Volume II: Archaic Ceremonial Monuments (Antiquities of Zhang Zhung)

Antiquities of Zhang Zhung: A Comprehensive Inventory of Pre-Buddhist Archaeological Monuments on the Tibetan Upland

Volume I: Archaic Residential Monuments

Volume II: Archaic Ceremonial Monuments

by John Vincent Bellezza

Edited by Geoffrey Barstow, Mickey Stockwell and Michael White

THL ID : T5744

Tibetan & Himalayan Library

Published under the THL Digital Text License.

II. Archaic Ceremonial Monuments

II.1. Stelae and accompanying structures: Funerary and non-funerary structures

One of the most captivating types of archaic archaeological site in Upper Tibet consists of stelae, pillars or menhirs either in a solitary aspect or in groups forming special kinds of arrays. In this work, descriptions of 110 sites featuring pillars are presented. The Tibetan generic term doring is applied to pillars of all species in Upper Tibet. These standing stones vary greatly in size (15 cm to 2.4 m in height) number and layout, which is indicative of a fairly broad variety of ritual applications and cultural contexts. As with the dokhang residential monument, pillars without inscriptions reached their highest level of development on the Plateau in Upper Tibet. Pillars exhibiting different morphological characteristics were erected hewn or unhewn, and were made from a diverse assortment of rocks (including igneous, volcanic, metamorphic, and sedimentary). Pillars, whatever their function, were planted firmly in the ground by first excavating a hole to accommodate 30% to 50% of the total length of the stone. Over the centuries, through the agency of gravity and geomorphologic change, it is common for pillars to have collapsed or to tilt in a downhill direction. Gently and even radically inclined pillars are encountered at many sites. Pillars in the Upper Tibetan archaic archaeological context appear to have functioned as political monuments for clans and chieftains, cultic sites for the worship of deities, good fortune enhancement and harm reduction instruments, and as memorials and ritual dispensation sites marking cemeteries.

Beltsa Gyangtrok Doring (Bal tshwa gyang khrog rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog consists of a single quartzitic sandstone pillar that is well rooted in the ground despite the site having been heavily disturbed by road construction. This light-colored unhewn stone was erected on flat, sandy ground covered in river stones. The Chaktak TsangpoLcags thag gtsang po is less than 100 m away and fluvial deposits show that the site must have flooded at least once. The tabular pillar is 1.1 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.1 m. As is customary in this monument typology, the broad sides of the standing stone face north and south. Ostensible traces of the north wall of the enclosure are represented by three stones (each around 30 cm in length) oriented in an east-west direction. An elderly herder (drokpa) who hails from the locale confirmed that the pillar was, at one time, surrounded by a stone enclosure. This information, the mythology and the morphological characteristics of the structures confirm the typological identity of the site. Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog is the most easterly example of stelae erected within an enclosure situated south of the Transhimalaya discovered to date. This example of the II.1b typology is located 80 km northwest of Tsanglha PudarGtsang lha phu dar, a traditional boundary mountain of TsangGtsang and Zhang ZhungZhang zhung, according to BönBon sources. Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog‘s location at the edge of the main east-west road (gyalam) to southwestern Tibet puts what remains of this pillar monument at extreme risk.

Oral tradition

It is said by local sources that Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog is a long-stone that appeared during the emergence of existence (sipa chakpé doring).

Gurchen Doring (Gur chen rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gurchen DoringGur chen rdo ring is located in a basin with views that are most open in a downhill or westerly direction. This orientation is at odds with most other sites of this typology, which generally have the most expansive vistas in the east. The very slightly sloping terrain is sandy with a sparse covering of turf. There are two main pillars firmly planted near the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure.

Oral tradition

According to MenlaSman bla, an elderly resident of the area, and others, sites such as Gurchen DoringGur chen rdo ring are ancient MönMon funerary sites and some of them are associated with human remains.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 8.8 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). Significant parts of all four walls of the enclosure are intact. As in most examples of the typology, these double-course walls (around 70 cm thick) consist of a single layer of stones embedded in the ground. The stones (up to 50 cm long) of the enclosing walls are flush with the surrounding terrain or elevated above it to a maximum height of 15 cm.

Pillars

Both of the main pillars are partially covered in orange climax lichen. The north pillar is four-sided, beige in color and fairly well centered in the enclosure (1 m [height] by 1.4 m [basal girth]). This pillar is slightly inclined. North of the north pillar there is a tiny specimen around 20 cm in height. The south pillar is three-sided and tan in color (85 cm by 1 m).

Khusé Doring (Khu se rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Khusé DoringKhu se rdo ring is situated on a slightly tapering bench overlooking the Achok SerlepA chog ser lebs basin. The terrain is sandy and hemmed in to the north by a ridge. There are at least 18 undressed reddish brown and gray pillars standing inside the enclosure near the west wall.

Oral tradition

Khusé DoringKhu se rdo ring is thought by some local sources to have been erected by the MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 6 m (north-south) by 11 m (east-west). Many parts of its four walls are intact. These superficial (consisting of a single layer of stones) walls are flush with the surrounding ground level, 60 cm in thickness and made of smaller stones (up to 40 cm long). In order to maintain a level space, the enclosure is elevated 50 cm above the adjacent terrain on its eastern flank.

Pillars

While most pillars parallel the full extent of the west wall, some of them extend a short distance along the inner edges of the north and south walls of the enclosure, creating a U-shaped array. All but three of the stelae are 60 cm or less in height. Most of the shorter specimens have sustained some damage and are missing their top sections. The stelae are unhewn and made from various types of rock. These stones are tabular, three-sided and irregularly shaped. The three tallest pillars are situated about 70 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure:

Long-stone DR1: three-sided, reddish (1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). DR1 is centrally located.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (90 cm by 1 m). DR2 is located near the southwest corner of the enclosure.
Long-stone DR3: tabular (75 cm by 1 m). DR3 is in very close proximity to DR2.

Affiliated sites

Not far from Khusé DoringKhu se rdo ring, in a valley called Senggé LungSeng ge lung, there is a small hilltop ruin.

Jangdé Doring (Byang sde rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring is located near the southern effluent of the TsachuTshwa chu, an important tributary of the Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po in Drongpa’Brong pa. The site consists of two pillar installations spaced roughly 300 m apart. While Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring has no contemporary religious function, pieces of milky quartz scattered around both enclosures suggest an earlier ritual usage of the site.

Oral tradition

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring and other Doring sites in the same general area (upper Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po drainage basin) are considered the haunts of elemental spirits such as the tsenBtsan. These pillar complexes are thought to have appeared with the emergence of the universe. According to one local source, they were built by the dré’Dre demons. Other area drokpa refer to them as MönMon tombs (möndur).

Site elements

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring East

The larger Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring East complex is built on level ground in the middle of a broad valley (30° 02.546΄ N. lat. / 83° 47.439΄ E. long.). The soil is thin and rocky and partially covered in tundra. The complex is endowed with wide views to east and west.

Enclosure

The well-preserved square enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 13 m to 13.5 m on each of its four sides. The robustly built superficial walls of the enclosure are 60 cm to 70 cm thick and are composed of stones up to 70 cm in length. Upright stones in the enclosure protrude as much as 25 cm above the ground surface. In the center of the east wall there is a small opening formed by large stones that lie perpendicular to the wall course.

Pillars

Ten in situ standing stones form an 8 m long row situated about 1 m from the inner edge of the west wall (the least well preserved wall of the enclosure). The tall thin pillars were roughly hewn from the same blue-gray stone used to build the enclosure. The pillars host some orange climax lichen. From north to south, the dimensions and characteristics of these menhirs are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (1.3 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular (80 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (80 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR4: tabular, inclined (1.7 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR5: tabular, severely inclined (2 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided, severely inclined (2 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR7: three-sided (1.9 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR8: four-sided (1.8 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped, inclined (1 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR10: four-sided, severely inclined (1.7 m by 1 m).

In addition to the ten in situ pillars there are six more specimens in the same row that are broken near ground level. About 10 m west of the west wall of the enclosure there is a structure (2.5 m by 2.5 m) that is nearly flush with the ground surface. Its construction indicates that it is an integral part of the pillar complex. This structure appears to be a funerary superstructure of some kind.

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring West

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring West was built on ground that gently rises to the west (30° 02.466 N. lat. / 83° 47.313΄ E. long.). The soil cover is poor and the views to the east are not as expansive as those from Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring East.

Enclosure

The enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 11 m (east-west) by 5.5 m (north-south). A good portion of all four walls of the enclosure have survived. These less robustly constructed superficial walls are around 50 cm thick and composed of stones 40 cm or less in length. The stones protrude up to 10 cm above the ground surface.

Pillars

Four undressed pillars stand near the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure, forming a row 2 m in length. These standing stones sport some orange climax lichen. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of the pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (90 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR2: tabular (90 cm by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (80 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (90 cm by 80 cm).

Sana Marri Doring (Sa sna dmar ri rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Sana Marri Doring
English equivalent: Variegated Earth Red Mountain Long-stones
Site number: C-11
Site typology: II.1a
Elevation: 4590 m
Administrative location (township): ladrang
Administrative location (county): Drongpa
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: April 14, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. Recently, some of the pillars were vandalized.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS XI, HAS C5
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General site characteristics

Sana Marri DoringSa sna dmar ri rdo ring is named after the low-lying ridge that hems in the east side of the site. To the west, Sana Marri DoringSa sna dmar ri rdo ring enjoys expansive views of the Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po valley. There are no structural traces of an enclosure in the proximity of the pillars. However, the way in which the pillars form a north-south oriented row (6.2 m long), with three more specimens running perpendicular to the north of them, may suggest that they were originally enclosed by walls. The sandy, somewhat sloping ground appears to have engulfed all evidence of the enclosure. Two types of light-colored rocks were used to create the pillars. A few of them may have been roughly hewn into shape. There are six pillars 50 cm to 80 cm in height and about eight others 30 cm or less in height. Most of the pillars have been broken.

Oral tradition

In this region (upper Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po drainage basin), sites such as Sana Marri DoringSa sna dmar ri rdo ring are generally thought to have been built by the ancient MönMon or to be the sanctuaries of elemental spirits.

Affiliated sites

West of Sana Marri DoringSa sna dmar ri rdo ring is Gachö GönpaDga’ chos dgon pa, a Gelukpa monastery of significant size, which was destroyed during the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

Drukmö Doring (’Brug mo’i rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Drukmö Doring’Brug mo’i rdo ring, named after the wife of the epic hero GesarGe sar, is situated on level, sandy terrain near the northwest side of an alpine basin. With its sparse grasses, the site sees only limited pastoral use. The enclosure has been nearly obliterated; only scant traces of the east wall are still visible. The east wall is located 9.5 m east of the row of pillars, signaling that this was a medium-sized example of the typology. From what little remains, it appears that the enclosure was heavily built. There are 16 unhewn pillars forming a modified U-shaped array.

Oral tradition

According to residents of Tara GönpaRta ra dgon pa, Drukmö Doring’Brug mo’i rdo ring is named for Drukmö Lugo’Brug mo’i lu mgo, a nearby spring, thought to have been magically created by the goddess DrölmaSgrol ma. This sacred spring is said to have appeared after Drukmo’Brug mo, the wife of GesarGe sar, prayed to DrölmaSgrol ma to bring water to the parched landscape. As a result of the spring, a marshy pasture several kilometers in length formed. As part of the boon granted by DrölmaSgrol ma, the locale is said to be hydrologically stable. Some drokpa also refer to the site as a MönMon burial ground (möndur). One elderly drokpa alleges that the stones of this site were erected by the SingpaSing pa (an invader group from the northwest Subcontinent) to honor their fallen heroes.

Site elements

Pillars

Most of the standing stones form a meandering north-south row near, what must have been, the west wall of the enclosure. The pillars are all tabular, around 10 cm thick and with some orange climax lichen growing on them. Eleven of them are more than 50 cm in height. In addition to the in situ specimens, there is a dislodged pillar 1 m in length at the site. The broad sides of most pillars face north and south, as is often the case in this typology. Two pillars planted near, what must have been, the north wall of the enclosure, however, have broad sides oriented east and west. The tallest pillar occupies the central part of the north-south oriented row. It is 1.2 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.7 m. Three other stelae reach 1 m in height and have basal girths of between 1.2 m and 1.4 m. Seven other pillars are between 50 cm and 80 cm in height and have basal girths of between 70 cm and 1.4 m. A number of the pillars have had their tops broken off.

Doring Tsotra (Rdo ring mtsho bkra)

General site characteristics

Doring TsotraRdo ring mtsho bkra is named for the sparkling ponds found in the vicinity of the monument. It was built on a sandy knoll situated in the midst of a large basin. This knoll is elevated about 2 m above the surrounding terrain. Pieces of milky quartz, carried to the site, probably indicate that it once had a ritual function (none is still observed). There are two main rows of pillars at Doring TsotraRdo ring mtsho bkra imprecisely oriented north-south. These meandering rows of standing stones are located on the crest of the knoll. At least two different types of rocks were used as pillars. The particular alignments made by the stelae and their situation on high ground indicate that they were never enclosed by walls of the II.1b typology.

Oral tradition

According to local lore, Drukmo’Brug mo, the wife of the epic hero GesarGe sar, used to tie her horses to the pillars of Doring TsotraRdo ring mtsho bkra. It is also said by residents of Tara GönpaRta ra dgon pa, that this was an inauspicious site until a lama came here long ago and practiced Buddhist rituals, transforming it into a Buddhist holy place (nechen) of sorts. This story seems to confirm the non-Buddhist origins of Doring TsotraRdo ring mtsho bkra.

Site elements

West row of pillars

The west row of pillars contains 12 specimens, plus five others standing east of the row. There are also several broken pillars near the south end of the west row as well as a single broken specimen at the north end. All of the stelae are tabular and between 10 cm and 30 cm in thickness. Their broad sides are oriented north and south. It is difficult to know how precisely the pillars were aligned due to their movement over the centuries. Some appear to have gradually twisted into their current positions. The west row (11.5 m long) contains 9 pillars 80 cm or more in height, with an average basal girth of around 1.2 m. The tallest pillar is 1.4 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.3 m. The smallest pillar is 50 cm in height with a basal girth of 1.1 m. The five isolated pillars are all under 70 cm in height.

East row of pillars

The east row of pillars (32 m long) is situated 14 m east of the west row. It begins nearly as far south as the west row, but extends much farther north. There are 16 pillars in the east row, several of which are broken. These pillars have the same basic characteristics and orientation as those in the west row. Four of the pillars are 1.1 m to 1.4 m in height with basal girths of around 1.2 m. The rest of the pillars are between 50 cm and 1 m in height.

Tara Doring (Rta ra rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tara DoringRta ra rdo ring is located on a sandy flat, approximately 1 km southwest of Tara GönpaRta ra dgon pa. Nearby there is standing water in the pasturelands of the TaraRta ra basin. The unusually designed enclosure of this site consists of both outer and inner walls.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Tara DoringRta ra rdo ring was part of Ling GesarGling ge sar’s horse corral.

Site Elements

Enclosure

What little remains of the square enclosure (13 m by 13 m) is aligned in the cardinal directions. It is primarily made up of slabs (20 cm to 70 cm long) set into the ground edgewise. These double-course slab walls are 60 cm to 70 cm thick. Small parts of all four walls are intact. There also appears to have been an inner enclosure that shares its north and west walls in common with the outer enclosure. The inner enclosure, a unique design feature in this II.1b typology site, measures 8 m (north-south) by 6.5 m (east-west). Due to extreme degradation, the wall type of the inner enclosure is unclear (possibly made of slabs as well).

Pillars

Near the west wall of the inner enclosure there are two broken tabular pillars. These pillars measure 75 cm (height) by 90 cm (basal girth) and 40 cm by 90 cm. The smaller one was originally substantially taller. Approximately 2.5 m away, near the south wall of the inner enclosure, there is a broken four-sided pillar (70 cm by 90 cm). The three existing pillars are made of a beige-colored rock that has weathered to a tan color.

Drama Nakgu Doring (Gra ma nag gu rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The highly degraded Drama Nakgu DoringGra ma nag gu rdo ring is located on the northern edge of the broad Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po valley, near where the NeutsangpoNe’u gtsang po (a major tributary) debouches into it. The terrain is very sandy and studded with drama brush and grasses. The site has open views only in the south and east. The sandy ridge on which Drama Nakgu DoringGra ma nag gu rdo ring was built, cuts off the northern and western vistas. There are nine much eroded standing stones at the site, seven or eight of which are broken. Two or three types of beige and gray metamorphic rocks were employed in construction of the monument.

Oral tradition

Like other sites of this typology in the general region (upper Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po drainage basin), Drama Nakgu DoringGra ma nag gu rdo ring is ascribed to the ancient MönMon or elemental deities.

Site elements

Enclosure

The general configuration of the enclosure is discernable through the few remaining in situ stones of the walls. The most visible wall section is in the north, next to the pillars. Much of this wall, however, has been dislodged or engulfed by shifting sands and vegetation.

Pillars

Seven of the nine uncut stelae form a north-south oriented row 4 m in length. The other two stelae run in a perpendicular fashion near the fragmentary north wall of the enclosure. The tallest pillar is tabular (1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth] by 20 cm [thickness]). The thin edges of this pillar face in the southeast and northwest directions. The second tallest pillar measures 60 cm by 90 cm. The remaining specimens are significantly smaller. There is also an uprooted pillar 1.7 m in length at the site.

A Serchung Doring (’A ser chung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

A Serchung Doring’A ser chung rdo ring is found on the northern edge of the Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po valley, among low-lying sandy hills. There appears to have been two enclosed pillar monuments situated on a gentle slope at this site. Although the pillars are extant, almost nothing of the two enclosures is left. The site is strewn with stones, probably used to build the enclosures, contrasting with the adjacent terrain which is free of debris. Much of the site is obscured by sand and drama brush. It seems likely that, when A Serchung Doring’A ser chung rdo ring was constructed, there was much less sand in the area. Sites with stable surface qualities would have been chosen for the erection of the pillars. The pillars are made of naturally occurring rocks of different types.

