerary structure FS2 is situated 20 m southwest of FS1. The walls of this enclosure are slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. Immediately to the south and east are three smaller and less well-preserved enclosures.
Funerary structure FS3 (9 m by 7 m) is situated 13 m east of FS2. The entire structure is covered in stone residuum.
Funerary structure FS4 (7.2 m by 7.6 m) is situated 6.8 m east of FS3. Much of the perimeter is intact.
Funerary structure FS5 (4.7 m by 5.5 m) is situated 2.5 m south of FS3. FS5 is comprised of two interconnected rectangular cells.
Funerary structure FS6 (4.6 m by 4.6 m) is situated 14 m south of FS2 and 7 m west of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 (21.6 m by 14.3 m) is connected to FS5 by a wall, making the demarcation between both structures ambiguous. FS7 is comprised of several interconnected cells. On its northwest perimeter, wall stones are heaped up to a height of 50 cm. On the south side of FS7 there is a wall running in a southwest direction for 37 m. This wall appears to be in line with Mount TiséTi se. Superstructures west of FS7 are located in the proximity of this wall.
Funerary structure FS8 (7.9 m by 7.5 m) is situated 14 m south of FS2. FS2 now has an ovoid form.
Funerary structure FS9 (5.8 m by 6 m) is situated 5 m southeast of FS8. Immediately to the east of FS9 are the remnants of another enclosure.
Funerary structure FS10 (5.9 m by 6.6 m) is situated 11.5 m southeast of FS9.
Funerary structure FS11 (28 m by 18.8 m) is situated 11.5 m southeast of FS10. This large structure is made up of around seven cells. FS11 is raised as much as 50 cm above the adjoining terrain.
Funerary structure FS12 (6.4 m by 6.1 m) is situated 1.5 m east of the center portion of FS10.
Funerary structure FS13, a highly fragmentary enclosure, is situated 7 m east of the northeast corner of FS11.
Funerary structure FS14 (4.2 m by 5.3 m) is situated 9 m south of FS12.
Funerary structure FS15 (5.9 m by 6 m) is situated 12 m south of FS14.
Funerary structure FS16 (19.8 m by 15.3 m) is situated 12 m south of FS12 (00.363΄ / 04.367΄). FS16 is comprised of three interconnected cells. Its perimeter walls are up to 50 cm in height and may be of the heaped-stone wall type. Immediately southeast of FS16 are wall fragments of another enclosure.
Funerary structure FS17 (3.6 m by 3.6 m) is situated 16.5 m southeast of FS16 (00.353΄ / 04.376΄).
Funerary structure FS18 (6.3 m by 7.2 m) is situated 1.7 m southeast FS17 (00.349΄ / 04.381΄).
Funerary structure FS19 (6.6 m by 6.8 m) is situated 9.5 m southeast of FS18 (00.341΄ / 04.390΄). FS19 is located on the southeast end of the site.
Funerary structure FS20 (4.5 m by 4.6 m) is situated 11 m south of FS16 (00.348΄ / 04.362΄).
Funerary structure FS21 (4.7 m by 5.8 m) is situated 2 m west of FS20 (00.351΄ / 04.356΄). FS21 is located at the edge of a bench that overlooks a small river valley which drains the vicinity.
Funerary structure FS22 (5.8 m by 5 m) is situated 15.7 m southwest of FS5 (00.401΄ / 04.335΄).
Funerary structure FS23 (8 m by 7.8 m) is situated 4 m south of FS22 (00.399΄ / 04.335΄).
Funerary structure FS24 (4.4 m by 3.6 m) is situated 4.5 m southeast of FS22 (00.397΄ / 04.344΄).
Funerary structure FS25 (5.9 m by 5.8 m) is situated 5 m south of FS23 (00.387΄ / 04.338΄).
Funerary structure FS26 (20 m by 20 m) is situated 4.7 m southeast of FS25 and 18.7 m southwest of FS7 (00.379΄ / 04.344΄). FS26 consists of around six interconnected cells.
Funerary structure FS27 (13.7 m by 6.5 m) is situated 5 m southwest of FS26 near the rim of the bench (00.367΄ / 04.334΄). FS27 is comprised of two interconnected cells.

Sechung (Se chung)

General site characteristics

According to the monks of PretapuriPre ta pu ri, two wooden coffins with human remains were discovered near SechungSe chung. These coffins occupied a large recess in an earthen bluff that rises above a wash. This site is situated is a zone of dissected tablelands located between the Kandé ChuDkar ’ded chu and two hills known as Ri LhunpoRi lhun po and SechungSe chung. At the time of the survey, it was discovered that the hole ostensibly containing the coffins had caved in. No structural evidence associated with burials is visible on the surface. The use of wooden coffins seems to point to a different culture and/or period than that associated with the “MönMon” cist burials.

In the last 25 to 35 years, the Ali TangkhaA li thang kha plain, which is bounded by the Kandé ChuDkar ’ded chu, has been brought back into cultivation. Farmers of this locale report that corpses of the “MönMon” have been unearthed during plowing. Ali TangkhaA li thang kha is part of MöntserMon ’tsher (Abandoned MönMon Lands), a region of western Tibet well known for its so-called MönMon legacy.

Dingdum (Sdings zlum)

General site characteristics

The funerary structures of DingdumSdings zlum are located on a couple of inclined benches above the south side of the DungkarDung dkar valley. In between the benches and valley bottom is a zone of farmland. On the opposite side of the DungkarDung dkar valley is the formation of Dzari GoRdza ri sgo, which hosts three famous cave chapels with fine Buddhist frescos. The west bench and adjoining areas of DingdumSdings zlum have many ruined chöten and the ruins of what appears to have been a small chapel (lhakang).197 By contrast, the east bench has no chöten, as this is the location of an archaic cultural horizon cemetery. It may be that the chöten, erected on the adjacent bench, was done so to counteract perceived harmful influences emanating from the burial ground. DingdumSdings zlum contains at least 23 small graves. All specimens are less than 3 m across. They are aggregated in small groups, spread out over a 180 m transection. The bench on which they are located is moderately inclined to the south and strewn with rocks. The site is enclosed by gullies on the west and east sides, and thereafter by ridges.