Oral tradition

A Serchung Doring’A ser chung rdo ring is attributed to the ancient MönMon or elemental deities, as are analogous sites in the general region (upper Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po drainage basin).

Site elements

South complex

Enclosure

A 1.2 m long, 50 cm thick fragment of the north wall of the enclosure is intact. This is the only identifiable wall fragment remaining at A Serchung Doring’A ser chung rdo ring.

Pillars

The south complex hosts a north-south oriented row of unhewn pillars (7.8 m long) ostensibly set on the west side of the enclosure. The southern-most menhir of the row is also the largest (1.3 m [height] by 1.3 m [basal girth]). One meter north of this tabular specimen there is another light-colored tabular specimen (90 cm by 1.1 m). Just to the east of this latter specimen there is a small red pillar broken at the base. On the north end of the row of pillars there are two more small specimens, one light-colored and one dark-colored. There are also two partly submerged dislodged pillars in the south complex. They are 1.2 m and 1.6 m in length.

North complex

The north complex is located 16.5 m north of the south complex.

Pillars

The main row of standing stones of the north complex is more or less in line with those of the south complex. Nevertheless, neither row of pillars is particularly straight. The main row of pillars in the north complex contains 24 specimens, which are tabular and irregularly shaped. Probably, at least four different types of rocks are represented, gray, red, beige and tan in color. There are 11 standing stones more than 70 cm in height, six of which reach 1 m or 1.1 m in height and have a basal girth of 1.1 m to 1.3 m. One of the taller pillars is so severely inclined that it is almost prostrate. East of the main row of standing stones there are around 12 smaller examples, nearly all of which are broken. There are also several dislodged specimens in close proximity to these smaller stelae.

Ukpa Lung Doring (’Ug pa lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Ukpa Lung Doring’Ug pa lung rdo ring is situated on level, sandy ground in the middle of the north-south running Ukpa Lung’Ug pa lung valley. The site is obscured by much drama brush growth. Ukpa Lung Doring’Ug pa lung rdo ring is in eyeshot of the great citadel of Wangchuk Gönpo KharDbang phyug mgon po mkhar (A-51). In the pre-modern period it was used to enshrine mani plaques, some of which are still intact. The enclosure was constructed primarily of white granite cobbles and does not appear to have been well aligned in the compass points. Except for the relatively intact south wall, only small fragments of the enclosure have survived. The enclosure measures 7.5 m (north-south) by 9.5 m (east-west). There appear to be seven pillars clustered near the west end of the enclosure, of which, all but two have been broken. The two tallest specimens measure 1.1 m (height) by 1.4 m (basal girth) by 8 cm (thickness) and 1 m by 1.3 m by 20 cm. The next tallest specimen (75 cm) is also tabular. The other broken pillars are significantly shorter. Broken parts of pillars and other stones are heaped around the in situ menhirs.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Gyaplung Doring (Rgyab lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gyaplung DoringRgyab lung rdo ring is located on the eastern edge of the Gonggyü TsoGong rgyud mtsho basin. The sandy, gently sloping ground has only scant grass cover. The site has very open vistas in the west overlooking the sacred BönBon holy lake, Gunggyü TsoGung rgyud mtsho/Gongkhyung Ngül TsoGong khyung dngul mtsho. The views north and south are partly open but in the east, they are constrained by mountains. The main focus of the site is two tall in situ pillars. There are no signs of an enclosure (thus the site’s inclusion in the II.1a typology), but it may have completely disappeared in the sandy terrain. The area around the pillars is level and slightly elevated above the surrounding ground level, morphological qualities often associated with the pillars erected in an enclosure typology (II.1b). There are also outlying funerary superstructures at Gyaplung DoringRgyab lung rdo ring.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Pillar complex

The tallest pillar is a slim, well-cut, four-sided pillar (2.2 m [height] by 80 cm [(basal girth]). This graceful pillar is only 20 cm to 30 cm wide on each of its four sides. Next to it there is a tabular pillar (1.6 m by 1 m) with stones piled against it. In close proximity to the two standing stones there are three dislodged specimens, one of which is 2 m in length. As they are partially submerged, the length of the other two uprooted ones could not be determined. Visible portions of them are 1.9 m and 1.8 m in length. Sixteen meters west of the tallest stele there is a 75 cm long rock slab fixed in the ground, which appears to be the sole surviving appurtenance of a superstructure. There are other stones scattered about, in the proximity, that may have been part of integral constructions as well, but not enough is extant to discern their character.

There is also a group of eight unbroken prostrate pillars situated 36 m southeast of the two standing examples. These pillars are four-sided and tabular. They have the same slim form and are made of the same dark-colored rock as their in situ counterparts. These collapsed stelae form a row of stones with a north-south orientation. From west to east these pillars measure 1.3 m (partly buried), 1.9 m, 2.4 m, 2 m, 2m (partly buried), 1.7 m, and 2 m (partly buried) in length. The most easterly unbroken specimen is still rooted in the ground despite its radical tilt. It sticks 1.9 m out of the ground and has a basal girth of 1.9 m.

Funerary superstructures

Some distance away from the pillars, at slightly lower elevation, there are two dispersions of single-course rectangular stone enclosures. They were erected on open sandy ground and are not well aligned in the cardinal directions. These enclosures are funerary in character but it could not be determined if they had a burial or non-burial function. The enclosures are made from stones up to 80 cm in length, the regular faces of which suggest that some of them may have been partially cut into shape. These stones are flush with the ground surface or raised a maximum of 20 cm above it. Most integrated stones appear to have been laid flat but some may have been installed in the ground edgewise as well. Rocks of different colors and types were used in the construction of the enclosures.

A row of at least five enclosures begins 78 m north of funerary structure FS6. This group of enclosures extends in a northwest line for 70 m. There is evidence indicating that there were more than five specimens in the row, but these additional enclosures are now either too heavily degraded or obscured by the sandy ground to make a positive assessment. From the northwest (lower) end of the row, the five distinct enclosures have the following dimensions:

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m by 7.5 m): at this structure there are two slabs (around 1.3 m long) lying on the ground. These were either part of the superstructure or extracted from the substructure.
Funerary structure FS2 (4.2 m by 8 m). There are the probable remains of another enclosure 18 m north of FS2
Funerary structure FS3 (3.8 m by 8.2 m).
Funerary structure FS4 (4 m by ?): this enclosure is very heavily deteriorated. The probable traces of another specimen are located 11 m to the north.
Funerary structure FS5 (3.8 m by 9 m).
Funerary structure FS6 (12 m by 7 m) is located 90 m northwest of the tallest in situ pillar. This fragmentary enclosure seems to stand off on its own.

Marchö Doring (Mar mchod rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Marchö Doring
English equivalent: Butter Offering Long-stone
Site number: C-14
Site typology: II.1a
Elevation: 4390 m
Administrative location (township): Khyunglung
Administrative location (county): Tsamda
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: May 1, 2001
Contemporary usage: As a prayer flag mast for the local pastoral encampment. The pillar also functions as a cult offering site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Prayer flags.
Maps: UTRS V, UTRS X, HAS C3
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General site characteristics

Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring is situated on the left side of the narrow MarchöMar mchod valley. Located southwest of KhyunglungKhyung lung village, access to the MarchöMar mchod valley is gained by way of a 4500 m high pass known as YarkhalaYar kha la. The lone pillar of Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring stands in close proximity to a winter pastoral camp of the same name. It is anchored on a 10° slope covered in sparse grass and pebbles. The four-sided pillar is 2.5 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.2 m. The four sides of the stone are quite evenly hewn and are fairly closely oriented in the compass points. Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring is slightly inclined but still well rooted in the ground. It has stood for a long time as evidenced by the wear it has undergone and by the way it has turned from beige to a reddish and dark brown color due to geochemical weathering processes. The original function of Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring could not be ascertained.

Oral tradition

The Marchö DoringMar mchod rdo ring pillar is called sipé doring by the inhabitants of KhyunglungKhyung lung village. It is thought to have grown where it stands in the primal epoch. Butter is offered to the stele because it is considered a protective and fortune-bestowing object. Dabs of butter cover much of its upper section and prayer flags are draped over it.

Sakti Doring (Sag thi rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Sakti DoringSag thi rdo ring is located on the left side of the eponymous valley, an effluent of the Chukar TsangpoChu dkar gtsang po. The single pillar stands on a broad, gentle slope in close proximity to a winter pastoral camp. The pillar (1.7 m [height] by 1.6 m [basal girth]) is irregularly shaped and highly worn. The beige stone has weathered to a much darker color. Stones have been piled up around the base of the pillar including pieces of locally occurring milky quartz. White scarves (khatak) and prayer flags (lungta) have been tied around the stone, and butter has been repeatedly dabbed on its upper section. Incense is also burnt at the site. Evidently, Sakti DoringSag thi rdo ring is a local cult monument. The use of ancient pillars for contemporary religious purposes is much more common in the GugéGu ge region than it is in the JangtangByang thang. The original function of lone pillars in GugéGu ge such as Sakti DoringSag thi rdo ring is not clear.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Luma Archung Doring (Lu ma ar chung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Luma Archung DoringLu ma ar chung rdo ring is located in a sandy mountain cove near the right bank of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po, about 1 km downstream of Rala KharmarRa la mkhar dmar (see A-65). The site is named for a spring at the base of a nearby limestone formation, the home of a luKlu named Dungkyong KarmoDung skyong dkar mo (the most popular luKlu water spirit in Upper Tibet). Local sources report that a pillar around 1.4 m in height stood here until circa 1990 when it was toppled. This fallen pillar now lies on the site. It has four well-formed sides of about equal width and is 2.1 m long and has a basal girth of 1.1 m. There are also funerary tumuli at Luma Archung DoringLu ma ar chung rdo ring.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, the pillar of Luma Archung DoringLu ma ar chung rdo ring appeared in the primal epoch of existence.

Site elements

Proximate funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Next to the fallen pillar there is what appears to be a burial tumulus (bangso). This rocky rectangular mound (8.4 m by 9.3 m) is elevated about 1.2 m above the surrounding very gently sloping terrain. Recently this tumulus (FS1) was heavily disturbed by the excavation of its top. This damage precluded discerning the design and alignment of the walls.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (6.4 m by 6.6 m) is situated 26 m west of FS1. This smaller square mound is elevated less than a 1 m above the surrounding terrain. The sides of FS2 are aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 35 m north of FS2. This truncated mound now barely projects above ground level. Its sides are also aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 51 m west of FS3. This probable funerary enclosure barely extends above the ground surface and measures 11.4 m (north-south) by 14.7 m (east-west). Its limestone walls are aligned in the compass points and are around 60 cm in thickness.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 9 m south of FS4, and is of the same design and construction. FS 5 is 11 m long (north-south) but its west end has been obliterated. It is also aligned in the cardinal directions. In close proximity to FS4 and FS5 is a small seasonal pastoral camp.

Nangchu Doring (Nang chu rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nangchu DoringNang chu rdo ring is located in an eponymous tributary valley on the west side of the main Dri Jiu’Bri byi’u valley. The terrain is strewn with rocks but supports little vegetation. Nangchu DoringNang chu rdo ring is a smaller example of a pillar erected inside an enclosure typology. Stelae of this typology probably find their greatest numerical expression in the greater ZhungpaGzhung pa region. Nangchu DoringNang chu rdo ring is one of ten pillar sites surveyed (C-9, C-10, C-55, C-56, C-77, C-78, C-79, C-80, C-90, C-136) that encompass the nine territorial divisions (tsopa) of old Zhungpa MatsenGzhung pa ma mtshan.168 These pillar sites may have been subsidiary to the centrally located Shang DoringShang rdo ring (C-54), formerly the largest pillar site in ZhungpaGzhung pa, and may reflect the existence of an integral ritual and political network during the archaic cultural horizon.

Oral tradition

In this region (ZhungpaGzhung pa), pillar sites such as Nangchu DoringNang chu rdo ring are often associated with the ancient tribe known as the MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 4.7 m (east-west) by 2.7 m (north-south). It is composed of neatly-built double-course slab walls (around 60 cm thick) containing variable-length (primarily 35 cm to 60 cm long) stones. These stones project as much as 20 cm above ground level. The south wall of the enclosure is well preserved and the west and north walls are partially intact, while most of the east wall has been destroyed. In the east wall, a large stone (55 cm long) runs perpendicular to the wall course. This stone appears to demarcate one side of a “portal” that punctuated the east wall. Lying outside the east wall, near the portal stone, a slab wall extends in an easterly direction for 2 m. Thin slabs of stones (15 cm to 30 cm long) were planted edgewise into the ground, in parallel courses, creating a wall 30 cm thick.

Pillar

A single pillar (1.3 m [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]) stands 40 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. This four-sided, somewhat pointed menhir is inclined at about a 30° angle, and is not well centered in the enclosure.

Naklhé Doring (Nag lhas rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring is located on the western fringe of the highly degraded Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin. With its many salt and soda flats, this was an attractive location for the placement of ritual and utilitarian facilities pertaining to the disposal of human remains. I refer to this area as the “Valley of the Dead” because of the concentration of funerary sites found here (see C-92, C-153, D-46, D-68). All of these sites have especially long views in the east. The extreme aridity of the area, rendering much of it uninhabitable and of little value to livestock, would appear to account for the concentration of funerary sites in the Valley of the Dead. The closest archaic residential site to this cluster of ceremonial sites surveyed is Mönkhar SernakMon mkhar ser nag (A-30), located 20 km to the west. The precise chronological and cultural relationships between the various Valley of the Dead funerary sites have yet to be determined. Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring is named for the small, dark conical formation standing on the western edge of the Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin. There are three individual archaeological installations at NaklhéNag lhas: two of stelae erected inside enclosures and one consisting of quadrate enclosures. The three sites of Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring are all in eyeshot of one another.

Oral tradition

It is generally thought in this region (GegyéDge rgyas) that sites such as Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring were constructed by the ancient MönMon for burial purposes.

Site elements

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Northeast

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Northeast consists of a row of nine in situ pillars, situated near the shores of the alkaline lake Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha (32° 37.278΄ N. lat. / 81.52.428΄ E. long. / 4450 m).169

Enclosure

The walls enclosing these pillars are highly fragmentary and their original configuration could not be determined with any precision. Quite an anomaly, the row of pillars (many of which are inclined) appears to stand near the east end of the enclosure. The west wall of the enclosure is situated 26 m west of the pillars. The extant west wall fragment is about 15 m long and fairly well aligned in the cardinal directions. This wall is double-course (40 cm to 50 cm thick), and contains variable-length (10 cm to 70 cm long) stones. The stones of the west wall are flush with the ground surface or project above up to a height of 20 cm. A small fragment of the enclosing north wall is also intact where it joins with the west wall. The area between the row of pillars and west wall of the enclosure is strewn with small pieces of white limestone. These stones either formed an element of the construction or were once part of votive offerings. Inside the enclosure, 5.8 m west of the row of pillars, there is a smaller enclosure (2.2 m by 2.4 m) or cell. This inner enclosure is offset towards the north side of the larger enclosure. The single-course perimeter walls of the smaller enclosure are composed of calcareous rocks up to 60 cm in length. These stones project as much as 30 cm above ground level. The smaller enclosure is of crude construction and sub-rectangular in form. This is one of the only examples of the stelae erected inside an enclosure typology (II.1b) that has a subsidiary inner enclosure discovered to date.

Pillars

Five of the nine in situ pillars planted inside the enclosure are broken to varying degrees, and now stand 60 cm to 1 m in height. These broken pillars are all irregularly shaped. There are also two fallen pillars, 1.3 m and 1.4 m in length. All the pillars (except one) are made of an unhewn light-colored, grained igneous (?) rock. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of the four unbroken stelae are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (1.2 m [height] by 85 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: a tabular dark-colored stone (1 m by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (1.5 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided (1.25 m by 1 m).

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest

Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest is situated about one-half km from Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Northeast, in close proximity to the NaklhéNag lhas rock formation (37.083΄ / 52.338΄ / 4460 m). The sandy terrain is nearly level and strewn with dark blue grained rocks that have reddish-colored varnish. This is the type rock with which the monument was constructed. Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest is a conventional example of the II.2 typology.

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 11.4 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). The east, west and south walls of the enclosure are largely intact, while the north wall is highly fragmentary. These double-course walls (65 cm to 80 cm thick) are composed of stones (primarily 40 cm to 60 cm long) that are even with the ground level or elevated up to 20 cm above it.

Pillar

There is a single, irregularly shaped, pillar (approximately 1 m in height) erected inside the enclosure. The pillar stands next to the inner edge of the west wall and is quite well centered between its north and south walls of the enclosure. There are also three or four partly submerged larger stones inside the enclosure. These appear to have been smaller pillars.

Outlying funerary structure

A square structure (2.1 m by 2.2 m) is located 7.5 m directly west of the west wall of the Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest enclosure, at slightly higher elevation. The base of this structure is made of large rocks upon which smaller stones are heaped. This probable funerary structure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding ground level.

Interconnected funerary superstructures

At NaklhéNag lhas there is a third site, consisting of at least seven large rectangular funerary enclosures, located a couple hundred meters north of Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest (37.17΄ / 52.29΄ / 4460 m). These structures are situated on level sandy ground in the mouth of a small side valley. This interconnected line of enclosures (with the possible exception of two structures that may have had spaces between them) is 82 m in length. Forming a single north-south line, these enclosures are about 13 m wide (east-west). As these structures are highly deteriorated, a detailed assessment of their design and construction qualities was not possible. The walls of the enclosures do not seem to be well aligned in the cardinal directions. Variable-length (primarily 25 cm to 50 cm long) stones of the type used to build Naklhé DoringNag lhas rdo ring Southwest were used in the construction of the walls. Some enclosure walls also exhibit chunks of a white calcareous stone but this is the exception. The largest stones in the construction reach 1 m in length. The stones of the enclosures tend to project 10 cm to 30 cm above ground level. The enclosures all appear to have been free from interior structural elements. This NaklhéNag lhas site with its interconnected line of enclosures somewhat resembles funerary structure FS4 of Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo (C-170).

Approximately 50 m west of the interconnected enclosure complex there are the remains of a wall (8.5 m long, 1.2 m thick, 60 cm high). Farther west there is other minor structural detritus.

Lumö Tanak Doring (Klu mo’i rta nag rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Lumö Tanak DoringKlu mo’i rta nag rdo ring is situated along the western margin of the desiccated Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin. There are very open views to the east. The terrain is well drained, sandy and very gently sloping with a perennial spring in close proximity. I have adopted the name “Valley of the Dead” for this long, dry basin because of the proliferation of funerary monuments found here (see C-91, C-153, D-46, D-68). Lumö Tanak DoringKlu mo’i rta nag rdo ring enjoys a wide panorama to the east as is typical in this typology. Within the enclosure there is a row of eight standing pillars set close to the inner edge of the west wall.

Oral tradition

Lumö Tanak DoringKlu mo’i rta nag rdo ring is locally said to be the haunts of a local lumoKlu mo (female water spirit). Her black horse mount is likened to the pillars and walls found at the site.

Site elements

Enclosure

The quadrate enclosure measures 11.4 m (east-west) by 7.1 m (north-south), and its walls are oriented with no more than a 15° deviation from the compass points. The walls of the enclosure are largely intact with the exception of the east wall. The sturdy perimeter walls are between 60 cm to 90 cm in thickness, and each consists of parallel courses of slabs and cobbles. These stones are primarily 30 cm to 60 cm in length, and are set flush with the surface or elevated above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. In the south wall there is one very prominent stone, 1 m in length and rising 45 cm above-ground level. Mostly light-colored, fine-grained igneous stones were used to build the enclosure, but there are a few white calcareous stones in the construction as well. There are a couple of inscribed mani stone fragments lying in the enclosure; these were probably transported there from nearby mani walls that were built in the pre-modern period. There are also small pieces of milky quartz scattered about the enclosure, which are likely to have been arrayed in some kind of gesture of offering. Just to the west of the enclosure there are the scant remains of a möndur type funerary superstructure.

Pillars

The row of pillars, which is set within a few centimeters of the inner edge of the west wall, extends from the south to the north ends of the enclosure. The pillars are made of the same fine-grained stones as was used to build the enclosure. The four-sided standing tabular pillars tend to have their two wider faces oriented north and south. There is an uprooted specimen with three uneven sides lying inside the enclosure (1.1 m long by 80 cm girth).

From north to south, the dimensions and forms of the in situ pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four well-hewn sides with broken top (50 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: small insignificant pillar (50 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four irregular faces (1.5 m by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR4: four irregular faces (90 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR5: four irregular faces with pointed top (1.6 m by 1.4 m).
Long-stone DR6: four irregular faces (1.2 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR7: three irregular faces (1.1 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR8: four irregular faces (1.3 m by 1m).

Affiliated sites

LhasaLha sa government facility

The presence of potable water and salt at Lumö Tanak DoringKlu mo’i rta nag rdo ring insured its economic importance long after the demise of the Upper Tibetans responsible for erecting the pillars. The site, however, is now completely deserted. In the nearby rocky formation, bounding the western side of the basin, there is a small ruined Buddhist retreat. In close proximity, on the valley floor, there are the remains of a small residence, which is reported to have been occupied by a representative of the old Tibetan LhasaLha sa government. This official was in charge of overseeing the extraction of salt from nearby Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha and collecting the appropriate taxes.

Tsari Lung Möndur (Tshwa ri lung mon dur)

General site characteristics

Tsari Lung MöndurTshwa ri lung mon dur is located on the southern edge of the Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin. It is named for Tsari LungTshwa ri lung, a rocky ridge just west of the archaeological site. The terrain is open, level and sandy, with long views to the east. Tsari Lung MöndurTshwa ri lung mon dur is a particularly small example of an array of stones appended to a temple-tomb typology. It was constructed of a grayish, grained igneous (?) rock.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of this region (GegyéDge rgyas), Tsari Lung MöndurTshwa ri lung mon dur was an ancient MönMon grave site.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The appended structure provisionally measures 3 m by 4 m. This structure, a well developed temple-tomb in larger examples of the typology, has been reduced to near oblivion. Not one coherent wall fragment has survived. Many of the stones used in its construction are 50 cm to 60 cm in length.

Pillar array

In the array there are only 11 north-south oriented rows of stones that cover an area of 4 m (east-west) by 2.8 m (north-south). There are an unequal number of stones in each of the rows totaling 110. Most of the miniature pillars extend merely 10 cm to 20 cm above the ground surface. The tallest among them is 40 cm. In the most northerly row there are several tabular specimens, otherwise, the standing stones are pointed and have an irregular form. The rows of pillars are spaced 35 cm to 45 cm apart from one another. Each stone in a row is typically spaced 15 cm to 20 cm from the next one. Some of the southern rows appear to be missing stones in the east portion of the array (these rows are shortened). Despite this upwards of 70 percent of all standing stones erected at the site seem to still be in situ. It is possible, however, that the array was originally more extensive than the in situ evidence now indicates.

Shapak Doring (Sha phag rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Shapak DoringSha phag rdo ring consisted of three or four pillars erected inside an enclosure. It is reported to have been destroyed sometime during the Chinese Communist period and the pillars moved a short distance away to serve as the entrance to a corral. This corral is situated just south of the main road that links TsakhaTshwa kha and GegyéDge rgyas. The largest pillar is a well-hewn four-sided stone that projects 1 m above the ground surface and has a girth of 1 m. The other pillars are considerably smaller. A grayish grained stone was selected for use as the standing stones. North of the main road there are wall traces on gently sloping ground. These structural traces ostensibly belonged to the enclosure in which the pillars were erected.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Shapak DoringSha phag rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Tangra Doring (Thang ra rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Tangra Doring
Site number: C-94
Site typology: II.1b
Elevation: 4350 m
Administrative location (township): Risum
Administrative location (county): Rutok
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: May 25, 2001
Contemporary usage: As a shrine for the worship of a local divinity.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Prayer flags and at least one mani plaque.
Maps: UTRS I, HAS A1
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General site characteristics

Tangra DoringThang ra rdo ring is located on the east side of the Maga TsangpoMa ga gtsang po, near the mouth of a small side valley. The terrain is sandy and gently sloping. The main road between RutokRu thog and the NgariMnga’ ris prefectural headquarters runs within 100 m of the archaeological site. Road construction and the building of corrals has disturbed the area around the site. Tangra DoringThang ra rdo ring was vandalized during the Chinese Cultural Revolution; not one pillar remains whole. The site constitutes one of the most westerly examples of the stelae erected inside an enclosure typology (II.1b) in Upper Tibet (also see C-95 and C-112). The border of LadakLa dwags is only about 30 km to the west.

Oral tradition

According to area residents, Tangra DoringThang ra rdo ring is a sacred site of ancient times.

Site elements

Enclosure

Fortunately most parts of the four walls of the enclosure have survived. These walls are oriented almost to the intermediate points. The enclosure measures 12 m (southwest-northeast) by 5.7 m (southeast-northwest). The double-course enclosure walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) were constructed with variable-length (25 cm to 60 cm long) stones. Some of these stones are level with the ground surface while others project as much as 40 cm above it.

Pillars

All the pillars were erected near the inner edge of the southwest wall (they are mostly concentrated near the north corner) of the enclosure. Originally, there were at least eight pillars. These include seven tabular specimens, all of which are now 50 cm or less in height. At least three types of rocks were used as pillars, including a grayish grained type (igneous?) that was also used to construct the enclosure. Another type of rock is black in color. The main pillar of the site was broken about 40 cm above ground level. The broken upper section is 1.25 m long and has been propped back into position with the help of a pile of stones. This was part of an attempt by local residents to rehabilitate the site. The main pillar is irregularly shaped and has a girth of about 1 m. It is covered in butter and red ochre. This pillar is seasonally propitiated in invocation and offering rituals (sölwa) by the local drokpa, who regard it as the sanctuary of a local divinity.170 There are poles, with prayer flags attached, in the pile of rocks supporting the pillar. There is also at least one plaque inscribed with the mani mantra. Next to the cairn there are ashes from incense offerings.

Nakkhung Doring (Nag khung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nakkhung DoringNag khung rdo ring is comprised of a single intact pillar located a little east of a black conical hill. The monument was established on a rocky shoulder on level ground. Immediately to the east of the site there is a vertical drop of several meters to a valley floor. The pillar of Nakkhung DoringNag khung rdo ring is coated in red ochre and butter. Prayer flags are also tied around it.

Oral tradition

According to the drokpa of the proximate spring encampment (consisting of five tents), the pillar of Nakkhung DoringNag khung rdo ring is propitiated in informal invocation and offering rituals (sölwa). The pillar is considered a divinity that helps to insure the well-being of the local shepherds and their livestock. Local sources claim that this long-stone appeared with the rise of primordial existence (sipa chakpé doring).

Site elements

Enclosure

Only small fragments of the double-course wall of the enclosure have survived. Several small sections of the south wall are visible as well as even smaller traces of the east and west walls. The north wall has been obliterated. These 50 cm thick walls are aligned in the cardinal directions. From east to west, the enclosure appears to have measured around 9 m. The north-south dimension was probably significantly less. The stones in the enclosing walls are of variable length (generally 10 cm to 30 cm long). There is one in situ slab in the perimeter walls that is 80 cm long.

Pillar

The pillar protrudes 2.2 m above ground level, but its shape reveals that it originally was more deeply planted in the ground. The lower half of the stone has a splayed section (as do many dislodged specimens in Upper Tibet), which helped to anchor it firmly. This widened area of the standing stone is exposed above ground level, suggesting that it was once set 60 cm to 75 cm more deeply into the substrate. Despite the apparent replanting of the pillar, it is still firmly fixed in the ground. The current basal girth of the pillar is 80 cm but originally it was probably about 1 m. A dark-colored stone was selected as the stele. The broad sides of the tabular pillar are oriented east and west. Its thin sides are 10 cm to 12 cm thick.

The carving of a chöten is found on the west side of the pillar, 60 cm above the current ground level. This carving (62 cm tall) is somewhat coarse and was almost certainly made well after the founding of the monument. Nevertheless, it is of substantial age as evidenced by the heavy wear and the significant degree of repatination. The style of the chöten represents an earlier variant of this type of shrine. It has a graduated base of five tiers set on a plinth, a small circular mid section (bumpa) and a squat spire (khorlo) with a broadened central section. The spire is horizontally segmented by 12 or 13 lines. It is crowned by a conjoined sun and moon (nyida). Much of the chöten is covered in red ochre.

Doring Karnak (Rdo ring dkar nag)

Basic site data

Site name: Doring Karnak
English equivalent: Black and White Long-stones
Site number: C-96
Site typology: II.1b
Elevation: 4880 m
Administrative location (township): Jangtö
Administrative location (county): Gegyé
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 3, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Four plaques inscribed with the mani mantra.
Maps: UTRS II, HAS A2
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General site characteristics

Doring KarnakRdo ring dkar nag is located near the north edge of the broad GangraGangs ra valley. Bounding the valley, in the proximity, is a dark-colored rock outcrop. The terrain is almost level and covered in small rocks and gravel. There are excellent views to the east and west and a fairly long view to the south. The black pillar and white pillar erected inside the enclosure have inspired the current name of the site. Three of the four mani plaques found at the site are broken.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The not well aligned double-course slab-wall enclosure measures 4.4 m (east-west) by 3.4 m (north-south). The walls of the enclosure (50 cm to 60 cm) thick contain upright slabs primarily 30 cm to 70 cm in length (the longest slab is 1 m). These slabs are 2 cm to 7 cm thick and project 10 cm to 20 cm above ground level. Parts of all four walls of the enclosure are intact, including about 50 percent of the original number of slabs. Other slabs of the enclosure lie dispersed around the site.

Pillars

The two pillars are planted about 20 cm from the inner edge of the west wall and are well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. The north pillar (1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]) is black and has an irregular tabular form. The south white pillar (75 cm by 80 cm) has an irregular form. The strong color contrast between the two pillars is especially noteworthy in the late afternoon sun.

Tekyer (Thes skyer)

General site characteristics

The standing stones of TekyerThes skyer are found on a gravel bar in the midst of a large basin known as SharnaShar sna. The tallest standing stone in the group has a somewhat rectilinear form (1.2 m [height] by 2 m [basal girth]). Next to it are at least four other dark-colored standing stones planted in the ground in a line, as well as other stones dispersed in close proximity. It could not be determined whether these stones constitute an artifact or a geofact. If indeed they were erected by humans, they represent a more primitive pillar typology, the likes of which have not been documented elsewhere in Upper Tibet.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Kekar Möndur (Rked dkar mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Kekar Möndur
Site number: C-154
Site typology: II.1c
Elevation: 4370 m
Administrative location (township): Tsakha
Administrative location (county): Gegyé
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 4, 2001
Contemporary usage: The site has been destroyed to make way for a road.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS II
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General site characteristics

Kekar MöndurRked dkar mon dur was situated 5 km west of the town of TsakhaTshwa kha in the midst of the TsakhaTshwa kha basin. By 2001, this rare and highly valuable site had been heavily impacted by construction crews improving an east-west link road to GegyéDge rgyas. It is reported that explosives were used on the archaeological site in order to dislodge its stone elements. Kekar MöndurRked dkar mon dur stood next to one of the many parallel tracks traversing the TsakhaTshwa kha basin. By 2002, the site had been utterly destroyed by the road building effort, the stones ripped from the ground to build the new road bed. Clearly, in the wide open stable terrain of the TsakhaTshwa kha basin, the new road could have been easily diverted around the site. The availability of stones in the monument and old superstitions, however, proved too much for the poorly advised road workers. Kekar MöndurRked dkar mon dur stood on gravelly and sandy well-drained terrain. The site consisted of a concourse of standing stones and an appended edifice. The small unhewn pillars were of two or three types of rock red or white in color. The same white calcareous rock used for some of the standing stones was employed in the construction of the appended edifice.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Kekar MöndurRked dkar mon dur was considered inauspicious and would disorient drivers and even cause accidents on the main road. It is said to have been blown up for this reason. In the region such sites are generally associated with the ancient MönMon. In TsakhaTshwa kha and northern GegyéDge rgyas, however, oral traditions around archaic archaeological sites are not well developed. This may be the case because the present pastoral residents of these regions are of relatively recent origin (they began to arrive less than 350 years ago).

Site elements

Appended edifice

By 2001, the temple-tomb had been reduced to a flattened tumulus 50 cm to 60 cm in height. This structure approximately measured 4 m (north-south) by 3.6 m (east-west). The temple-tomb was built on a natural 1.5 m rise in the plain. No coherent wall fragments were visible. In a 15 m radius around the temple-tomb there were scattered stones that must have once been part of it. In the middle of the tumulus there was a shallow depression corresponding to the location of the central chamber.

Pillar array

The field of standing stones was aligned in the cardinal directions. Around 100 mostly broken pillars were still in situ in 2001, no more than 25 percent of the total number that once stood at the site. The rectangular array measured at least 31 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). There was a gap of 8 m between the most westerly standing stones and the appended edifice, indicating that the array was originally longer east to west (the pillars in this typology usually come close to the appended edifice). The ground of the west half of the array slightly inclines towards the erstwhile remains of the appended temple-tomb. Most of the intact pillars were found on the east side of the array. The tallest specimens reached 40 cm to 50 cm in height. These uncut stones tended to have four irregular faces. The rows of pillars were spaced 55 cm to 1 m apart, and the individual pillars in a row 65 cm to 1 m apart. This spacing, however, may not have reflected the original distribution of standing stones (it could have been somewhat denser).

The array was enclosed on its three outer sides by a double-course slab wall. These walls were composed of light-colored calcareous stones (15 cm to 20 cm long) laid 15 cm to 20 cm apart in parallel courses. The upright stones of the enclosing walls were flush with the ground surface or rose above it slightly. In 2001, the south perimeter wall was largely intact, less than 50 percent of the north wall was extant, and the east wall was highly fragmentary. The dissolute east wall contained one standing stone within its courses. Running parallel to the east wall of the array there appears to have been four more slab walls extending a maximum of 4 m to its east. Only small portions of these double-course slab walls were still intact in 2001. The western-most of the four slab walls contained three standing stones within its courses. This wall was around 30 cm in thickness. The two outermost slab walls on the east side of the pillar array appear to have consisted of just a single-line of stones, but by the time of the survey there was little structural evidence left to go by.

Mokyok Doring (Mo kyog rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Mokyok DoringMo kyog rdo ring is located in a valley called DoringRdo ring, a tributary of SalhéSa lhas, the valley that runs between old Oma’O ma and Bero TsetsoSbe ro rtse mtsho. All directions around the monument, except the west, are fairly open. In the west there is a mountain that bounds the DoringRdo ring valley. The terrain is slightly inclined to the south and is grassy and strewn with small rocks. The three pillars of the site are considered auspicious magical objects, however, religious observances at the site are light, reflecting the fact that there are few drokpa families in the vicinity. The pillars and much of the enclosure are made of an unhewn gray rock.