Only a minority of the funerary structures have coherent wall sections, which in part, can be explained by the fact that some of them were opened on a recent archaeological expedition.198 Many of the simply built quadrate and sub-rectangular enclosures and grave pits appear to possess single-course perimeter walls and those of non-descript construction (50 cm to 75 cm thick). Other superstructures appear to have consisted of the ground surface being entirely covered in stones without any particular pattern discernable. Stones were laid flat and are generally between 20 cm and 60 cm in length. In addition to the layer of stones on the surface, there is a second and sometimes a third layer of stones set below the ground surface. This stonework is crude in character and the grave pits are very shallow (40 cm to 75 cm deep). Although some of the grave pits now have an irregular form, it appears that a majority of them were quadrate (some of which were more or less aligned in the cardinal directions). The small enclosures and minimal subsurface constructions of DingdumSdings zlum contrast with many sites on the JangtangByang thang, which are of a much more elaborate nature. Furthermore, local sources report that only a small amount of human skeletal remains (no complete skeletons) were discovered in the open graves of DingdumSdings zlum. This may possibly indicate that some of these structures had a funerary ritual function rather than a burial function. The small size of the pits indicates that those that functioned as tombs contained flexed, fractional, juvenile, or secondary interments.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Although the tombs of DingdumSdings zlum have been competently studied, in the interests of conservation and further scientific exploration, elements of the site have been documented for this inventory. At the time of the survey, these tombs had the following dimensions, locations and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS1 (2 m by 3 m) is the highest and most southerly specimen at the site. FS1 is situated on the rim of the bench overlooking the east gully. Its ambiguously constructed superstructure is still intact.
Funerary structure FS2 (2 m by 3 m) is situated 2.5 m south of FS1. This excavated specimen has a grave pit measuring 1.5 m by 90 cm by 50 cm (depth).199
Funerary structure FS3 (2 m by 2 m) is situated 54 m south of FS2 (40.052΄ / 49.186΄). FS3 is located on the rim of the bench overlooking the west gully. The excavated grave pit measures 1.2 m by 1.1 m by 30 cm.
Funerary structures FS4, FS5 and FS6 form a line across the breadth of the slope.
Funerary structure FS4 is situated 67 m south of FS3 (40.093΄ / 49.192΄). It consists of a nebulously designed superstructure that appears to have been quadrate in form.
Funerary structure FS5 is situated 2 m northeast of FS4 (40.094΄ / 49.193΄). The dimensions of the superstructure are no longer clear. It appears to have been slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. The excavated grave pit measures 1.3 m by 1.5 m by 60 cm.
Funerary structure FS6 (2.5 m by 2.5 m) is situated 4 m east of FS5 (40.094΄ / 49.197΄). Large stones laid flat overlie the entire tomb.
Funerary structure FS7 is situated 19 m east of FS6 (40.089΄ / 49.211΄). The ambiguously constructed superstructure covers less than 4m².
Funerary structure FS8 is situated 4 m north/down slope of FS7 on the rim overlooking the east gully (40.092΄ / 49.213΄). Very little structural evidence remains on the surface.
Funerary structures FS9, FS10 and FS11 form a line across the breadth of the slope below the FS4–FS6 row.
Funerary structure FS9 (2 m by 1.7 m) is situated 8 m north of FS6 (40.097΄ / 49.200΄). A crudely constructed enclosure is visible on the surface.
Funerary structure FS10 (2.3 m by 1.8 m) is situated 2 m east of FS9 (40.097΄ / 49.203΄). The excavated grave pit measures 1.2 m by 80 cm by 75 cm.
Funerary structure FS11 is situated 2 m east of FS10 (40.095΄ / 49.205΄). Only nebulous structural traces remain on the surface.
Funerary structures FS12 and FS13 are situated at the same elevation.
Funerary structure FS12 is situated 10 m north of FS11 (40.105΄ / 49.203΄). The excavated grave pit measures 1.3 m by 1 m by 50 cm.
Funerary structure FS13 is situated 4 m east of FS12 (40.104΄ / 49.206΄). Only faint structural traces remain on the surface.
Funerary structures FS14 and FS15 are situated at the same elevation.
Funerary structure FS14 (1.8 m by 1.2 m) is situated 9 m south of FS12 (40.112΄ / 49.204΄). The excavated grave pit measures 1.5 m by 90 cm by 40 cm.
Funerary structure FS15 is situated 3.5 m northwest of FS14 (40.113 / 49.203). The excavated grave pit has an irregular form and is shallow.
Funerary structure FS16 is situated 4 m southeast of FS15 (40.116΄ / 49.207΄). Only nebulous structural traces remain on the surface.
Funerary structure FS17 is situated 15 m east of FS16 on the rim of the bench overlooking the east gully (40.124΄ / 49.231΄). Only faint structural vestiges are visible on the surface.
Funerary structure FS18 is situated 8 m west of FS14 (40.124΄ / 49.207΄). The excavated grave pit measures 1.2 m by 1.5 m by 50 cm.
Funerary structure FS19 is situated 45 m north of FS18 (40.151΄ / 49.195΄). The excavated pit measures 1.1 m by 80 cm by 30 cm). A portion of the superstructure is still intact.
Funerary structures FS20, FS21 and FS22 form a row along the slope gradient near the west rim of the bench.
Funerary structure FS20 (2 m by 1.6 m) is situated 9 m west of FS19 near the west rim of the bench (40.147΄ / 49.205΄). Stones laid flat cover the entire surface of the structure.
Funerary structure FS21 is situated 4 m north of FS20 (40.150΄ / 49.202΄). Very little structural evidence remains on the surface.
Funerary structure FS22 is situated 13 m north of FS21 (40.159΄ / 49.200΄). The structural remains on the surface are highly dissolute.
Funerary structure FS23 is situated near the north rim of the bench overlooking the DungkarDung dkar valley (40.168΄ / 49.250΄/ 4240 m). This is the lowest and most northerly of funerary structures at DingdumSdings zlum. The excavated grave pit measures 1.2 m by 80 cm by 40 cm.