Oral tradition

The local drokpa families believe that the pillars of Mokyok DoringMo kyog rdo ring appeared with the emergence of existence (sipa chakpé doring), and that they are sky pillars (Namgyi Kawa) linking the vertically aligned cosmos. Offerings of butter are made at this site in the summertime in order to dispel negative influences, and to increase the prosperity of the local residents and the well-being of the flocks of livestock.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 10.2 m (east-west) by 5.6 m (north-south) and many portions of its four walls are intact. These double-course slab walls are 45 cm to 70 cm thick and are composed of variable-length (20 cm to 90 cm long) stones. Some of these stones are level with the surface, but a significant number of them project as much as 40 cm above ground level. In the east wall of the enclosure there is a 35 cm long stone set perpendicular to the axis of the course. This threshold stone created a “portal” about 45 cm in width. There is no clear threshold stone still in place on the opposite side of the portal. In order to maintain a level interior, the south/upslope wall of the enclosure is generally level with the surrounding terrain while the north/downhill wall is elevated. The east and west walls of the enclosure are somewhat elevated as well.

Pillars

The three pillars stand 30 cm to 50 cm away from the inner edge of the west wall. These three slim stelae form a well centered row. The dimensions and shapes of the pillars are as follows:

South pillar: irregularly shaped (1.6 m [height] by 1.2 m [basal girth]).

Central pillar: irregularly shaped (1.1 m by 1m).

North pillar: irregularly shaped (1 m by 85 cm).

Funerary superstructures

A fragmentary slab-wall enclosure (3.3 m across) is situated 22 m northwest of the walled pillars. Nearby, in a functioning corral, there is an example of the same type of pillar (1.15 m long), which was probably uprooted from the monument a long time ago. Near this corral are traces of the walls of other funerary superstructures.

Bültang Doring (Bul thang rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Bültang DoringBul thang rdo ring is located less than 300 m south of the main road running between Oma’O ma and GertséSger rtse. The terrain is gently inclined and strewn with small rocks and gravel. From the site there is a very long vista to the east and sweeping views to the north has well. The south and west directions, however, are constrained by the proximate ridge system. The site consists of a single pillar erected inside an enclosure.

Oral tradition

According to local sources in the village of LhaktongpaLhag mthong pa, Bültang DoringBul thang rdo ring appeared with the rise of existence.

Site elements

Enclosure

The double-course enclosure is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 11 m (east to west) by 12.5 m (east wall) and 14.5 m (west wall). This enclosure is unusual for having longer dimensions north-south than east-west. The walls of the perimeter (around 50 cm thick) contain uncut slabs and some blockwork (20 cm to 85 cm long) inserted into the ground edgewise. A few of the slabs are as little as 2 cm in thickness. The stones of the walls protrude as much as 25 cm above ground level. Little of the enclosing walls have survived. There is a 3.3 m long south wall segment intact near the east corner of the enclosure and the west half of the north wall is largely in place. The mostly intact east wall had one or possibly even three openings, which were not evenly spaced. The most recognizable “portal” has a 50 cm long stone running perpendicular to the wall course making up one side of it and two stones (combined length 55 cm) on the other side. The gap thus formed is 30 cm in width.

Pillar

The lone in situ pillar (1.2 m [height] by 95 cm [basal girth]) was erected near what was the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure (this wall has been obliterated). This stele of four irregular sides has a grayish to purplish hue. Also near the west end of the enclosure there are two smaller broken pillars. One specimen is snapped off at ground level while the other one still retains 30 cm of its height.

Affiliated sites

In the environs of the small permanent settlement of LhaktongpaLhag mthong pa (32° 23.689΄ N. lat. / 83° 36.688΄ / 4420 m) there used to be a small ancient pillar. This information was collected from the local ngakpa, Karma ChömpelKarma chos ’phel (born circa 1924), his wife and other elders.

Kyungmö Mönra (Skyung mo’i mon ra)

General site characteristics

The array of pillars and appended edifice of Kyungmö MönraSkyung mo’i mon ra are located near the southwest shore of Kyungmo TsoSkyung mo mtsho (Female Chough Lake), in a broad basin. To the south and west rises Gyaro DrakkarRgya ro brag dkar/Lhari DrakkarLha ri brag dkar, the principal holy mountain of NgönchuSngon chu. The site has expansive vistas in all but the south and southwest directions. The hard packed and gravelly terrain gently declines towards the lakeshore. The site is now undulating; appearing to have undergone water-borne changes over time. The quadrate array of pillars has been heavily disturbed: out of perhaps 900 stones that were raised originally, only about 145 are still in situ, and many of these are broken at or near ground level. Despite the poor condition of the array, there are no signs of recent vandalism at the site. There are also several outlying funerary superstructures at Kyungmö MönraSkyung mo’i mon ra.171

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Kyungmö MönraSkyung mo’i mon ra was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The appended edifice, which has been reduced to a rocky tumulus, sits 4 m west of the nearest pillars. There are no coherent wall segments remaining in this structure. Based on the extent and form of the dispersion, the appended edifice is likely to have measured around 3.5 m by 3.5 m. This rocky tumulus rises 70 cm above the ground surface and is topped with large chunks of milky quartz. The presence of quartz may indicate a ritual function for the site in pre-modern times.

Pillar array

As only fragmentary bits of the array are still extant, it is difficult to gauge its size. Provisionally, it measured 28 m (east-west) by 18 m (north-south). Aligned in the cardinal directions, the natural pieces of red sandstone rise an average of about 30 cm above the surface. The tallest standing stone is under 45 cm in height. Many of the pillars have a rough tabular form, with their broad sides facing north and south. The few dislodged pillars found at the site are 50 cm to 60 cm in length. From the remaining structural evidence, it appears that the rows of pillars were placed 50 cm to 80 cm apart from one another, and individual stones in each row were spaced 80 cm to 90 cm apart.

Funerary superstructures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1, a double-course quadrate enclosure, is situated 72 m southwest of the array and appended structure. FS1 was probably aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 10 m (north-south) by 7 m (east-west). The west wall of the structure was completely destroyed by a widening flood plain. The other walls are fragmentary. These walls (around 50 cm thick) contain mostly blocky stones flush with the surface but also a few upright slabs. The stones used in the walls tend to be smaller (up to 40 cm long).

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 22 m south/uphill of FS1. The perimeter walls of FS2 are of the same general type of construction as FS1. The structure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 22 m (north-south) by 12 m (east-west). Parts of all four walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) have survived and they contain variable-length (30 cm to 50 cm long) stones. These stones are level with the ground surface or rise above it to a height of 30 cm. Of all the perimeter walls, the east wall is the most intact. FS2 appears to have been divided into three cells of uneven size.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 24 m south/uphill of FS2. This enclosure was divided into two cells. The north cell measures 16 m (north-south) by 8 m (east-west) and the south cell measures 16 m (north-south) by 11 m (east-west). The walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) of FS 3 consist mostly of variable-length slabs (up to to 65 cm long) placed into the ground edgewise, which are elevated a maximum of 25 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 13.5 m south of FS3. FS4 consists of four single-course slab-wall fragments, which are parallel to one another. These walls are spaced 20 cm to 25 cm apart and are 4 m in length. Variable length (15 cm to 50 cm long) thin slabs set into the ground edgewise were used in the construction of these walls.

Nakpo Doring (Nag po rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The single pillar erected inside an enclosure of Nakpo DoringNag po rdo ring was founded in the middle of a large plain with open views in all directions. To the north, the sacred and lofty Mukkar GangriSmug dkar gangs ri range is visible. The terrain is level and sandy. There are also remnants of two outlying funerary superstructures at Nakpo DoringNag po rdo ring.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Nakpo DoringNag po rdo ring is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The highly fragmentary rectangular enclosure may have measured 5.5 m (north-south) by 8.5 m (east-west). The extant structural evidence indicates that walls of the enclosure were double-course and aligned in the cardinal directions. The extant wall segments are about 60 cm thick and constructed of a light-colored concretion and a black stone with white veins of variable length (up to 85 cm long). Around the enclosure there are many scattered stones that must have once been part of its construction. The surrounding terrain is largely free of stones. One meter east of the northeast corner of the enclosure there is an L-shaped wall fragment. It extends 5 m north and then turns west for 10 m paralleling the enclosure.

Pillar

The dark-gray irregularly shaped single pillar (60 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]) was erected near the west side of the enclosure. It is reported that the rock used as the pillar is not found locally.

Funerary superstructures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is a very fragmentary double-course enclosure (7 m by 7.5 m) situated 40 m north of the pillar. The configuration of this structure is not clear and may have included more than one cell. The variable length (primarily 30 cm to 50 cm long) uncut slab and blocks of the perimeter walls project as much as 20 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.5 m by 5 m) is situated 30 m west of FS1. FS2 appears to be of the same construction as FS1 and is also very much deteriorated.

Ngönmo Doring (Sngon mo rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Ngönmo Doring
English equivalent : Blue long-stones
Site number: C-100
Site typology: II.1b, II.2b
Elevation: 4560 m
Administrative location (township): Urtö
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 16, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. The extraction of stones from the site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Some mani plaques and pillars carved with the mani mantra.
Maps: UTRS VIII
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General site characteristics

The important walled pillars and funerary superstructures of Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring are located near a mountain named NgönmoSngon mo (Blue One). A little farther away from the site is the mountain known as MarmoDmar mo (Red One). The views from Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring are particularly expansive in the east, and are also quite open in the north (towards Mukkar GangriSmug dkar gangs ri) and south. The view west is constrained by the local topography. The north side of the site is bounded by a small watercourse. The terrain is level, sandy and rock strewn. Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring is dominated by 18 well-preserved pillars erected inside an enclosure and two very large multi-celled enclosures.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), pillars and walls such as those found at Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring are often connected to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 7 m (north-south) by 11 m (east-west). The double-course walls of the enclosure (50 cm to 70 cm thick) contain variable-length (20 cm to 60 cm) uncut pieces of sandstone. The stones of the walls are largely flush with the ground surface. The west wall of the enclosure is missing. There are some plaques inscribed with the mani mantra inside the enclosure, reflecting the Buddhist cult status of the monument.

Pillars

All 18 pillars are made of sandstone, reddish tan and beige in color. Many of the larger pillars have had the mani mantra artfully carved upon them.

North wall row

Paralleling the north wall of the enclosure, beginning at its west corner, there is a line of four pillars. From east to west, these pillars have the following dimensions and forms.

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (70 cm [height] by 60 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (80 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped (90 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (85 cm by 95 cm).

West wall row

Paralleling what would have been the west wall is a row of 13 pillars. From north to south, these pillars have the following dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR5: tabular (70 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR6: tabular (60 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (95 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR8: irregularly shaped (1.1 m by 1.2).
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped (1.5 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR10: tabular, broken (65 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR11: irregularly shaped (1.1 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR12: irregularly shaped (75 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR13: tabular (1 m by 1.4 m).
Long-stone DR14: irregularly shaped (1.7 m by 1.6 m).
Long-stone DR15: irregularly shaped (1.7 m by 1.4 m).
Long-stone DR16: tabular (1.2 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR17: tabular (1.1 m by 1.5 cm).

Against the inner edge of the south wall of the enclosure, near its west corner, there is a single irregularly shaped pillar (85 cm by 80 cm). East of the enclosure there are two long stones that appear to be dislodged pillars (1.2 m and 95 cm long).

Funerary superstructures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1, a 14.5 m long arc-shaped wall fragment, is situated 14 m west of the pillars. This structural fragment (80 cm thick) appears to have made up the west wall of an enclosure. It is composed of variable length (averaging 30 cm to 40 cm long) stones laid flat, which are level with the ground surface or elevated above it a maximum of 20 cm. There are also a few other fragmentary walls of enclosures dispersed around the site, which are not enumerated in this survey.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 40 m northwest of the pillars. This very large rectangular double-course enclosure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 35 m (north-south) by 9.5 m (east-west). The entire structure is elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the surrounding plain, giving it the appearance of a funerary mound (bangso). FS2 appears to have been subdivided into five cells, but only small wall segments have survived. The top of the structure undulates due to the long-term action of flowing water. The walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) of FS2 are composed of variable length (primarily 20 cm to 50 cm long) stones laid flat on the ground. Connected to the north side of FS2 there is a square enclosure (6.5 m by 6.5) of the same construction.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3, a sub-rectangular double-course enclosure, is situated 30 m west of FS2. Stones from this poorly preserved structure have been recently pilfered in order to build the one homestead of DoringRdo ring, located on the north side of the watercourse that bounds the archaeological site. FS2 appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 44 m (north-south) by 14 m (east-west). It was probably subdivided into four or five cells by north-south running walls. The walls (60 cm to 90 cm thick) of the enclosure are made of variable-length stones flush with the ground surface or slightly raised above it. Many stones from FS2 have been dislodged and now lie strewn across the vicinity. The west wall of FS2 is very uneven and the southwest corner of the enclosure is rounded. A partition wall on the south end of the structure is still quite well preserved.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 56 m southwest of FS2, on a gently inclined slope that adjoins a ridge spur. Measuring 16 m (north-south) by 22 m (east-west), this rectangular enclosure also appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. It was subdivided into two cells of unequal size. The walls are similar in construction to its counterparts: most stones were laid flat and are level with the surface, but there are also a few slabs that were placed edgewise into the ground and which are elevated a maximum of 50 cm above ground level.

Zhalung Doring (Zha lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Zhalung DoringZha lung rdo ring, the site of a pillar erected inside an enclosure, is situated in a fold in a large plain, in the middle of parallel branches of the main road running between the NyimaNyi ma county seat and points west. As the monument is found in a dip in the plain, the views to the east and west are somewhat circumscribed. On the other hand, the views north and south are quite open. The sandy terrain gently declines towards the east. Unhewn pieces of reddish brown sandstone were used to build the monument.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), sites such as Zhalung DoringZha lung rdo ring are closely associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 5 m (north-south) by 11.5 m (east-west). The west wall of the enclosure is largely intact, the east partly intact, and small parts of the north and south walls have survived as well. The variable-length (15 cm to 70 cm long) blocks and slabs of the double-course walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick) are level with the ground or elevated a maximum of 15 cm above it. The many stones scattered around the enclosure were probably once part of its construction (the surrounding terrain is largely free from such stones).

Pillar

The single tabular pillar (75 cm [height] by 1.1 m [basal girth]) is fairly well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. This pillar is situated 1.4 m from the inner edge of the west wall. The top of the pillar was broken off long ago, as evidenced by the heavy erosion of the fractured surface.

Tomb

In the vicinity of the pillar monument, a male resident of ZhalungZha lung excavated a “möndur” and used a femur he recovered from the tomb to make a thigh-bone trumpet (kangling).

Sanyel Doring (Sa nyal rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The enclosed pillar of Sanyel DoringSa nyal rdo ring is located in the valley that debouches into a plain at Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring (C-99). The site is situated on the right side of the valley on gravelly and rocky ground that dips gently towards the north. A reddish brown sandstone was used to build the monument. Sanyel DoringSa nyal rdo ring is one of three sites of this typology (see also C-100 and C-101) in this corner of the erstwhile NaktsangNag tshang province. These sites are within a 10 km radius of each other.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), such monuments as Sanyel DoringSa nyal rdo ring are connected to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

There are small traces of the enclosing walls to the east of the pillar. The west wall is partially intact as well (this fragment is 2.7 m long). The enclosure walls are of double-course slab construction. These slabs are level with the ground surface or protrude as much as 15 cm above it.

Pillar

The four-sided pillar is now 90 cm in height (basal girth of 1 m), but it was originally 40 cm taller. It is reported that the breakage of the pillar occurred in the last two decades. The broken part of the pillar is still found on the site. The sandstone pillar is highly eroded and has mineral depositions on its surface. A layer of conglomerate is cemented to one side of the stele, a highly unusual feature. The pillar stands 1 m east of the west wall of the enclosure.

Ngönmo Möndur (Sngon mo mon dur)

General site characteristics

Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur is located on a rock-blanketed ridgeline at the foot of NgönmoSngon mo mountain. From the site there are profound views east. The view north, in the direction of Mukkar GangriSmug dkar gangs ri, is also very open. From Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur the pillars and other structures of Ngönmo DoringSngon mo rdo ring (C-100) in close proximity to the south are visible. Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur consists of two arrays of pillars and appended edifices situated on a broad ridgeback, just above where it splits into two lesser spurs. There are also four outlying funerary constructions at the site. All the structures of Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur are in a very poor state of preservation. They were built of uncut, variable length (20 cm to 1 m) pieces of tan sandstone laid in random-rubble courses. Over time, the sandstone has weathered to a much darker color.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), as well as locally, sites such as Ngönmo MöndurSngon mo mon dur are commonly associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

South complex

Appended edifice

The appended edifice (temple-tomb) is situated 3.3 m west of the most westerly in situ pillar (an irregularly shaped specimen). Largely reduced to a mound of rubble, the approximate dimensions of the edifice were 5 m (north-south) by 4 m (east-west). The maximum height of this structure on the downhill flank is 90 cm, while its upslope side is only slightly raised above ground level. Small coherent wall segments are still extant. The central chamber appears to have been oriented in the cardinal directions, and approximately measures 1.6 m by 1.6 m. Only the base of the central chamber to a depth of 10 cm has survived. The diminutive size of the central chamber indicates that the walls in which it was encased were massively constructed.

Pillar array

The quadrate array of pillars measures 12 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). There are only about 20 in situ pillars remaining in the array. These pillars are inclined at various angles and protrude 20 cm to 25 cm above the rocky ground surface. Nevertheless, there are around 200 uprooted specimens clumped together where they were once planted in the ground. These uncut pieces of local sandstone tend to have a tabular form and are 50 cm to 70 cm in length. The soil around the array is sandy and quite sodden, suggesting that over the centuries, the pillars collapsed of their own accord due to the failure of the substrate. The concourse of standing stones tilts down towards the east at an approximately 5° angle, which is probably another factor in the collapse of the pillars en masse. The declivity, of course, would have added to the effect of gravity upon the standing stones. The scant in situ evidence suggests that the rows of pillars were aligned in the cardinal directions, and that their broad sides faced north and south. The rows appear to have been spaced 45 cm to 75 cm apart, while the standing stones in each row were spaced 55 cm to 65 cm from one another. This spatial pattern is corroborated by the placement of pillars in other small arrays.

North complex

Appended edifice

The north complex is situated 65 m north of the south complex at about the same elevation. The highly deteriorated appended edifice approximately measures 6 m (north-south) by 5.5 m (east-west), and its down-slope side is 90 cm in height. There are a few coherent wall fragments extant, especially on the south side of the structure. Where measurable, the outer walls of the edifice were around 70 cm thick, but there may also have been an inner masonry mantle, as is found is some examples of the typology. A slight depression in the middle of the structure coincides with the placement of the central chamber.

Pillar array

Only five inclined pillars (around 30 cm high) of the array remain fixed in the ground. Some other specimens lie scattered about the monument but many appear to be missing. With the remaining structural evidence, the dimensions of the concourse of standing stones cannot be ascertained. We can probably assume that it was about the same size as its southern counterpart.

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 24 m southwest of the north complex appended edifice. Little remains of this small enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2, another highly fragmentary enclosure, is situated 60 m west of the north complex appended edifice. FS2 was partly transformed into small shepherd’s shelter (droklhé).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.5 m by 4.6 m), a single-course rectangular slab-wall enclosure, is situated 8 m northwest of FS2. The variable length (70 cm to 1 m) slabs of the perimeter walls are either flush with the ground surface or elevated a maximum of 20 cm above it. Slabs that were extracted from the enclosure are piled up within its walls.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.7 m by 5.1 m) is situated 19 m southwest of FS3. This much more elevated structure is 50 cm to 70 cm in height. Although it now has a round appearance, the surviving coherent wall segments indicate that FS4 was a square construction. In the middle of this structure there is a depression, which is probably the remains of a collapsed burial chamber.

Yanglung Doring (G.yang lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Yanglung DoringG.yang lung rdo ring, a fine example of the walled pillars typology, is situated in the head of a remote side valley. The site is closely encircled by ridges in all but the down valley/northeast direction. The gently sloping terrain is somewhat gravelly and rocky. The ten pillars and enclosure are made of a hard dark-gray rock that has weathered to a much lighter color. There are also two outlying funerary superstructures at Yanglung DoringG.yang lung rdo ring.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang), sites such as Yanglung DoringG.yang lung rdo ring are commonly associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is roughly aligned to the intermediate points and measures 10.4 m (northwest-southeast) by 13 m (southwest-northeast). In order to maintain a level interior space, the downhill/northeast side of the enclosure is elevated 30 cm above the surrounding terrain. The double-course block and slab construction of the enclosure walls is particularly robust. These walls (70 cm to 95 cm thick) are composed of variable-length (30 cm to 90 cm long) stones, which are flush with the ground level in some cases, while other stones project as much as 25 cm above the surface. At the south corner of the enclosure there is also a tabular (60 cm wide) standing stone that protrudes 45 cm above the surface. All parts but the rear/southwest wall of the enclosure are largely intact. The rear wall is far more fragmentary.

Pillars

Southeast group

Long-stone DR1 is situated near the inner edge of the southeast wall of the enclosure. This severely inclined four-sided pillar has lost its top (75 cm [height] by 95 cm [basal girth]).

Long-stone DR2 is situated beside DR1. This is a well-hewn four-sided pillar (1.1 m by 90 cm). In close proximity there is a collapsed specimen, a slender, well-cut four-sided stele (2.5 m long by 80 cm girth).

Southwest row

Against the inner edge of the rear/southwest wall there is an uneven row of pillars. This row begins 2.3 m from the south corner of the enclosure and ends 2.7 m from the west corner. These gaps are probably indicative of where missing pillars once stood. There are two light-colored plaques engraved with the mani mantra near the row of pillars. From the south corner to the west corner, these pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR3: four irregular sides (1.3 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (75 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR5: four irregular sides (1 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR6: irregular tabular form (1 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR7: four irregular sides (1.75 m by 1.6 m). There is a small counterclockwise swastika carved on the northeast side of the pillar, which is probably of considerable age.
Long-stone DR8: four quite regular sides (2.2 m by 1.4 m).

Outlying funerary superstructures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is a rocky tumulus (8 m by 6.5 m by 50 cm [height]) situated 13 m northwest of the walled pillars. The traces of its double-course perimeter walls indicate that this structure is a quadrate enclosure or a bangso type monument. Variable-length (up to 70 cm long) stones went into its construction.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.2 m by 4.3 m) is situated 30 m north of the walled pillars. Only small fragments of the block and slab walls of this enclosure have survived. The entire structure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain.

Nyönpa Lhé Doring (Smyon pa lhas rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring is named after a seasonal drokpa encampment located in the vicinity, Nyönpa LhéSmyon pa lhas. Another proximate encampment is called Marcha LachenSmar ca la can (sp.?). The site is also simply called DoringRdo ring. Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring is located well above the right bank of the Langchen TsangpoGlang chen gtsang po. The moderately sloping terrain has a sparse covering of grass and stones. The celebrated holy mountain Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se is visible from the site (it is situated 75 km due east). It could not be determined whether, Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, being in eyeshot of Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring was an accident of geography or a deliberate geomantic calculation on the part of the builders. The geographic position of Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring demonstrates that the enclosed pillar typology extended all the way to the southwest corner of Tibet. There are also several outlying structures at Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring of significant proportions, which are probably funerary in nature.

Oral tradition

The elders of KhyunglungKhyung lung village refer to Nyönpa Lhé DoringSmyon pa lhas rdo ring as a sipé doring. They believe it magically grew in the beginning of existence at its present position.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is highly fragmentary and obscured by loose stones, some of which seem to have been integrated into it at one time. The enclosure appears to have been oriented to the intermediate points, and approximately measures 5.5 m (southwest-northeast) by 3.5 m (northwest-southeast). Although three of the enclosing walls are highly dissolute, more than 50 percent of the northwest wall is intact, allowing for an assessment of its design characteristics. This double-course wall (45 cm to 60 cm thick) is composed of variable-length (35 cm to 65 cm) beige and tan-colored slabs and blocks. The northwest wall is dominated by stones set into the ground edgewise, which project 10 cm to 25 cm above ground level. Some stones were also laid flat.

Pillars

The main pillar is firmly rooted near the inner edge of the southwest wall, and is well centered in the enclosure. This tabular pillar is 2 m in height, 30 cm to 35 cm wide and 11 cm to 20 cm thick. Its broad sides are oriented to the southeast and northwest. A 1.2 m long, 50 cm wide sliver has been cleaved off the northeast side of the pillar. This break occurred long ago, as indicated by the degree of repatination to which the fractured surfaces have been subjected. The well-formed stele has weathered from a light gray color to dark tan. A number of stones are piled up around the base of the pillar. A counterclockwise swastika (12 cm high) was carved near the top of the southeast face of the pillar. The wear and repatination of this carving indicate that it is of considerable age. On the left arm of the swastika the Tibetan letter A was much more recently engraved. Below this swastika there is an incomplete or primitive specimen whose arms run at odds with the usual radial form of the symbol. It is highly worn as well. The southeast side of the pillar also displays shallow pecking marks of significant age. On the southeast side of the main pillar there is a small four-sided pillar broken 35 cm above ground level.

Outlying structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 85 m west of the pillar near the base of the DoringRdo ring outcrop, which bounds the Langchen TsangpoGlang chen gtsang po Valley. This highly deteriorated ovoid enclosure (5 m across) is slightly raised above the slope on its downhill side, while its uphill side is set as much as 1.1 m below the slope. The enclosing walls are comprised of jumbled courses of variable length (up to 50 cm long) blocks that were mostly laid flat.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (roughly 3 m across) is situated 6 m northeast of FS1. It appears to be another highly deteriorated ovoid enclosure, but with almost no protrusion above the surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 12 m northwest of FS2. It consists of a 30 m long wall that parallels the base of the DoringRdo ring rock outcrop. The downhill/forward side of this wall is raised 1 m to 1.5 m above the slope, while its uphill/rear side is more or less level with the slope. This poorly preserved wall exhibits jumbled courses of blocks that were laid flat. The original texture of the wall remains quite uncertain. Along its southwest half three other walls join it to produce an enclosure (13 m by 6 m). The rear wall of this enclosure is set about 1 m below the slope. Slabs of stone up to 1.2 m in length are dispersed within the enclosure. Just below the southwest end of the rear wall there are traces of another analogously built enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (3.5 m across) is situated 9.5 m northwest of FS1. An integral rear wall segment in this ovoid enclosure consists of two to five vertical courses of small blocks laid on top of one another.

Garshok Doring (Sgar gshog rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Garshok DoringSgar gshog rdo ring is located in the DoringRdo ring valley, not far from the main road that connects SagaSa dga’ and Drongpa’Brong pa. GarshokSgar gshog is the name of the general area. The site appears to have been flood damaged and there are no signs of other structures in the vicinity of the lone pillar. The nearly level terrain is impacted and stony and supports almost no vegetation. The site is open in all directions, however, in the east the view is somewhat abbreviated by an intervening ridge.173 The irregularly shaped bluish pillar now only stands 40 cm above ground level. Reportedly, it was broken before living memory. With a basal girth of only 75 cm, Garshok DoringSgar gshog rdo ring is not likely to have stood much more than 1 m in height. The pillar is inclined in a downhill direction although the terrain is nearly level. Pieces of milky quartz as offerings are piled around it, reflecting the stone’s sacred status.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, the pillar of Garshok DoringSgar gshog rdo ring magically sprang up in primordial times.

Lhaktsang Doring (Lhag tshang rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The lone pillar of Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring is located on the outskirts of the eponymous township headquarters. It is situated in the middle of the MenchuSman chu valley on sandy terrain with tufts of grass. Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring is roughly equidistant between three mountains that are thought to be potentially dangerous (ka nyenpo): LuklakLug lag (south), batsangBa tshang (sp.?) (west) and Nyugu TönpoNyu gu mthon po (sp.?) (north). It is not known whether this geographic placement influenced the erection of the pillar. Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring is four-sided (70 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]) and very heavily weathered. Like Garshok DoringSgar gshog rdo ring (C-19), Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring appears to represent an elementary pillar variety, which appeared near the southeastern extremity of the pillars erected inside an enclosure (II.1b) territorial range.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Lhaktsang DoringLhag tshang rdo ring is ancient.

Drangchungwa Bam Doring (Grang chung ba bam rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Drangchungwa Bam DoringGrang chung ba bam rdo ring, a line of five small pillars, is situated on a broad, moderately inclined, turf-studded sandy slope. The site overlooks the south side of the MenchuSman chu valley and is in a locale known as DubakDus bag (sp.?). The five irregularly shaped and tabular standing stones form a row 1.5 m in length. Originally dark gray in color, these stones have weathered to reddish brown. If there were other structures accompanying the pillars of Drangchungwa Bam DoringGrang chung ba bam rdo ring they have been totally engulfed by the sands.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Drangchungwa Bam DoringGrang chung ba bam rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Except for the most southerly specimen, the five pillars are between 35 cm and 45 cm in height. The broken southerly specimen is 20 cm in height, but originally it was about the same size as its counterparts. Another specimen is tilted at a radical angle.

In close proximity to the row of five standing stones, there is a specimen 55 cm in height. This irregularly shaped and isolated pillar shares the same physical qualities as do those in the pentad.

Gangchen Doring (Gangs chen rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gangchen DoringGangs chen rdo ring boasts a large array of pillars with appended edifices and large enclosures sitting side by side. Gangchen DoringGangs chen rdo ring is situated in the middle of a broad plain with expansive views to the east. The views to the south and west are quite open as well, but the northern vista is constrained by a range of mountains. There is no permanent contemporary settlement in the area. The terrain is level and strewn with small rocks. All structures at the site are more or less aligned in the cardinal directions. A variety of types of rocks were used to produce the monuments of Gangchen DoringGangs chen rdo ring. The pillars are primarily made of a dark gray rock and a light gray speckled rock. The slab walls at the site are mostly of the same dark gray rock as the pillars. The edifices and enclosures contain many light-colored rocks.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Gangchen DoringGangs chen rdo ring is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

South complex

Appended edifice

The appended edifice (temple-tomb) measures 24 (north-south) by 14 m (east-west) and has been reduced to 2.5 m to 3 m in height. It is not clear how much taller this poorly preserved structure may have been originally. Only a few coherent wall fragments remain and these all have interior placements adjacent to the central chamber. The central chamber seems to have been one large undivided space, but lightly built partitions or those made of perishable materials may have completely disappeared. The massive coursed-rubble walls that encase the interior space are around 1.5 m in thickness. These walls rise up 1 m to 1.2 m in height around the central chamber. Mostly small (around 20 cm long) light-colored cobbles and rounded stones were used to build the walls of the appended edifice. These walls also contain a few larger stones. In order to produce such massive walls, stones were laid side by side in multiple courses. On the east side of the appended edifice there are poorly preserved wall fragments running in an eastern direction. Perhaps this was part of a boundary wall that enclosed a portion of the pillar array. A funerary structure that has degraded into a rubble-filled tumulus (4.8 m by 3.3 m) is situated 37 m west of the south complex appended edifice.

Pillar array

No more than 10 percent of the original number of pillars are still in situ, and many of these are broken. As so few pillars remain in the array, it is difficult to gauge its original size. At present, the array measures 35 m (north-south) by 33 m (east-west). In total, about 100 stones are left standing and roughly 200 are collapsed and lie in the concourse. Originally the array may have numbered more than 1000 standing stones. The array itself is unevenly bisected into two parts by an east-west running double-course slab wall. The array of pillars, in its present form, narrows in the direction of the appended edifice. The pillars are generally tabular in form and 2 cm to 5 cm thick. Their two broad sides are oriented north and south. The tallest pillar (1.2 m high) still anchored in the ground is inclined, and is located near the west end of the bisecting slab wall. The second tallest standing pillar is 60 cm in height, and about one dozen specimens reach 50 cm in height. The largest uprooted pillar scattered about the array is 1.8 m in length. Around one dozen dislodged pillars are between 1 m and 1.2 m in length, while most prostrate specimens are 60 cm to 90 cm in length.

Beyond the current eastern extent of the array of pillars, there are at least 14 double-course slab walls running in parallel. This network of slab walls extends 35 m further east, but most of these structures are highly fragmentary. Like the slab wall bisecting the array of pillars, these outlying slab walls consist of variable length (15 cm to 60 cm long) slabs of stone embedded in the ground edgewise. The average length of the slabs is around 25 cm and they are 2 cm to 5 cm thick. The double-course slabs are set 20 cm to 30 cm apart from one another, and are even with the ground surface or slightly protrude above it.

North complex

Edifice

The north complex edifice is situated just 4 m north of the south complex appended edifice. It measures 11.5 m (east-west) by 20 m (north-south) and is currently 2 m to 2.5 m in height (originally, it was taller). Although very little remains intact, it appears that this was also a temple-tomb, although it was not as heavily constructed as its southern counterpart. The north complex edifice was built with a coursed-rubble texture, and is mainly composed of small cobbles and rounded stones. Walls around the central chamber rise to 1 m in height. This interior seems to have consisted of a single non-partitioned space, just like in the south complex appended edifice.

The north complex is completely devoid of a pillar array and slab walls. Ostensibly, all traces of these structures were destroyed. Now, only an empty concourse exists. On the other hand, it is also possible that the north complex edifice was designed to stand in isolation, just as the enclosures to the north do.

South enclosure

A large enclosure is situated 22 m north of the north complex edifice. This structure measures 15.5 m (east-west) by 7.5 m (north-south), and its walls of multiple vertical courses are 50 cm to 80 cm in height. The upper extent of this well-built coursed-rubble structure exhibits herringbone courses of masonry. The 50 cm thick walls enclose an open center, just like the more substantial temple-tomb edifices to the south. Near the northwest corner there is a single standing pillar 40 cm in height. Another dislodged pillar inside the south enclosure is 1.4 m in length; its original placement is unclear.

North enclosure

Another large enclosure is situated 37 m north of the south enclosure. It measures 17 m (east-west) by 3.75 m (north-south). The north enclosure is not as well preserved as the south enclosure. Its perimeter walls are reduced to 50 cm or less in height. These walls appear to have been around 50 cm thick. Near the northwest corner of this structure there are two standing pillars 40 cm in height.

Affiliated sites

In the MenchuSman chu valley, upstream of the LhaktsangLhag tshang township headquarters, there is what appears to be a single funerary structure (29° 33.260΄ N. lat. / 84° 36.372΄ E. long. / 4600 m). It is situated in the middle of the valley on a rock-strewn plain. Very little of this structure has survived save for massive stone members piled up on the surface. A small perimeter wall fragment survives along the southeast corner of the structure.

Nakhama Doring (Na mkha’ ma rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nakhama DoringNa mkha’ ma rdo ring is located in a huge basin near the head of the MenchuSman chu valley. This site sits close to the north base of the Tenchen LaRtan chen la (5230 m), on ground that moderately declines to the east. The sacred mountains Lönpo GangriBlon po gangs ri and Polha ShelgyungPho lha shel rgyung are visible from Nakhama DoringNa mkha’ ma rdo ring.174 The terrain is sandy and there are many rocks strewn around Nakhama DoringNa mkha’ ma rdo ring, unlike adjoining areas that are fairly clear of debris. The space to the east of the six pillars is slightly elevated, as is often encountered at sites with walled enclosures. The ground before the pillars also gently slopes down to the east rather than being level, which may be indicative of geomorphologic changes to the site. If indeed there was an enclosure, as seems likely, all traces of it have vanished in the unstable substrate.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

All six pillars of the site are made of an uncut blue-gray rock that has weathered to a reddish color. The pillars are all severely inclined and heavily eroded. They form a group spread out over 3 m. From north to south, they have the flowing dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR1: small broken specimen.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (40 cm [height] by 65 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (75 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (75 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR5: four-sided (85 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided (1.1 m by 1 m).