Affiliated sites

NyitoNyi tho

Villagers of DungkarDung dkar report that human bones were discovered in a small cave on the flanks of a ridge known as NyitoNyi tho. NyitoNyi tho is situated on the south side of the DungkarDung dkar valley, just west of DingdumSdings zlum. It is believed these remains belonged to fighters of an invading SingpaSing pa (a foreign group from the northwest) army.

Bumtor Chok Möndur (’Bum gtor mchog mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Bumtor Chok Möndur
English equivalent: Excellent Offering Sculptures Shrine Mön Tombs (?)
Site number: D-107
Site typology: II.2b
Elevation: 4530 m and 4560 m
Administrative location (township): Mamik
Administrative location (county): Gertsé
Survey expedition: HTWE
Survey date: June 20, 2004
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS VII, HAS A3
View Place Dictionary Entry
View Sites Images

General site characteristics

Bumtor Chok Möndur’Bum gtor mchog mon dur is located just west of the small freshwater lake known as Bumtso’Bum mtsho and the most important territorial deity (yüllha) mountain of PenchéPhan che, NgadakMnga’ bdag (approximately 5600 m). The site is situated in a wide side valley in plain view of Bumtso’Bum mtsho, NgadakMnga’ bdag and the main TrachapKhra chab valley. Bumtor Chok Möndur’Bum gtor mchog mon dur consists of three widely distributed double-course and multiple-course funerary enclosures.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Bumtor Chok Möndur’Bum gtor mchog mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (4.8 m by 2.7 m) is situated near the base of a distinctive hill with a squarish rock summit, on level, gravelly terrain. FS1 is not aligned in the cardinal directions. It has unusually designed perimeter walls composed of small pieces of white limestone and a brown sedimentary rock (8 cm to 15 cm long), which were set in the ground edgewise. The perimeter walls are of the multiple-course variety and still exhibit quite a bit of structural coherence. Most of the stones in the perimeter walls are even with the ground surface, while some project above it as much as 10 cm. The two shorter walls of the enclosure appear to consist of four parallel rows of stones, while the two long sides have as many as seven rows of parallel stones. The central portions of the two long walls bulge out.

Funerary structures FS2 and FS3 are situated under twin rocky mounts. These two enclosures are mostly built of light-colored limestone.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.4 m by 5.4 m) is a partly intact quadrate enclosure whose perimeter walls are composed of larger uncut stones (up to 90 cm long). Virtually no coherent wall fragments are left. The remaining in situ stones are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.2 m by 3.6 m) is a double-course quadrate enclosure aligned in the cardinal directions. Most of the stones in the outer courses of the perimeter walls have disappeared, while the inner courses are largely intact. Variable-length (20 cm to 75 cm long) stones were used to construct the enclosure walls. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm.

Ser Riri (Ser ris ris)

General site characteristics

Ser RiriSer ris ris is located above the confluence of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po and MiktrinMig sprin valleys. The site enjoys a commanding location above the two river valleys and would have been a prominent geographic feature of ancient settlement at Trashi GangBkra shis sgang. The terrain is sandy and rock-strewn. The site consists of five clusters of heaped-stone wall ovoid enclosures and one isolated specimen situated at two different locations. Each enclosure or cell measures 1.8 m to 5.5 m across. Variable-length (30 cm to 80 cm long) stones are piled up to a maximum height of 50 cm to 1 m. These heaped-stone walls originally may have been somewhat higher. It is possible that each cluster of ovoid cells was surrounded by an outer perimeter wall, but there is insufficient in situ structural evidence from which to make a positive determination. Some of the funerary superstructures at Ser RiriSer ris ris were modified to create shepherd shelters or other types of structures. Some enclosures contain concavities up to 1 m deep. These appear to be signs of excavations carried out well in the past. Due to these disturbances, the clusters of cells at Ser RiriSer ris ris are not very well preserved.

Oral tradition

According to inhabitants of Trashi GangBkra shis sgang village, the structures of Ser RiriSer ris ris are the tombs of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Lower site

The lower site is situated on a shelf that forms below the ridgeback. It is comprised of three clusters of enclosures or cells and one isolated cell in close proximity to one another:

The south cluster (15.5 m by 5 m) appears to consist of four interconnected cells.
Cluster 2 (21.5 m by 16 m) is situated 8 m north of the south cluster. It appears to consist of at least one dozen cells, including a number of small specimens measuring less than 2.5 m across.
Cluster 3 (9 m by 8 m) is situated 4.5 m north of cluster 2. It appears to consist of three contiguous cells. The north cell (8 m by 5 m) is situated 11 m north of cluster 3. It appears to have consisted of just a single cell with a large depression in the center. Among its walls there is an east-west oriented line of seven large stones (50 cm to 80 cm long) embedded in the ground.

Upper site

The upper site is situated 110 m west of the lower site in a fairly level fold of the ridge (29.88΄ / 40.217΄ / 4340 m). The upper site is comprised of two clusters of cells:

The east cluster (21 m by 16 m) consists of several cells, each measuring around 5 m across. Its south side is raised about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. In one of the cells there is a 1 m deep depression.
The west cluster (12 m by 17 m) is situated 24 m west of the east cluster. It consists of a large central cell flanked by two smaller cells around 3 m across. At one time the central cell was excavated. One of the smaller cells is fairly intact while the other one is not.