Shamzha Doring (Gsham zha rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The walled pillars of Shamzha DoringGsham zha rdo ring are located in the YorchuYor chu valley bottom, about 100 m from the bank of the stream. The site has expansive views both up (east) and down (west) the valley. To the east the lofty sacred mountain Lönpo GangriBlon po gangs ri is visible. To the north and south, the mountains bounding the YorchuYor chu valley constrain the vistas. The terrain is sandy with a sparse covering of grass. A few stones have been piled around the base of the four pillars.

Oral tradition

According to local inhabitants, Shamzha DoringGsham zha rdo ring is a primordial monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

Exceedingly little of the enclosure remains intact. Presumably, a scattering of stones around the site were once part of its perimeter walls. The enclosure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions and approximately measures 10 m (east-west) by 5 m (north-south). The enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. The perimeter walls were built of igneous cobbles and other types of rock of variable length (mostly 20 cm to 40 cm long).

Pillars

The four pinkish and gray standing stones form a row 2 m in length. The broad sides of the highly eroded pillars are oriented north and south, as is typical in this type (II.1b) of monument. From south to north, the dimensions and forms of the pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: broken at the base.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (55 cm [height] by 75 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (50 cm by 90 cm). This specimen has been broken. Its original height was in the vicinity of 1 m.
Long-stone DR4: tabular (65 cm by 70 cm).

Doring Raktsuk (Rdo ring rag gtsug)

General site characteristics

Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug, an important enclosed pillar and funerary enclosure, is located in the YorchuYor chu valley bottom, about 10 km upstream of its confluence with the voluminous TsachuTshwa chu. RaktsukRag gtsug is the name of a small outcrop on the edge of the valley. Locally, the site is simply known as DoringRdo ring. It is found in a region called LeyorLas yor. Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug was established on the right side of the YorchuYor chu valley (which is about one-half km wide here), on a well-drained rocky plain that gently declines to the west. The YorchuYor chu watercourse is only some tens of meters away from the pillars and funerary structures. This is unusually close to a water source for this type of installation. The sacred mountain Lönpo GangriBlon po gangs ri, located 45 km away, is visible from Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug. The east-west alignment of this stretch of the YorchuYor chu valley is likely to have played a role in the placement of the site at this location. There is a drokpa seasonal encampment in the vicinity, but no permanent habitations. The enclosure was founded on a natural rise, adding to its overall elevation. There are about 30 in situ pillars erected in different groupings, many of which have a slim, graceful form. Three or four types of rock were selected for use as stelae at Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, this was a primordial monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is not well aligned in the compass points. It measures 24 m (east-west) by 6 m (north-south) for the first 19 m from the east wall and 8 m (north-south) for the remaining 5 m. This is one of only two T-shaped enclosures surveyed to date.175 The north and south walls are mostly intact, while the east and west walls are not. The two short wall sections, aligned at right angles, that form the sides of the “T” are partially intact. The double-course walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick) of the enclosure contain uncut blocky stones of variable length (10 cm to 55 cm long). These pink and gray stones are either even with the ground level or project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. Beginning in the middle of the east wall of the enclosure there is a double-course slab wall that extends 6.5 m to the east. This wall contains variable-length slabs (up to 60 cm long, 2 cm to 4 cm in thick), in parallel courses set about 30 cm from each other. This slab wall may have coincided with an opening in the east wall of the enclosure, but not enough of the east wall has survived to know for certain.

Pillars

Another unusual feature of Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug is that its enclosure shelters two main groups of pillars. These groups of stelae appear to have been roughly arrayed in rows. The two main groups are spaced a maximum of 5.7 m from one another. The east group of pillars stands just east of where the enclosure widens, while the west group of pillars spans the entire width of the augmented rear portion of the enclosure.

From north to south, the east group of pillars has the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped, reddish (1.2 m [height] by 85 cm [basal girth]). Next to DR1 there is a collapsed pillar of which a 90 cm length is exposed above the surface. This uprooted tabular specimen has a girth of 65 cm.

Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped, beige (45 cm by 60 cm). This pillar is located in the middle of the enclosure.
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped, broken (20 cm by 65 cm).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped, broken (15 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped, blue-gray (85 cm by 50 cm). This pillar stands near the south wall of the enclosure.
Long-stones DR6 to DR9 are situated near the south wall of the enclosure, a little to the west of the above specimens.
Long-stone DR6: tabular, light gray (65 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR7: tabular, broken (15 cm c 35 cm).
Long-stone DR8: tabular, beige (65 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR9: tabular (45 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR10: irregularly shaped, beige (50 cm by 60 cm). This specimen is situated further west in between the east group and west group of pillars.
The west group of pillars forms a line 6.6 m in length. These pillars tend to be severely inclined due to the effects of gravity over a long period of time. From south to north, the west group has the following dimensions and characteristics:
Long-stone DR11: irregularly shaped, beige, broken (15 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR12: irregularly shaped, beige (1.2 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR13: irregularly shaped, red (85 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR14: irregularly shaped slender specimen, blue-gray having weathered to a red color (1.4 m by 50 cm).
Long-stone DR15: gray, top broken (1.2 m by approximately 1.5 m). Although this specimen is nearly prostrate, it is still well anchored in the ground.
Long-stone DR16: tabular, light gray (60 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR17: dark blue-gray having weathered to a red color, broken (35 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR18: irregularly shaped, beige (75 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR19: tabular, blue-gray (1.4 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR20: tabular, light gray (1 m by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR21: irregularly shaped slender specimen, blue-gray having weathered to a red color (1.6 m by 90 cm). This is the tallest pillar at Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug.
Long-stone DR22: tabular, beige (70 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR23: tabular, gray (1 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR24: tabular, reddish, broken (80 cm by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR25: irregularly shaped, beige (70 cm by 85 cm).
Long-stone DR26: irregularly shaped, beige (50 cm by 65 cm).
Long-stone DR27: gray, broken (20 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR28: tabular, beige, broken (30 cm by 70 cm).
Near the north wall of the enclosure there are two or three minor broken specimens.

Funerary superstructures

In addition to the walled pillars there are no less than 26 funerary superstructures spread out around Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug. These are of the double-course enclosure, heaped-stone wall enclosure and bangso typologies. The double-course enclosures exhibit both upright slab walls and flush block and cobble wall types, and most appear to be ovoid or sub-rectangular in form. These funerary superstructures have the following dimensions, locations and characteristics:

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 40.5 m south of the walled pillars. Only scattered stones remain on the surface.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4.8 m across) is situated 34 m south of FS1 (52.132΄ / 10.363΄). This enclosure appears to have had an ovoid form. Its double-course perimeter walls are primarily composed of cobbles (15 cm to 25 cm long), which are flush with the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 10.4 m southeast of FS2 (52.127΄ / 10.370΄). Very little of this double-course enclosure has survived.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (7 m across) is situated 17 m west of FS2 (52.137΄ / 10.354΄). The double-course (60 cm to 70 cm thick) perimeter walls of this apparently ovoid enclosure are composed of variable-length (up to 65 cm long) slabs and cobbles. These stones protrude upwards of 15 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (18 m by 12 m) is a large quadrate mound elevated 2 m above the surrounding terrain (52.219΄ / 10.376΄). This stony mound has no extant coherent wall fragments. Due to erosion there is a shallow concavity on top of the structure. East of the bangso there are traces of 50 cm high wall, which appear to be part of an ancillary funerary structure.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (7.3 m by 6 m) is situated 39 m west of the walled pillars (52.176΄ / 10.337΄). This apparently ovoid enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding plain. Although the perimeter walls (around 75 cm thick) are partly intact, there are no extant coherent wall segments. Variable-length (up to 50 cm long) stones went into the construction of this enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (5.7 m by 5 m) is situated 11 m north of FS6 (52.186΄ / 10.337΄). The disorderly enclosure walls contain stones up to 50 cm in length, which are flush with the surface or project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (5.2 m across) is situated 67 m southwest of the walled pillars and 28 m northwest of FS4 (52.149΄ / 10.335΄). This poorly preserved specimen appears to have had an ovoid form. In close proximity there may be the faint remains of another enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (10 m by 10 m) is situated 90 m southwest of the walled pillars (52.158΄ / 10.310΄). This not well-preserved enclosure appears to be primarily of the heaped-stone wall typology (these walls are around 50 cm in height). However, the southwest side of the structure exhibits a double-course wall (60 cm thick) segment composed of stones even with the surface or elevated above it to a maximum height of 30 cm.

Funerary structures FS10 to FS14 are ovoid or sub-rectangular specimens with little protrusion above ground level, which share the same general morphological traits as FS9:

Funerary structure FS10 is situated next to FS9 and is of similar size and type.
Funerary structure FS11 (7 m across) is situated 7 m west of FS11 (52.156΄ / 10.299΄).
Funerary structure FS12 is situated 6.7 m northwest of FS11 (52.163΄ / 10.294΄).
Funerary structure FS13 (5.6 m by 6.6 m) is situated 8 m west of FS12 (52.163΄ / 10.284΄).
Funerary structure FS14 (5 m across) is a poorly preserved specimen adjacent to FS13 (52.161΄ / 10.284΄).

Funerary Structure FS15

Funerary structure FS15 (14 m by 14) is a large heaped-stone wall specimen, whose perimeter walls are somewhat elevated above the surrounding terrain (52.159΄ / 10.271΄).

Funerary Structure FS16

Funerary structure FS16 (6.6 m by 7.5 m) is situated 16 m northwest of FS15 (52.165΄ / 10.264΄). A portion of the enclosing double-course walls (60 cm thick) are extant. They are composed of variable-length (up to 50 cm long) stones, which project as much as 15 cm above the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS17 (6.8 m by 7.4 m) is situated 1.3 m north of FS16 and is of similar construction.
Funerary structure FS18 (5.9 m by 5 m) is a poorly preserved enclosure situated adjacent to FS17.
Funerary structure FS19 (11.3 m by 12.8 m), another poorly preserved structure, is situated adjacent to FS18.
Funerary structure FS20 (6.8 m by 6.8 m) is a dissolute structure adjacent to FS19.
Funerary structure FS21 (6.4 m by 7 m) is situated 3.8 m west of FS20. The double-course slab walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) of this enclosure contain stones that protrude as much as 30 cm above the surface.
Funerary structure FS22 (4 m across) is a poorly preserved enclosure, situated 1 m northwest of FS21.
Funerary structure FS23 is situated 2.3 m west of FS22 and has been mostly destroyed (52.181΄ / 10.239΄).
Funerary structures FS24 and FS 25 are two interconnected but incomplete enclosures (17 m across) situated 48 m north of FS23, on the opposite side of the local access road (52.212΄ / 10.231΄).
Funerary structure FS26 (14 m across) is an incomplete enclosure, situated 8 m west of FS25.

Doring Gyaplung (Rdo ring rgyab lung)

General site characteristics

Doring GyaplungRdo ring rgyab lung is located in the YorchuYor chu valley, just north of or “behind” Doring RaktsukRdo ring rag gtsug (C-107). The site is situated on a prominence overlooking the southern edge of a small plateau. The view east of Gyaplung DoringRgyab lung rdo ring is closely hemmed in by a ridge, an unusual geographic orientation for Upper Tibetan funerary sites. The terrain is moderately sloping and sandy. Although rocks are scattered around the proximity, there are no definite signs that the pillars of Doring GyaplungRdo ring rgyab lung were enclosed. The quite severe gradient of the site is not in conformance with the customary topographical placement of this monument typology. The 11 in situ pillars of the site are gray to red color. The pillars, standing on high ground, overlook the five funerary enclosures of the site. The uncut menhirs are tilted at various angles, heavily worn and discolored. While the broad faces of the tabular specimens tend to face north and south, there are considerable variations (probably, at least in part, due to geomorphologic changes).

Oral tradition

According to local sources, a primordial monument.

Site elements

Pillars

From south to north, the pillars of Doring GyaplungRdo ring rgyab lung have the following dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR1: tabular (90 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). This is an outlying specimen.
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (50 cm by 60 cm). This is also an outlying specimen.
Long-stones DR3 to DR8 form an uneven line of pillars:
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (80 cm by 50 cm). To the south of DR3 there is an uprooted pillar (1.1 m by 60 cm [girth]).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (1.1 m by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR5: tabular (1.2 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided (1 m by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR7: probably broken (30 cm by 40 cm).
Long-stone DR8: probably broken (20 cm by 40 cm).
Long-stones DR9 to DR11 form another grouping.
Long-stone DR9: tabular (1.4 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR10: tabular (65 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR11: tabular (90 cm by 1 m).

Immediately north of the pillars there is an incomplete enclosure (18 m across) that was built on a broad slope. The north wall is missing in this structure. The perimeter walls are of an indeterminate construction type. They are composed of both slabs and blocks that average 30 cm to 40 cm in length. This structure is likely to be funerary in function.

Funerary superstructures

The five double-course enclosures of Doring GyaplungRdo ring rgyab lung are found on a gently inclined broad slope. The terrain is gravel strewn and almost devoid of vegetation. These five structures are equidistant from the group of pillars, forming an arc around them. They appear to have been quadrate and possibly ovoid in form, and were constructed primarily with blocky stones.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (5.6 m by 6.3 m) is situated 60 m west of the pillars at approximately 10 m lower elevation. Most stones in the perimeter walls of this poorly preserved enclosure are even with the ground surface, but a few rise slightly above it.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (7.7 m by 8 m) is situated 10 m north/upslope of FS1. The walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) of this quadrate double-course enclosure are relatively intact, and are composed of upright blocks and slabs (primarily 30 cm to 50 cm long). These stones protrude as much as 20 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (6 m across) is situated 23 m northeast of FS2 and somewhat upslope (52.394΄ / 10.321΄). FS3 is a poorly preserved specimen.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 12 m east of FS3 and slightly upslope (52.396΄ / 10.328΄). Little remains of this structure.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5, the highest elevation funerary superstructure at the site, is situated 58 m north of the pillars (52.395΄ / 10.337΄). About 50 percent of its double-course upright block walls (40 cm thick) are intact. These stones (average length around 30 cm) are flush with the ground level or elevated, up to 15 cm higher.

Marbuk Doring (Dmar sbug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Marbuk DoringDmar sbug rdo ring is located at the foot of a ridge that bounds the west margin of the TsachuTshwa chu basin. The site enjoys good views in all directions but the west. The terrain is level and covered in sparse turf and small brush. The site consists of 11 in situ pillars erected inside an enclosure and what appears to be a large funerary superstructure. All the pillars of Marbuk DoringDmar sbug rdo ring are made of the same type of gray rock. They are heavily eroded and host orange climax lichen.

Oral tradition

In this region (Drongpa’Brong pa), sites such as Marbuk DoringDmar sbug rdo ring are commonly associated with the primordial epoch and the MönMon tribe of ancient times.

Site elements

Enclosure

Only the east corner of the enclosure is intact. The enclosure appears to have been oriented in the intermediate points. The remaining wall fragment is of standard construction: a double-course (60 cm thick) structure composed of variable-length blocky stones (20 cm to 40 cm), which are either flush with the ground or which protrude slightly above the surface. The east corner of the enclosure is located 9 m from the row of pillars. The line of pillars stretches out over 3.2 m. The enclosure must have been somewhat wider than this. The ground that was situated inside the enclosure appears to have undergone significant geomorphologic changes and is now sloping.

Pillars

The four-sided specimens are very consistent, giving the impression that they may have been hewn into shape. The pillars form a U-shaped array. The eight pillars of the main row form a line near where the northwest wall of the enclosure must have existed. From southwest to northeast the pillars have the following dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided, broken (40 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]). This specimen is offset from the main row of pillars and probably stands in close proximity to what must have been the southwest wall of the enclosure.
Long-stone DR2: four-sided (60 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (75 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided (1.3 m by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR5: tabular (60 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided (80 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR7: four-sided (65 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR8: tabular (90 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped (90 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR10: four-sided (60 cm by 1 m). This specimen is offset from the main row of pillars and probably stands in close proximity to what must have been the northeast wall of the enclosure.
Long-stone DR11: tabular, broken (40 cm by 75 cm). This specimen is offset from the main row of pillars and probably stands in close proximity to what must have been the northeast wall of the enclosure. There is a collapsed pillar (65 cm long) near what must have been the northeast wall of the enclosure.

Outlying funerary structure

What appear to be the vestiges of a large funerary enclosure are located 28 m south of the pillars. The remaining U-shaped double-course wall fragment is 48 m long and perhaps 50 cm thick. The highly eroded, blocky stones in this wall are primarily 20 cm to 40 cm in length. The space enclosed by the wall gently slopes down to the east. A ravine now cuts through the base of the U-shaped structure, dislodging some of the stones.

Yachü Doring (G.ya’ bcud rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Yachü DoringG.ya’ bcud rdo ring is named for the high altitude medicinal herb Chrysoplenium carnosum (also known as yakyima). This site is located in the NyintröSnying ’khrod drainage system on the broad right/west side of a valley. The eastern vista is wide open but, in other directions, the view is much more constrained. The barren terrain is gently sloping and gravelly. A seasonal wash has formed cutting away at the bench to within 1.5 m of Yachü DoringG.ya’ bcud rdo ring.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

A 3.7 m long fragment of the north wall of the enclosure has persisted. This wall fragment has been reduced to a single line of slabs (around 30 cm long), which are flush with the ground surface or slightly raised above it. At what was the southwest corner of the enclosure a single stone is in place. This stone is 4.5 m from the opposite/northwest corner of the enclosure, delineating the probable width of the enclosure. The enclosure does not appear to have been well aligned in the cardinal directions.