Affiliated sites

Ganden Tsewang KharDga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar

Directly above the settlement of Trashi GangBkra shis sgang there is a hill called WutséDbu rtse with a prayer flag mast on its summit (32° 30.173΄ N. lat. / 79° 39.913΄ E. long. / 4380 m).200 This is the location of Ganden Tsewang KharDga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar, a ruined multi-roomed residential complex (26 m by 7 m) and a couple of small outlying buildings. All structures have been reduced to their foundations or low-lying wall fragments. The 50 cm thick walls of this installation, which are not buttressed, could only have supported timber roofs.

In all likelihood, the so-called Ganden Tsewang KharDga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar is an archaic cultural facility. Nevertheless, some residents of Trashi GangBkra shis sgang hold that Ganden Tsewang KharDga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar was built by the famous general Ganden TsewangDga’ ldan tshe dbang in his campaign against the LadakLa dwags army (he ousted the LadakpaLa dwags pa from Ngari KorsumMnga’ ris skor gsum in 1680 CE). This oral tradition, however, appears to be apocryphal. As Ganden TsewangDga’ ldan tshe dbang took control of the Trashi GangBkra shis sgang and TsarangRtsa rang citadels in 1680 CE,201 there does not seem to be any strategic reason why he would build a much smaller garrison on the ridgeback above the Trashi GangBkra shis sgang citadel. The construction of such an installation would not have been militarily feasible while the LadakLa dwags army was still in control of the Trashi GangBkra shis sgang citadel and environs, and it would have been redundant after their conquest. The hidden ridge-top location of the site, the highly deteriorated condition of the ruins and their general morphological traits are more in keeping with the archaic cultural strongholds that dot the Gar TsangpoSgar gtsang po and Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valleys (see A-22, A-23, A-41, A-42, A-43, A-44, A-66, A-67, A-124, A-125, A-126). The ancient settlement pattern exhibited in this region is marked by the construction of a stronghold perched above each major agricultural enclave. Trashi GangBkra shis sgang, one of these agrarian pockets, is likely to have experienced the same type of cultural occupation.

Trashi GangBkra shis sgang

Trashi GangBkra shis sgang has extensive farmlands irrigated by the Miktrin TsangpoMig sprin gtsang po. According to a local elder, respected for his knowledge of history, named Rindzin DorjéRig ’dzin rdo rje (born in the Iron Dog Year, circa 1934), the origins of agriculture at Trashi GangBkra shis sgang can be traced back to the ancient MönMon. The monastery of Trashi GangBkra shis sgang was built inside the ruins of a large citadel situated on a small eminence in the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valley. The massive rammed earth walls of the fortress are up to 1.3 m thick. These walls are long and straight, giving rise to a rectangular plan not unlike Moghul fortresses of north India. There are also a few stone and adobe-block walls of the old residential structures still intact. On the west end of the fortress there are F-shaped loopholes and the remains of two round defensive towers set outside the ramparts. The entire citadel appears to have been circumvallated. According to lama KhenrapMkhan rab (born in the Snake Year, circa 1929), a native of NamrupönGnam ru dpon, and the senior-most monk at Trashi GangBkra shis sgang, the monastery was under the authority of the abbot of Sera JéSe ra rje in Lhasa. The first Gelukpa abbot was Ngawang ChokdenNgag dbang mchog ldan, a teacher of the seventh Dalai Lama. Also, according to lama KhenrapMkhan rab, before the time of Ganden TsewangDga’ ldan tshe dbang, Trashi GangBkra shis sgang monastery belonged to the Drukpa Kagyü subsect.202

Keltra Möndur (Skal khra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur is located in the small tributary valley of KeltraSkal khra, which flows south into the RawangRa bang valley. The site is situated on the opposite side of the RawangRa bang valley from Tönkha LungkharMthon kha lung mkhar (A-95). The site surveyed is on the east side of the KeltraSkal khra valley but, reportedly, there are also funerary structures on the west flank of the valley. Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur mainly consists of a series of masonry structures with rectilinear proportions that are deeply set into steep slopes. The forward walls of these structures are fully exposed, the side walls progressively disappear into the ground and the rear walls are totally submerged. The earthen and talus slopes upon which they were built had to be specially excavated. However, the depth and extent of the portion of these structures that lies underground is not at all evident. This design and method of construction contrasts with the mountaintop cubic tombs (II.3), which were totally built above ground. The Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur terraced constructions are mostly made of variable-length (20 cm to 1 m or more in length) brown sandstone slabs laid in what appear to be dry-stone random-rubble courses. In addition to the ravages of time, the advanced degradation of the structures at Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur seems to be the result of looting sometime well in the past.

Oral tradition

According to residents of RawangRa bang, Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur is a burial site of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

South sector

The five structures of the south sector are widely distributed along open slopes.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8.5 m by 7.5 m) is situated on a slope just above the valley floo. Although few stones (up to 90 cm long) remain in situ in this fragmentary enclosure, the amount of rubble lying about indicates that this was a robustly built structure. Signs of an old excavation (70 cm deep) are found on the west side of the enclosure. A 60 cm long stone set on the east/uphill side of FS1 boasts an ancient petroglyph of a horseman chasing a wild yak. On the same stone and exhibiting far less repatination, the mani mantra, Om A Hum and Om A Smi Sde WA Hra were inscribed.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 consists of a single forward wall segment (5 m long by up to 90 cm high) built into the slope (07.123΄ / 13.479΄ / 4520 m). No other part of the structure is visible. The stones in the forward wall are primarily 20 cm to 30 cm in length.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 consists of a forward wall 6 m in length and up to 1.6 m in height (07.168΄ / 13.471΄ / 4530 m). Small sections of the side walls extending into the slope are visible. FS1, FS2 and FS3 are located within 100 m of each other.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 consists of a forward wall 3.9 m long and up to 1.4 m in height (07.225΄ / 13.499΄ / 4570 m). As much as 2.3 m lengths of the side walls are visible before they merge into the slope. Originally, the forward wall may have been around 50 cm higher because one of the side walls is elevated well above it. A 1.3 m length of a wall with an exposed 60 cm high face is situated 2.2 m to the south. This was either a companion structure or a structural extension of FS4.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 14 m down slope from FS4. Its forward wall is 4.5 m long and it has a maximum height of 70 cm. About a 1 m length of each of the side walls is visible.

North sector

The 11 structures of the north sector are located on a single narrow slope about 110 m in length with a vertical distance of about 25 m. This slope is sequestered by steep rocky slopes that flank all but its downhill side. Below the single line of terraced structures, the slope widens and gradually merges into the valley floor below. The structures were built in line with one another to create a series of tiers or steps. Unfortunately, these highly unusual funerary monuments are in a very poor state of preservation. It appears that each of the 11 quadrate structures measured are in the neighborhood of 5 m by 5 m with forward walls up to 2 m in height. Taken a whole, this stepped complex must have presented quite a sight when it was sound.

From top to bottom, each of the terraced constructions has the following dimensions and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS6 is the highest structure in the north sector (07.296΄ / 13.495΄ / 4550 m). A forward fragment 3 m long and up to 60 cm high has survived.
Funerary structure FS7 is situated 9.5 m downhill of FS6. A 1.8 m length of its forward wall up to 30 cm in height, has survived.
Funerary structure FS8 is situated 6 m downhill of FS7. Its forward wall is 5.5 m long and up to 40 cm in height. Due to an old excavation, portions of the structure are visible 4 m upslope from the forward wall.
Funerary structure FS9 is situated 5.7 m down slope of FS8. Only a forward wall fragment, 1.2 m in length, even with the ground surface is visible.
Funerary structure FS10 is situated 11 m downhill of FS9. Only tiny traces of the forward wall are intact. A side wall segment, 2.2 m in length, with a maximum height of 30 cm is also visible.
Funerary structure FS11 is situated 5 m downhill of FS10. Its forward wall fragment is 4 m in length and up to 40 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS12 is situated 4.7 m downhill of FS11. Only a vestige of its forward wall (70 cm long by 20 cm high) has persisted. A 1 m long section of a side wall is also visible.
Funerary structure FS13 is situated 4.7 m downhill of FS12. FS13 consists of the remains of an enclosure (5 m by 6.5 m) with a slight depression in the middle.
Funerary structure FS14 is situated 14 m downhill of FS13. The forward wall is 5.6 m long and mostly level with the slope. Faint structural remains are found 1.9 m upslope, which may have been part of side walls.
Funerary structure FS15 is situated 17.5 m downhill of FS14. Only a nebulous 3.5 m long section of its forward wall remains visible. There may have been intervening structures between FS14 and FS15, but this could not be confirmed from what remains on the surface of the slope.
Funerary structure FS16 is situated 11 m downhill of FS15. It is the best preserved and lowest (4525 m) stepped construction in the series. Its forward wall is 4.2 m in length and up to 1 m in height. As much as a 3.8 m length of the side walls is exposed before being completely engulfed by the slope. There may have been intervening structures between FS15 and FS16, but this could not be confirmed with the evidence at hand.
Funerary structure FS17 is situated adjacent to FS16. Its forward wall fragment is 2.5 m in length. The two side walls are visible for upwards of 3.3 m before disappearing into the slope.

Name unknown

General site characteristics

Three or more funerary structures are located in the middle of a valley at a locale called ChushikChu shig (sp.?). The terrain is level, gravelly and sandy and with some turf. On either side of the main valley there are small side valleys, creating a four-way vista. This crossroads placement is liable to have had ritual and conceptual value for the builders of the site. Perhaps this kind of location facilitated the unencumbered release of the consciousness principles (soul and mind) during burial rites. The freeing of the consciousness principles from obstacles, which are often depicted in geographic terms, is a cornerstone of Tibetan archaic funerary practices.203 In the northwest sector of the unnamed site there are two mounds of the bangso type. These structures have been very heavily impacted by human activity. Stones are scattered all around the vicinity in contrast to the surrounding clear ground. This suggests that the stones used to build the funerary structure were transported to their present location from the adjoining mountains.

Just off the road that runs through ChushikChu shig there are three mani walls hosting pre-modern inscribed plaques. Almost certainly they were constructed with stones pilfered from the nearby funerary structures. The erection of the mani walls is likely to be related to the Buddhist ritual subjugation of the old funerary site. The mani walls measure (not including the inscribed plaques) 4.6 m by 1.8 m by 70 cm, 3.4 m by 1.4 m by 90 cm, and 5.2 m by 1.6 m by 1.2 m. These dimensions provide an idea of the cubic volume of stones that was potentially removed from the funerary structures. A blue-gray metamorphic stone was used to build the bangso and mani walls.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (12 m by 14 m) is elevated 1 m to 2 m above the surrounding terrain. This highly eroded funerary mound does not appear to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. A shallow concavity has formed on the surface. A single line of variable-length (30 cm to 80 cm long) stones along the northeast rim of the structure are still in situ. There are also two small fragments of what are now single-course walls on the southwest rim. These various wall segments are primarily made of slabs that appear to have been laid flat. The three mani walls of the site are located 17.5 m northeast of FS1.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (10.5 m by 6.5 m) is situated 18 m southwest of FS1. This structure is elevated 50 cm to 1 m above the surrounding terrain and is covered in loose stones. Small coherent wall fragments have survived on the southeast side of the mound. The slabs of the walls appear to have been laid flat. The three mani walls and FS1 and FS2 form a northwest-southeast oriented line of culturally disparate structures.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 150 m southeast of FS1 and FS2. It has been reduced to faint structural traces flush with the ground surface. Tiny fragments of double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) composed of stones laid flat have survived. The highly obscured vestiges of smaller walls are found 12 m west and northwest of FS3. There also may be structural traces to the north and northeast of FS3. A few meters away from FS3 and associated remains there are two more old mani walls (5.6 m by 2 m by 60 cm and 4.7 m by 1.6 m by 50 cm).204