Pillars

There are four highly eroded pillars at Yachü DoringG.ya’ bcud rdo ring. They host orange climax lichen, as do many ancient pillars in Upper Tibet. From south to north, the long-stones have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: unevenly tabular, beige (1.3 m [height] by 1.1 m [basal girth]). The broad sides of this inclined specimen face in the anomalous east and west directions.
Long-stone DR2: tabular, gray (40 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR3: tabular, gray (85 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR4: gray, broken (20 cm by 60 cm).

Kyao Doring (Skya’o rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Kyao DoringSkya’o rdo ring is located on the western edge of an arable locale known as ZhingraZhing ra, on the left side of the Maja TsangpoRma bya gtsang po (Karnali river) valley. The site is particularly rocky. There is a shallow depression where an ancient pillar is reported to have stood until being destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. This lone pillar is said to have been tall as a man. Small fragments of the Kyao DoringSkya’o rdo ring pillar are still strewn around the site.

Affiliated sites

Upstream of Kyao DoringSkya’o rdo ring there is a place called TsamtiTsham tid (sp.?). It is reported that a lavish bumpa (receptacle) was buried in the ground at this location until the modern period. This bumpa was dedicated to the earth goddess, Sayi LhamoSa yi lha mo. Until circa 1990, the fields of TsamtiTsham tid were cultivated. Thereafter, they were abandoned due to dismal productivity.

Chönkhor Doring (Chos ’khor rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The single pillar of Chönkhor DoringChos ’khor rdo ring is located on a high uninhabited esplanade, on the northern outskirts of DöyöSdod yod township. This white rock pillar is firmly planted in the middle of a level stretch of gravel-strewn ground. It has four uneven sides and measures 1.6 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.4 m. Some small stones are scattered around the base of the worn and discolored pillar. On the standing stone there are traces of orange climax lichen. To the north of the pillar there is a line of four large stones (up to 1.5 m long) embedded in the ground, which project upwards of 30 cm above the surface. The architectural relationship between these four stones and the pillar is not clear.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Chönkhor DoringChos ’khor rdo ring is an old border marker of the DöyöSdod yod region.

Langchen Chewa (Glang chen mche ba)

Basic site data

Site name: Langchen Chewa
English equivalent: Elephant Tusk
Site number: C-26
Site typology: II.1a
Elevation: 4640 m
Administrative location (township): Barga
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: May 5, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: There are mani walls and other monastic facilities in the proximity.
Maps: UTRS VI, UTRS X, HAS C4
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General site characteristics

The isolated pillar of Langchen ChewaGlang chen mche ba is planted in a fold between two hills of J iuByi’u. Both Mapam YutsoMa pham g.yu mtsho and Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho are visible from this site. Other archaic cultural monuments clustered at J iuByi’u, a strategically important location, include Jiu KharByi’u mkhar (A-82), Jiu Singpé KharByi’u sing pa’i mkhar (B-78), Langchen DopurGlang chen rdo phur (C-35), and Jiu MöndoByi’u mon rdo (D-61). The terrain is barren and gently sloping. This unevenly shaped well-worn tabular pillar is 1.6 m in height and has a basal girth of 2.1 m. The two broad sides of the pillar face north and south. The south side of the pillar is red, perhaps from old ochre applications, while the remaining sides are grayish. The pillar is tilted to the north. Although Langchen ChewaGlang chen mche ba is situated in close proximity to a mani wall and chöten, no ritual activity takes place here.

Oral tradition

According to residents of J iuByi’u monastery and village, Langchen ChewaGlang chen mche ba was self manifested and represents the tusk of an elephant.

Doring Lung Doring (Rdo ring lung rdo ring)

General Site Characteristics

Doring Lung DoringRdo ring lung rdo ring is located in Doring LungRdo ring lung, a side valley on the west side of the Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho basin. The Doring LungRdo ring lung valley is very narrow, and approximately 20 m east of the pillars there is the gully that drains the valley during heavy downpours and the melting of snow. Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho to the east is partly visible from the site. The views to the west are cut by the slopes at the head of the Doring LungRdo ring lung valley. The terrain is grassy, gravelly and gently sloping. There are 12 in situ gray and tan standing pillars of significant stature at Doring Lung DoringRdo ring lung rdo ring. They are heavily eroded, inclined at various angles and are host to orange climax lichen. The standing stones of Doring Lung DoringRdo ring lung rdo ring tend to have four uneven sides of more or less the same width. Stones lying about the site as well as the slightly elevated position of the pillars above the surrounding slope may possibly indicate that an enclosure or other structures once accompanied the pillars.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: situated south of the main row of pillars and to the east of its axis (90 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: situated south of the main row of pillars and to the west of its axis (1.7 m height). This specimen has nearly collapsed.
Long-stones DR3 to DR9 make up the main north-south oriented row of pillars (6.5 m long). They are presented from south to north:
Long-stone DR3: (1.2 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR4: (1.5 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR5: collapsed but still anchored in the ground (1.6 m height).
Long-stone DR6: (1.4 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR7 (1.3 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR8: (1.2 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR9: (1.3 m by 1.3 m). Adjacent to DR9 there is a collapsed and partly submerged pillar 1.7 m in length.
Long-stone DR10 tabular, situated about 1 m higher and 5.5 m west of the north end of the main row of pillars (70 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR11 situated about 1 m higher and 3.5 m west of the south end of the main row of pillars (70 cm by 90 cm). DR11 is located 8 m south of DR10.
Long-stone DR12: broken, situated in front of DR5 (originally, may have had a height of around 1 m).

Gyatengbur Doring (Rgya steng ’bur rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring is located in the middle of a large basin that abuts the west side of Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho. At this location there are two enclosed pillar complexes separated by approximately 1 km. The red mountain with a fierce reputation, Jomo RirangJo mo ri rang (see A-54, B-23, B-24), is visible 15 km to the northwest. The sandy and grassy terrain at both complexes is almost level. The large highly weathered pillars are mostly tan in color, but also grayish and reddish. There are no suitable rocks to use as pillars in the vicinity of Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa of ZhungsaGzhung sa, the pillars of Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring magically sprang up in primordial times. Some local sources believe that the stones used for the pillars must have come from the mountain Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po, located about 10 km to the northeast (see C-124, E-27). This is where the parent rock is supposed to be located. It would have required significant manpower and organization to transport the large pillars to their present location.

Site elements

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring West

Enclosure

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring West has a far-reaching eastern vista, while the views west are completely cut off by a low-lying ridge (30° 43.065΄ N. lat. / 81° 01.045΄ E. long. / 4630 m). The south and east walls of the enclosure are partly intact, but no coherent wall segments remain. The north and west walls of the enclosure are now completely absent. The enclosure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions and appears to measure 12 m (east-west) by 14 m (north-south). An enclosure with longer north-south dimensions also occurs at Chupuk DoringChu phug rdo ring (C-62). This appears to be a regional variation in the proportions of enclosures limited almost exclusively to far western Tibet. The walls of the enclosure are composed of unhewn stones primarily 10 cm to 25 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface.

Pillars

There are four in situ pillars and two dislodged specimens in Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring West. They were erected near what must have been the west wall of the enclosure. From south to north, they have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided, well formed (1.7 m [height] by 1.4 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular, severely inclined (2.4 m by 1.6 m). The broad sides of this pillar face north and south. There is a counterclockwise swastika (5 cm high) carved on the south face of DR2, 70 cm above ground level. There are also nondescript motifs carved on the south face of DR2. These carvings are of considerable age as evidenced by the degree of repatination they have undergone.
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (1.4 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided, broken (40 cm by 80 cm). There are also two fallen and partly submerged specimens, 1.3 m and 1.2 m long.
The faint remains of what may be a funerary enclosure are situated 80 m west of the pillars on a moderately inclined slope. Given the sandy terrain, it is certainly possible that other superficial funerary structures at the site have either disappeared from view or have completely disintegrated.

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring East

Enclosure

Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring East has long views in both the east and west directions (42. 964΄ / 01.367΄ / 4640 m). The enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions and measures approximately 10 m (east-west) by 11 m (north-south). The east wall of the enclosure has been entirely destroyed. The longest surviving coherent wall fragment (2.4 m long, 50 cm thick) is found in the north wall of the enclosure. This double-course wall segment is composed of variable-length (15 cm to 40 cm long) blocky stones, which are mostly flush with the ground surface. There are tiny coherent wall fragments in the west and south walls of the enclosure as well. Different types of rocks (white, gray and tan) were used to build the enclosures.

Pillars

Five inclined pillars of Gyatengbur DoringRgya steng ’bur rdo ring East are clustered near the southwest side of the enclosure. The broad sides of the pillars are roughly oriented south and north. A sixth pillar was planted near the northwest side of the enclosure. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of the pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: tabular (1.9 m by 1.2 m). The Tibetan letters ma and cha were carved several times on the broad north side of DR1. The erosion and repatination of these letters indicates that they are of substantial age.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (1.7 m by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (2.3 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (1.6 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped (2 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR6: irregularly shaped, an isolated (northwest) specimen (1.6 m by 1.5 m). There is also a dislodged broken specimen a total of 1 m in length.

Affiliated sites

There are also two pillars at a summer encampment (yarsa) known as Mamogya DoringMa mo rgya lhas rdo ring (30° 42.052΄ N. lat. / 81° 02.415΄ E. long. / 4650 m). These pillars are found on a gravel bench situated between two tent enclosures (nangra). The local oral tradition affirming that the two standing stones of Mamogya DoringMa mo rgya lhas rdo ring are ancient is corroborated by their highly eroded appearance. The pillars are spaced 2.3 m apart. The tabular east specimen measures 1.7 m (height) by 1.6 m (basal girth). The west specimen is irregularly shaped and measures 1.5 m by 1.1 m. On the east side of the east pillar the six syllable mani mantra was carved a long time ago. It is reported that many stones used to be found in the vicinity of the pillars, but in the last 25 or 35 years they were removed in order to build pastoral facilities. It must be questioned whether the pillars of Mamogya DoringMa mo rgya lhas rdo ring were originally installed at this location. Their aspect and the local topography seem somewhat out of place with the creation of such monuments.

Langchen Dopur (Glang chen rdo phur)

General site characteristics

The two pillars of Langchen DopurGlang chen rdo phur are located at the south foot of the Jiu KharByi’u mkhar hill (A-82), near the right bank of the Gangga ChuGang ga chu (the outlet between Tso MapamMtsho ma pham and Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho). The terrain is level and gravelly. Corrals have come up all around the site. Reportedly, the two pillars were erected in close proximity to one another. One of the pillars is still strongly anchored in the ground, but broken 40 cm above ground level. This beige specimen is tabular and has a basal girth of 1.4 m. The other well-formed tabular pillar was uprooted and has ended up buttressing the gateway of a corral. This pillar projects 1.4 m above ground level. According to the owner of the corral, it is buried to a depth of 50 cm. Near the original site of the pillars there is a source of sakar (calcium carbonate). This white earth is thought to have been a gift of the water spirits (luKlu) to Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che.

Oral tradition

The destruction of Langchen DopurGlang chen rdo phur appears to have begun in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. The pillars are locally considered sacred primordial monuments.

Khyiu Durtrö (Khyi’u dur khrod)

General site characteristics

Khyiu DurtröKhyi’u dur khrod, an enclosed pillar monument, is located on the left side of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valley. From the site there are wide views in all directions. The terrain is sandy and rocky, well drained and slightly inclined to the west. A link road runs right past the site and there are several mani walls in the vicinity. Khyiu DurtröKhyi’u dur khrod is the most westerly example of the pillars enclosed within an enclosure (II.1b) typology surveyed to day.

Oral tradition

The less than flattering name Khyiu DurtröKhyi’u dur khrod hints at an archaic funerary function for the site. No other information was forthcoming.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 10.5 m (north-south) by 6 m (east-west). This enclosure is designed in the extreme western Tibet regional fashion with longer north-south dimensions. The enclosure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding plain. Parts of all four double-course walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) have survived. These walls are primarily built of igneous cobbles 20 cm to 30 cm in length. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 10 cm. There is a possible funerary superstructure (8 m across) located 14 m southeast of the enclosure. However, no coherent wall fragments have endured in this structure.

Pillars

It is reported by villagers of nearby Trashi GangBkra shis sgang that two pillars stood on the west end of the enclosure until the Chinese Cultural Revolution. One was broken but its base was left anchored in the substrate. This pillar base is situated next to the inner edge of the west wall, 4 m from the southwest corner of the enclosure. The broken top of this highly weathered four-sided pillar still lies on the site. It is 65 cm long and has a girth of 85 cm. It is reported that the other pillar stood near the northwest corner of the enclosure. This specimen had a total length of around 1.5 m. It was ripped out of the ground and used in the construction of a water channel feeding a grinding mill.

Dzatsok Doring (Rdza tshogs rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Dzatsok DoringRdza tshogs rdo ring, lines of pillars and associated superficial structures, are located on the southern margin of a large marshy basin known as DzatsokRdza tshogs.176 The views north and east are particularly open, while the southern and western vistas are blocked by intervening ridges. The terrain is sandy and well drained, and gently slopes up southwards in the direction of an enclosing ridge. Dzatsok DoringRdza tshogs rdo ring appears to have been significantly modified by the construction of a corral that is still used seasonally. The stones used in its construction appear to have been extracted from the archaeological monuments. Most of the pillars are made of white granite but a dark gray metamorphic rock was also employed. The main row of pillars is flanked by disintegrating wall fragments, a rectangular structure and three groups of smaller pillars. Although wall fragments border the main row of pillars, they do not appear to constitute the standard type of enclosure.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Main row of pillars

At the lower/north end of the site there is a line of eight in situ pillars extending for 11.5 m. This uneven row is generally oriented north-south. The standing stones are heavily worn and have developed a reddish patina in places. From north to south, these pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: three-sided (1 m [height] by 70 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: four-sided, broken, made of a dark gray metamorphic stone (50 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (1.1 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (1.2 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR5: tabular, well formed (1.6 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR6: irregular shaped (1.5 m by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (1.2 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR8: four-sided (1.6 m by 1.2 m).

Other structures

To the north of the main row of pillars there is a double-course wall segment (3.7 m long and around 60 cm wide) that runs east-west. This wall fragment contains pieces of granite around 40 cm in length, which protrude up to 25 cm above the ground surface. The remains of what appear to be a similarly constructed wall are found immediately west of the main row of pillars. This wall may have run the full length of the main line of pillars. A rectangular structure (9.4 m by 4.2 m), which is probably funerary in nature, is situated 1 m south/uphill of the southern-most pillar in the main row. This structure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain and exhibits no coherent wall sections. Adjacent to its northeast side there is a row of four small broken tabular pillars (30 cm or less in height). The broad sides of these pillars are set perpendicular to the axis of the structure. The configuration of these pillars and that of the adjoining structure suggest they may be an example of a small array of pillars with an appended edifice (II.1c). However, not enough structural evidence remains in place to make a positive determination. If an array did exist here, it was obliterated by the construction of the corral.

There are a few uprooted pillars scattered around Dzatsok DoringRdza tshogs rdo ring. There are also two in situ four-sided pillars (80 cm by 80 cm, 1 m by 80 cm) standing 3 m northeast of the rectangular structure. Another row of pillars is located 5 m south of the rectangular structure. This row of four broken pillars is 6.5 m long, and each specimen is now 60 cm or less in height.

Doring Nakkha (Rdo ring nag kha)

General site characteristics

Doring NakkhaRdo ring nag kha, a pillar erected inside an enclosure, is located on the right/south side of the A Ong TsangpoA ’ong gtsang po valley. The views to the north and northeast are the most open at the site, but they are not particularly expansive. The well-drained level terrain is sandy and gravelly. Both the enclosure and standing pillar are made of light-colored granite. According to an elderly woman (born circa 1929), who hails from the locale, there used to be three standing stones at Doring NakkhaRdo ring nag kha, but two of them were uprooted during the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The incomplete enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 4.6 m (east-west) by 2.9 m (north-south). Given that it contained three pillars, the enclosure may originally have been somewhat larger than this. No intact wall sections remain in the enclosure. The enclosed zone is covered in variable-length (primarily 20 cm to 40 cm long) stones embedded in the ground, which once must have been part of the perimeter walls. These stones protrude as much as 25 cm from the ground surface.

Pillars

The in situ pillar is 1.1 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.4 m. The broad sides of this highly worn stele are oriented north and south, as is normal in this type of monument. Some parts of the light-colored pillar have weathered to a reddish color. Near the site there is a dislodged pillar (1 m long).

Affiliated sites

It is reported that up the A Ong TsangpoA ’ong gtsang po valley from Doring NakkhaRdo ring nag kha there is a smaller pillar monument called Satra DoringSa bkra rdo ring.

A Ong Doring (A ’ong rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The lone pillar of A Ong DoringA ’ong rdo ring is located about one-half way up the west side of A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho. This pillar stands just several hundred meters from the shore of the lake in the middle of a seasonal encampment. To the south rises a small hill but in other directions there is a wide open panorama. The A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho basin is less degraded and more heavily used by drokpa than the “Valley of the Dead,” which is situated immediately to the south (see C-91, C-92, C-153, D-46, D-68). The environmentally more conducive conditions found in the A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho basin may help to explain why it appears to have hosted far fewer funerary monuments than the neighboring basin.

Oral tradition

Although A Ong DoringA ’ong rdo ring is well known in the region, no oral traditions concerning it could be collected.

Site elements

The gray granite pillar (1.4 m [height] by 1.3 m [basal girth]) has four irregular sides aligned in the cardinal directions. The pillar is slightly tilted towards the north. Its south face has weathered to a light red color. There is a corral in close proximity to A Ong DoringA ’ong rdo ring. A little south of A Ong DoringA ’ong rdo ring, in the sandy basin bounding the west side of A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho, there is a possible minor funerary structure (2.5 m across) (32° 43.143΄ N. long. / 81° 44.441΄ / 4450 m). It is marked by a ring of stones.