Name unknown

General site characteristics

This funerary site, whose name could not be determined, is located south of A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho but still in view of the lake. The four funerary superstructures of the site almost straddle the RutokRu thog and GegyéDge rgyas county lines. As with other funerary sites clustered in the same region (see “Valley of the Dead” sites C-91, C-92, C-153, D-46), the terrain is level and sandy, and it is sited near a series of ridges that enclose the west side of the basin. The site is set on the north end of the “Valley of the Dead” basin. It consists of single-course and double-course quadrate enclosures that are in a poor state of preservation. These structures are constructed of uncut pieces of gray granite, primarily 30 cm to 60 cm in length. Stones were both laid flat and embedded in the ground edgewise.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7 m by 5 m) consists of a partially intact single-course rectangular enclosure. This structure is aligned in the cardinal directions. The stones of the perimeter walls are laid flat. The largest stone (1.1 m long) of the structure is no longer in situ.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5 m across) is situated 8 m south of FS1. Only a few stones remain in place in this highly degraded enclosure, several of which are set into the ground edgewise. The most prominent stone of the perimeter walls is 60 cm long and projects 30 cm above the ground surface. Twelve stones, both laid flat and with an upright position, form a separate sub-rectangular enclosure (1.4 m across) as part of the FS2 structure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (4 m across) is situated 2.7 m south of FS2. The remains of this superstructure are highly deteriorated.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6 m by 10 m) is situated several hundred meters south of the other three superstructures of the site (41.027΄ / 48.878΄ / 4490 m). The entire structure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding plain. Small segments of the single course walls of the enclosure have survived. However, there is also a structural extension to this enclosure that consists of an isolated double-course wall (3 m long, 70 thick). This wall segment is composed of stones that protrude a maximum of 30 cm above ground level.

Mandep Nupma (Dmar ldebs nub ma)

General site characteristics

The funerary structures of Mandep NupmaDmar ldebs nub ma are located on the north edge of a large gravelly and sandy plain. MardepDmar ldebs is the name of the long low-lying red ridge that bounds the north side of the plain. The five quadrate funerary superstructures of the site are distributed quite widely over the plain. They are built of uncut brown sandstone blocks. In addition to Mandep NupmaDmar ldebs nub ma, there are funerary structures at Khorchen’Khor chen and Riu GyamchungRi’u gyam chung.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Mandep NupmaDmar ldebs nub ma and affiliated sites are tombs of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (9 m by 9.4 m) consists of a square enclosure that is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. The entire structure is slightly raised above the surrounding plain. Three of its walls are single-course while the west wall is double-course (1 m thick). The variable-length (primarily 30 cm to 60 cm long) stones were laid flat on the ground. There are small wall traces within the perimeter wall, suggesting that this was an intricately designed superstructure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4.7 m by 5.8 m) is situated 13 m north of FS1. FS2 has been reduced to a highly fragmentary enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.4 m by 4.3 m) is situated 75 m west of FS2. The walls of this rectangular enclosure are aligned in the cardinal directions. The walls are composed of variable length stones (primarily 40 cm to 60 cm long), which project a maximum of 20 cm above ground level. Part of the north wall of the enclosure is double-course. Other walls of the enclosure appear to be of the single-course variety.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.8 m by 4.8 m) is situated 70 m west of FS3. Very little remains of this structure. There may be other specimens in the vicinity, but too little remains in place to know for certain.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (6.7 m by 6.7 m) is situated roughly 1 km southwest of the other enclosures. The fragmentary walls of FS5 seem to be aligned in the cardinal directions. The stones of the walls appear to have been laid flat on the ground.

Affiliated sites

Khorchen’Khor chen

On the south edge of the same plain that hosts the funerary structures of Mandep NupmaDmar ldebs nub ma there are two more specimens at a place known as Khorchen’Khor chen (32° 29.889΄ N. lat. / 82° 54.113΄ E. long. / 4450 m). These poorly preserved quadrate enclosures appear to have single-course walls, and measure 7.3 m by 6.4 m and 4.7 m by 5 m. The structures are built of a purplish stone, primarily 20 cm to 60 cm in length. What appears to be another funerary superstructure at Khorchen’Khor chen is located some distance away (29.829΄ / 53.940΄ / 4450 m). In the south wall of this last enclosure there is a single line of in situ stones aligned east-west.

Riu GyamchungRi’u gyam chung

What may be another funerary structure was detected further west at a locale called Riu GyamchungRi’u gyam chung (32° 29.965΄ N. lat. / 82° 52.906΄ E. long. / 4450 m). This square structure is situated on the edge of high ground overlooking the large plain to the east. The site has wide open views in all directions. The structure (2.7 m by 2.9 m) is aligned in the cardinal directions, and is primarily made of smaller purplish stones (10 cm to 40 cm long). Within the partly intact, outer foundation walls there is a pile of rubble 1 m in height. Many other stones are scattered around the vicinity. The design of the wall traces and the amount of stones strewn around the site indicates that the Riu GyamchungRi’u gyam chung monument was constructed with an elaborate superstructure of significant elevation. Rather than a funerary function, it is possible that this structure had alternative ritual functions.

Dramé Dzuk (Gra ma’i rdzugs)

General site characteristics

Dramé DzukGra ma’i rdzugs is located on a broad gently inclined slope interspersed between Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho and the range hemming in the north side of the lake basin. The site exists between two side valleys with perennial sources of water. This general locale therefore is likely to have a long history of settlement. Nowadays, it is used by drokpa on a seasonal basis. The terrain is sandy, gravelly and well drained. Dramé DzukGra ma’i rdzugs consists of no less than five funerary enclosures. As the site is sprawling, it is possible that other specimens were overlooked during the survey. All structures are made of uncut gray granite and metamorphic rocks.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Dramé DzukGra ma’i rdzugs is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8 m by 6 m) consists of a degraded enclosure of indeterminate construction. Stones up to 60 cm in length lie along the rectangular perimeter. Inside the enclosure there is a single-course inner enclosure or cist marker (1.4 m by 1.1 m). This square enclosure is composed of upright stones protruding upwards of 25 cm above the ground surface. This type of structure may mark the actual location of a subsurface tomb.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 14 m west of FS1. The highly deteriorated enclosure measures 18 m north-south. The east wall is entirely absent, thus the width of the structure is ambiguous. Variable-length stones laid flat make up the perimeter walls. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. There is some evidence indicating that the enclosing walls of FS2 were of the double-course variety. A dislodged stone, 1 m in length, lies beside the enclosure. The west/lower wall of the enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the adjacent slope, in order to maintain a level interior.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (14 m by 9 m) is situated 117 m south of FS2. This rectangular enclosure is subdivided into a smaller/west part and a larger/east part. Remnants of double-course walls (60 cm thick) are composed of upright variable-length upright stones, which protrude as much as 40 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6 m by 12 m) is situated 105 m south of FS3. Parts of its double-course walls (55 cm to 70 cm thick) are intact. These walls contain stones up to 60 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface or which project above it as much as 30 cm.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (2.7 m by 1.5 m) is situated 17 m east of FS2. The outer walls of this small, single-course quadrate structure appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. FS5 is partitioned into four, roughly equal, cells. These subdividing walls are now only partially intact.

Tratsang Möndur (Khra tshang mon dur)

General site characteristics

Tratsang MöndurKhra tshang mon dur is located a couple kilometers upstream of the mouth of the TratsangKhra tshang valley. The site is near the north edge of the valley and the ground is level, sandy and gravelly. It consists of two poorly preserved funerary enclosures. A nearby seasonal shepherd’s encampment and its need for stones may have contributed to the demise of Tratsang MöndurKhra tshang mon dur.

Oral tradition

In this region (MegaMe sga) sites such as Tratsang MöndurKhra tshang mon dur are commonly believed to be ancient MönMon tombs.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 has been reduced to small double-course wall fragments (50 cm thick). These walls are composed of stones 20 cm to 30 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface or that are raised above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. FS1 is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain. It appears to have been subdivided into at least three sections.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (approximately 5 m across) is situated 47 m east of FS1. This enclosure is in very poor condition. Stones up to 55 cm in length that project upwards of 25 cm above ground level make up this structure. It appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions and to have been subdivided into various parts.

Nara Möndur (Sna ra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Nara MöndurSna ra mon dur is located east of Kyidbuk DoSkyid sbug do (sp.?), a small lake in the Dawa TsoZla ba mtsho (Moon Lake) basin. The site is situated on the east margin of the Dawa TsoZla ba mtsho basin. Views to the south and east are open, less so in other directions. The terrain is level, well drained, sandy, and studded with many boulders and rocks. There is a drokpa permanent settlement (zhima) in the proximity. There are more than 20 widely distributed funerary structures at Nara MöndurSna ra mon dur. They are well camouflaged among naturally occurring rocks and boulders, which has probably contributed to the site being untouched in recent years. The structures are made of uncut pieces of white granite and a dark gray metamorphic rock. They represent a rich variety of designs and methods of construction. Among the most unusual funerary structures at Nara MöndurSna ra mon dur are those with a pillar erected inside the perimeter walls (Funerary structures FS3 and FS4). The sandy substrate of the site has significantly contributed to the deterioration of the funerary structures. Given the nature of the terrain, some funerary structures may have been overlooked during the survey.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Nara MöndurSna ra mon dur was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7 m across) is a highly degraded tumulus elevated about 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. No coherent wall fragments in this structure have survived.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (10.8 m by 5.6 m) is a sub-rectangular double-course enclosure. The perimeter walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) are composed of stones up to 50 cm in length. Many of these upright stones project as much as 25 cm above ground level. The enclosure is divided into two parts: a smaller east cell and the larger west cell. Inside the west cell, near its west end, there is a single-course inner enclosure or cist marker (60 cm by 1.1 m). The upright stones of this structure prominently protrude from the ground. The largest stone in the inner enclosure is located in the east wall; 50 cm long and rising 30 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.5 m by 5 m) appears to be an ovoid enclosure but there are no coherent in situ wall fragments remaining (16.548΄ / 07.107΄). The entire structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding terrain. The stones along the perimeter reach 50 cm in length. Near the west side of FS3 there is a four-sided gray pillar (45 cm [height] by 70 cm [basal girth]). The relative placement of the pillar mimics those belonging to the enclosed pillar typology (II.2b). The erection of a pillar on such a structure is extremely notable and highly unusual. The functional and temporal features of this design trait have yet to be determined.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6.4 m by 4.4 m) is of the same design and construction as FS3 (16.740΄ / 07.283΄). The entire structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding terrain. No coherent wall segments have survived. Near the west end of FS4 there is an irregularly shaped dark gray pillar (55 cm by 60 cm). Beside this pillar there is what appears to be an uprooted specimen 90 cm in length.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (1.3 m by 1.7 m) is situated 13.7 m northwest of FS4 (16.750΄ / 07.277΄). This small rectangular, single-course enclosure is composed of large stones (up to 65 cm long), which protrude prominently from the ground (up to a height of 25 cm).

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (4.3 m by 4 m) is situated 30 m west of FS5 (16.751΄ / 07.259΄). This highly fragmentary enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding ground level. It does not exhibit any coherent wall segments.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (4.7 m by 4.8 m) is in close proximity to FS6 and is the same type of structure (16.763΄ / 07.257΄). FS7 is also in very poor condition.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (24 m by 15 m) belongs to the heaped-stone wall enclosure typology (16.014΄ 07.175΄). The walls of this sub-rectangular structure consist of amorphous swaths of stones up to 2 m in thickness and 50 cm in height. FS8 is subdivided into two cells.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (10 m by 12.4 m) is situated 13 m southeast of FS8 (16.003΄ / 07.192΄). This heaped-stone wall enclosure is of the same design and construction as FS8. In the proximity there appear to be the vestiges of analogous structures.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (5.6 m by 5.7 m) is situated 29 m north of FS8 (16.036΄ / 07.182΄). Small segments of double-course walls of this enclosure are in situ. These walls are 50 cm to 60 cm thick and composed of upright stones that project as much as 35 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (8.2 m by 5.6 m) is a sub-rectangular enclosure with amorphous perimeter walls (16.078΄ / 07.121΄). The stones of the enclosing walls stand upright or are flush with the surface. These stones project as much as 20 cm above the ground surface. In the east wall there are two stones (40 cm and 50 cm long) that are set perpendicular to the wall course, creating a kind of portal (as is found in certain enclosures of the II.1b typology). In the vicinity there are other analogous structures that were not individually surveyed. While these structures appear to be funerary in function, the high level of structural degradation (hastened by the sandy substrate) makes their identification difficult.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 (11.3 m by 7.3 m) is another enclosure with a distinct perimeter but without clearly defined walls (16.065΄ / 07.064΄).

Funerary Structure FS13

Funerary structure FS13 (9.8 m by 15.4 m) is a highly degraded enclosure divided into two cells (16.042΄ / 07.060΄). It is elevated a maximum of 70 cm on its down slope/west side in order to maintain a level interior.

Funerary Structure FS14

Funerary structure FS14 (7 m by 6 m) is an incomplete enclosure similar in design to FS13 (16.035΄ / 07. 058΄).

Funerary Structure FS15

Funerary structure FS15 (5.1 m by 5.7 m) is double-course enclosure (16.031΄ / 07.058΄). A small wall remnant has endured. It is composed of stones up to 60 cm in length that project as much as 40 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS16

Funerary structure FS16 (11.5 m by 10.6 m) is another sub-rectangular enclosure with amorphous walls up to 1 m thick (16.072΄ / 07.056΄).

Funerary Structure FS17

Funerary structure FS17 (4.5 m by 2.2 m) is a slightly elevated sub-rectangular enclosure, which appears to have been generally aligned in the cardinal directions (16.380΄ / 07.089΄). Loose stones are scattered across this highly degraded structure.

Funerary Structure FS18

Funerary structure FS18 consists of 3 double-course slab-wall segments (16.389΄ / 07.102΄). These walls (2.5 m to 3.5 m long) are around 15 cm thick and are composed of upright slabs 10 cm to 25 cm in length. It is not clear what type of funerary structure they comprised.

Funerary Structure FS19

Funerary structure FS19 (4.8 m by 4.8 m) is a relatively intact, double-course enclosure (16.667΄ / 07.096΄). The walls (around 50 cm thick) are composed of upright variable-length (up to 50 cm long) stones, which project as much as 35 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS20

Funerary structure FS20 (3 m across) is a highly deteriorated enclosure (07.279΄ / 16.679΄).

Ronggo Möndur (Rong mgo mon dur)

General site characteristics

Ronggo MöndurRong mgo mon dur is situated in the middle of the broad RonggoRong mgo valley bottom. From the site, the views north (in the direction of the sacred mountain Shel GangchamShel gangs lcam) and south are wide open, while the views east and west are closed in by the ridges bounding the valley. The terrain is sandy and well drained. Ronggo MöndurRong mgo mon dur consists of at least 14 small funerary enclosures spread out over one-half km. These are quadrate structures, many of which appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. Most of these poorly preserved structures appear to have double-course perimeter walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick). These walls are built of variable-length (up to 50 cm long) pieces of light-colored limestone. These stones are both laid flat and embedded in the ground edgewise.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Ronggo MöndurRong mgo mon dur is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Funerary structure FS1 (6 m by 3.5 m) consists of walls (indeterminate type) with stones that project as much as 35 cm above the ground surface. In addition to limestone, the walls of FS1 also contain pieces of a dark gray metamorphic stone.
Funerary structure FS2 (4 m by 2 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen.
Funerary structure FS3 (2.5 m by 2 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen.
Funerary structure FS4: (3.1 m by 3 m) is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain and is covered in loose rocks
Funerary structure FS5 exhibits small fragments of what appear to be single-course perimeter walls. Stones in these walls project a maximum of 20 cm above ground level.
Funerary structure FS6 (4 m across) has been reduced to one small coherent wall fragment along the perimeter. FS6 is located near the link road through the area.
Funerary structure FS7 (2 m across) is a highly fragmentary specimen.
Funerary structure FS8: (2.6 m by 3 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen.
Funerary structure FS9 (3 m by 3.3 m) is covered in stones.
Funerary structure FS10 (3.5 m by 2.4 m) is a better preserved enclosure with double-course perimeter walls. Stones in these walls project a maximum of 20 cm above ground level.
Funerary structure FS11 (3.5 m by 2.5 m) has significant segments of its double-course walls intact. The stones in these walls are flush with the ground surface or slightly project above it.
Funerary structure FS12 (4.7 m by 5 m) has remnants of all four walls intact. These walls appear to be of the single-course variety, but this may be because of a loss of stones. The stones of the walls project a maximum of 15 cm above ground level. FS12 is found at the edge of the motorable track.
Funerary structure FS13 (2.4 m by 3.5 m) is covered in stones. A tiny mound has formed on the west side of the structure.
Funerary structure FS14 (3 m by 2.6 m) has a small double-course wall fragment in place, which exhibits both flat and upright stones.

Karkhuk (Dkar khug)

Mandala Collections Texts

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Enclosure

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Enclosure

Pillars

Affiliated sites

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring East

Enclosure

Pillars

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring West

Enclosure

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Affiliated sites

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

West row of pillars

East row of pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site Elements

Enclosure

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Enclosure

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

South complex

Enclosure

Pillars

North complex

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Pillar complex

Funerary superstructures

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Basic site data

General site characteristics