Paktuk (Pags mthug)

General site characteristics

PaktukPags mthug is located on one of a group of ridgelines of the same name. The array of pillars appended to an edifice is situated on a sandy level saddle, which connects a northeast-southwest running talus-blanketed ridgeline with higher slopes. From the site there are fairly open views in all directions. This funerary complex is situated 40 m north of funerary structure FS10 of the E-23 site. The pillars and appended edifice are oriented somewhere in between the cardinal directions and intermediate points. All structures are made of uncut reddish and purplish slabs of volcanic talus. The extreme degradation of the monument in part can be attributed to the unstable nature of the sandy substrate. This is the only example surveyed to date of an array of pillars appended to an edifice (II.1c) that was built on the same heights as cubic tombs (II.3). This proximity is likely to demonstrate a close functional and chronological link between these two types of monuments.

Oral tradition

According to the folklore of Oma’O ma, at one time there was a local chieftain who was extremely fond of wild yak (drong) hunting. One day, because of all his killing, there were no wild yaks left in the region. In order to survive, he was reduced to boiling the skins of wild yaks and eating them. The name of the site, “Thick Hide,” is said to refer to this incident.

Site elements

Appended Edifice

The appended edifice is now nothing more than heap of rubble about 1 m height. Originally, the edifice measured around 6 m by 6 m. This structure was constructed of variable-length (30 cm to 80 cm long) stone slabs.

Pillar Array

The array of pillars approximately measures 12 m (east-west) by 4.4 m (north-south). There are only around 35 stones still standing, but strewn among them are over 150 collapsed specimens. The in situ pillars are 20 cm to 30 cm in height and have irregular and tabular forms. The uprooted specimens are 30 cm to 60 cm in length. From the pillars still in place it is clear that originally there were multiple rows of standing stones extending west almost to the appended edifice.

Drakgo Doring (Brag sgo rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Drakgo DoringBrag sgo rdo ring is located between the herder’s village of DrakgoBrag sgo and the entrance to a red and white limestone gorge simply known as DrakgoBrag sgo. The terrain is level and studded with drama brush. At the very edge of the expansive Oma’O ma plain stand four small white limestone pillars in an uneven row (2.2 m long). These pillars are highly eroded, discolored and encroached upon by drama brush. No other manmade remains were detected at the site.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

From south to north the four pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (60 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped, broken at the base (90 cm basal girth).
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped, broken (70 cm by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped 60 cm by 80 cm).

Na Nakpo (Sna nag po)

General site characteristics

Na NakpoSna nag po is located at the foot of the lofty meridian range that rises south of MamikMa mig. The site is situated on a broad esplanade that abuts the valley, which parallels the east face of the meridian range. Na NakpoSna nag po is found more than 200 m above the valley floor. The terrain is gravelly, sandy and gently sloping. The site consists of a small array of pillars appended to an edifice, as well as a number of unusually designed funerary structures of considerable morphological complexity. All structures of Na NakpoSna nag po are built of uncut pieces of variable-length white granite. According to local reports, Na NakpoSna nag po was preyed upon in the Chinese Cultural Revolution, but the extent of damage caused at that time is unclear.

Oral tradition

According to residents of MamikMa mig, Na NakpoSna nag po is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The appended edifice (temple-tomb) measures 2.6 m (east-west) by 4.3 m (north-south) and is up to 50 cm in height. The foundation and coherent standing wall fragments up to 50 cm in height are extant. This rectangular structure was built of stones averaging around 30 cm in length, while the largest stones are 75 cm long. Stones dislodged from the temple-tomb litter the area. Nothing of the central chamber remains intact. Given its diminutive dimensions, it is very unlikely that the appended edifice served as a habitat in relation to its ritual functions. Its central chamber may only have been around 1 m wide.

Pillar array

There are nearly 80 stones still standing in the array of pillars, about one-third the original number. The array is not well aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 4.3 m (east-west) by 7.6 m (north-south). The standing stones tend to have a squat form and are 5 cm to 50 cm in height. Originally, there were about 12 rows of pillars, which do not appear to have been laid out with a high degree of precision. Immediately east of the array, three single-course walls form a rectangular enclosure that measures 5.6 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). There is no west wall in this enclosure. This side is delineated by the most easterly line of pillars. The walls of the enclosure are composed of stones 10 cm to 30 cm in length, which are flush with or slightly elevated above the ground surface. There are no signs of walls bounding other sides of the array of pillars.

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (5.5 m by 2.5 m) is situated 30 m northeast of the appended edifice, and was designed and built in a similar fashion to it. FS1 therefore appears to have been an above ground shrine or mausoleum with a rectangular ground plan and straight, uninterrupted walls. Only its foundation and wall segments to 60 cm in height have survived. There is no evidence that FS1 was ever accompanied by pillars.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (14.3 m by 11.7 m) is situated 17.5 m east of FS1. This enclosure was substantially built with double-course walls around 80 cm in thickness. In certain sections as many as three vertical courses of stones are discernable. This structure therefore is likely to have had a significant height above ground. Stones used in the construction of FS2 are primarily 40 cm to 70 cm in length. The ground surface inside the enclosure is uneven and appears to have contained various structural elements. Perhaps the FS2 enclosure was subdivided into various cells, however, not enough remains of the structure to accurately gauge its design characteristics.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5 m by 8 m) is situated 3 m east of FS2. This structure appears to have been comprised of a single-course enclosure that may have been subdivided into two sections. The stones of the perimeter walls are even with the ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4 group

Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 5.6 m) is situated 6.5 m east of FS3. Its east side consists of three short double-course wall segments that run in a north-west-southeast direction. Each of these walls is 25 cm to 30 cm thick and contains upright stones 5 cm to 30 cm in length. The west side of FS4 is highly fragmentary. In close proximity to the three walls there are small square single-course enclosures, which measure 70 cm to 90 cm on each side. It appears that there is structural residuum between FS3 and FS4, making the delimitation between them somewhat ambiguous.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (9 m by 5.4 m) is situated 30 m east of FS4. The west half of this enclosure appears to have single-course perimeter walls flush with the ground surface, but very little still remains intact. The east half of FS5 was built with double-course walls (around 40 cm thick) containing upright stones 10 cm to 35 cm in length. These stones are mostly even with the ground surface. FS5 appears to have been subdivided into three parts.

Khorbuk Doring (’Khor sbug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Khorbuk Doring’Khor sbug rdo ring is located on the northwest edge of the vast basin, which opens on the west side of the Gotang GangriSgo thang gangs ri meridian range. The site is simply called DoringRdo ring and a proximate place Khorbuk’Khor sbug. From the site there are excellent views of the great meridian range to the east and south. The view to the west is cut by the ridge bounding the edge of the basin. The terrain is broad, level and gravelly. The isolated pillar is made of a gray igneous rock, is highly worn and hosts small bits of orange climax lichen. The tabular pillar is now 1.2 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.5 m. It is only 7 cm to 15 cm in thickness. Its broad sides are oriented north and south. Lying on the ground beside the pillar is its broken top, which is 40 cm long. It is reported that this monument was a victim of the Chinese Cultural Revolution. In a small stone crib, on the south side of the pillar, there are some old plaques inscribed with the mani mantra. The plaques are not well arranged and the site is generally neglected.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa elders of RuntorRu ’thor, Khorbuk Doring’Khor sbug rdo ring emerged in primordial times. It is also said to be KatsenpoBka’ btsan po (same as ka nyenpoBka’ gnyan po), a place of much power but potentially dangerous. Untoward acts committed here are believed to be harshly punished.

Zhingsa Doring (Zhing sa rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Zhingsa DoringZhing sa rdo ring is located near the north side of Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho in a place known as ZhingsaZhing sa. The site sits at the northeast foot of Cheri TeldzongPhye ri thal rdzong, a prominent hill of the locale (see E-22). The terrain is level, sandy and overgrown with drama brush. The ground must have presented quite a different and less degraded appearance at the time the monuments were created. In addition to a row of pillars and associated walls, there are four funerary enclosures at the site. All these structures are built of a dark, grained rock. The very sandy ground upon which Zhingsa DoringZhing sa rdo ring was built has taken a large toll on the integrity of the monuments.

According to RuntorRu ’thor elders, ZhingsaZhing sa was farmed in ancient times. Two small perennial streams originating from the flanks of the meridian range flow through this sandy basin. No terracing, retaining walls or other signs of old agriculture were detected at ZhingsaZhing sa. Such structures, however, could have been easily engulfed by the unstable sandy terrain.

Oral tradition

In RuntorRu ’thor, sites such as Zhingsa DoringZhing sa rdo ring are commonly attributed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

Only portions of two east-west running walls have endured. These walls are spaced 6.8 m apart. The north wall segment is 6.5 m long and the south wall segment is 7 m long. The variable-length (10 cm to 30 cm long) stones of the double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) are flush with the ground surface or slightly protrude above it. The two extant wall segments fall far short of embracing the entire row of pillars. This may indicate that the enclosure was not of the standard design or that some pillars were erected outside of it.

Pillars

The nine unhewn pillars form an uneven row 12.6 m long that is roughly oriented north-south. These highly eroded, dark-colored pillars stand just west of the two extant wall fragments. The area around the pillars has been heavily disturbed by drama brush and a build up of sand. Stones scattered around the pillars are likely to have been part of the proximate walls. From north to south, the pillars have the following dimensions and forms:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped, (80 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (70 cm by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (90 cm by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (90 cm by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped (70 cm by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided (50 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (35 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR8: irregularly shaped (35 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped (80 cm by 90 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 51 m west of the north end of the row of pillars. Its perimeter walls are composed of smaller stones (up to 30 cm long). No coherent wall fragments have survived in FS1, thus its design characteristics are difficult to ascertain.

Funerary structures FS2, FS3 and FS4 were built on the same sandy bench. These three enclosures appear to be of the heaped-stone wall typology (II.2c).

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (21 m by 11 m) is situated 90 m southwest of FS1. This enclosure has an irregular form. Only swaths of stones (1 m to 1.5 m wide) that do not rise much above ground level form its walls.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (12.6 m across) is situated 65 m south of FS2. Its perimeter is partially intact.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (13 m across) is situated 42 m south of FS3. Its nebulous perimeter has an ovoid form.

Horduk Doring (Hor dug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The isolated pillar of Horduk DoringHor dug rdo ring is located on the north side of the great salt lake Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho. Views to the north and east are constrained by a mountain that rises above the lake basin. On the other hand, the vistas south and west are wide open. The terrain is moderately sloping and sandy. The unshaped tabular pillar is 1 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.1 m. The broad sides of this light-colored granite specimen face north and south, as do most tabular pillars in Upper Tibet. Horduk DoringHor dug rdo ring is firmly anchored in the substrate and is strongly weathered. Its function is enigmatic. There are no funerary structural traces in the vicinity and no obvious boundary lands.

The archaic cultural sites documented on the shores of Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho (see A-96, B-131, C-114, D-70, and D-129) tend to be less extensive than those that arose at the neighboring lakes of DaroktsoDa rog mtsho and Trari NamtsoBkra ri gnam mtsho. The high elevation and the extreme salinity of its waters are likely to be factors in the retardation of sedentary settlement along the margins of Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho. The particularly harsh and barren terrain of the lakeshore must have also discouraged permanent habitation.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Lhalung Doring (Lha lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Lhalung DoringLha lung rdo ring is located in the midst of a relatively large pastoral camp. The site is situated on the right side of the LhalungLha lung valley on a rock-strewn shelf above the watercourse. The relatively narrow valley runs east-west and these are the two directions with open views. LhalungLha lung is an effluent of the Bültok TsangpoBul tog gtsang po valley. There are two small pillars and the vestiges of funerary enclosures at the site. Lhalung DoringLha lung rdo ring has been heavily impacted by grazing and the recent construction of corrals. What remains of the monuments is threatened by continued pastoral activities.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Lhalung DoringLha lung rdo ring are magically formed primordial stones.

Site elements

Pillars

The two irregularly shaped pillars are made of a grayish grained rock. These standing stones are highly worn and their surfaces have undergone some change in color. The pillars measure 90 cm (height) by 70 cm (basal girth) and 65 cm by 80 cm. They stand within 30 cm of one another. The tips of both standing stones have been broken.

Outlying funerary structures

Small fragments of funerary superstructures appear to be distributed across the site. These remains are now so degraded that positive identification is not often feasible. Only one enclosure has been spared from utter destruction. It is located 50 m northwest of the two pillars. The single-course rectangular perimeter measures 2.4 m by 1.7 m. Its walls contain stones 20 cm to 40 cm in length, which are mostly even with the ground surface. This enclosure is not oriented in the cardinal directions. Recently, stones have been extracted from this structure and it is in imminent danger of annihilation. Local drokpa do not appear to be aware of the identity of this structure. This ignorance about archaeological assets seems to account for much of the contemporary destruction of funerary superstructures in Upper Tibet.

Jamri Doring (Byams ri rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Jamri Doring
English equivalent: Future Buddha (Jampa) Mountain Long-stones
Site number: C-115
Site typology: II.1b, II.2a
Elevation: 4840 m
Administrative location (township): Tratsang
Administrative location (county): Tsochen
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: June 17, 2002
Contemporary usage: Buddhist cult site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Pillar inscriptions.
Maps: UTRS VII, UTRS XI
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General site characteristics

Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring is located in the middle of the TratsangKhra tshang valley on a level sandy plain. From the site, the north-south aligned valley provides excellent views in these directions. The east and west vistas are also quite open. Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring consists of three walled pillars, which were transformed into a Buddhist cult monument in pre-modern times. However, like most of the mani wall shrines in the TratsangKhra tshang valley, Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring is now largely neglected. There are at least two funerary enclosures associated with the site.

Oral tradition

According to local elders, Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring magically sprang up in primordial times.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 12 m (east-west) by 6.4 m (north-south). The east, north and south walls of the enclosure are relatively intact, while the west wall is very fragmentary. The double-course walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) are composed of variable-length upright slabs, which average around 40 cm in length and are 2 cm to 12 cm in thickness. The largest stone in the walls of the enclosure is 90 cm long. In the east wall of the enclosure there is a 35 cm long stone set perpendicular to the wall course. This stone may have been part of a “threshold,” as is sometimes found in enclosures of this typology. Mostly, an uncut dark blue metamorphic (?) rock was used to build the enclosure. Many stones dislodged from the enclosure are scattered around the proximity.

Pillars

The three unhewn, irregularly shaped brown pillars of Jamri DoringByams ri rdo ring exhibit substantial wear. The main pillar is planted 1.5 m from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure and is well centered. It measures 1.3 m (height) by 1.6 m (basal girth). A Buddhist inscription of six lines is found on the east side of this pillar. This inscription extols the god ChenrezikSpyan ras gzigs and makes note of hundreds of mani mantras that may have been recited to ease the passing of a loved one. The inscription is riddled with spelling errors. Below it the seven syllable mani was carved in much larger letters. These inscriptions are of significant age as evidenced by the degree of repatination. North of the main pillar there are two smaller specimens: a broken tabular one (65 cm by 1 m) and a small four-sided example (25 cm by 40 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 43 m northwest of the northwest corner of the pillar enclosure. This single-course rectangular enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 5.4 m (north-south) by 2.3 m (east-west). Its perimeter walls are mostly composed of variable-length (10 cm to 60 cm long, 5 cm to 10 cm thick) upright slabs. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it a maximum of 10 cm. FS1 is subdivided into three longitudinal sections by two north-south walls. The two outer portions of FS1 are nearly 1 m wide and the central portion is 40 cm in width. There is also a structural extension to FS1 that measures 3.2 m (north-south) by 2.4 m (east-west).

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 32 m north of FS1. This poorly preserved specimen is about 8 m long. It consists of various wall fragments aligned in the cardinal directions. FS2 appears to have been another enclosure subdivided into sections. The variable-length stones of this funerary superstructure are flush with the ground surface or project above it a maximum of 15 cm. There may be another enclosure 66 m west of the pillars but there is not enough structural evidence in place to know for certain.

Takpur Doring (’Thag phur rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The walled pillar monument of Takpur Doring’Thag phur rdo ring is located near the south edge of the TsachuTshwa chu basin. Just south of the site stands an isolated white ridge called Drilkhul DeupoSbril khul rde’u po (sp.?). The holy mountain, Lönpo GangriBlon po gangs ri, is visible 90 km to the east. The terrain is level, sandy and gravelly. The pillars and stones of the enclosure are made of a blue-gray rock, many pieces of which have weathered to a tawny hue. In addition to the walled pillars, there is a quadrate double-course funerary enclosure at Takpur Doring’Thag phur rdo ring.

Oral tradition

In this region (BaryangBar yangs), sites such as Marbuk DoringDmar sbug rdo ring are commonly associated with the primordial epoch and the MönMon tribe of ancient times.

Site elements

Enclosure

The double-course enclosure contains both upright and flush stones. Although the enclosure is fragmentary, parts of all four double-course walls have survived. It measures 4.7 m (north-south) by 10.3 m (east-west). This robustly built structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding plain. The enclosure does not appear to have been well aligned in the cardinal directions. The uncut blocks and slabs of the walls are primarily 20 cm to 40 cm in length. In the east wall (60 cm thick) of the enclosure, the largest stone is 60 cm long and protrudes 25 cm above the ground surface. Also, in the east wall there is a slab (45 cm long, 5 cm thick) that runs perpendicular (east-west) to the axis of the course. This “portal” stone protrudes 8 cm from the ground and is situated 1.45 m from the northeast corner of the enclosure. A south wall segment is 80 cm thick and is elevated 30 cm above the surface. This elevated segment appears to consist of several vertical courses of blocks laid on top of one another. The north wall (60 cm thick) is the most intact in the enclosure; about 50 percent of it has survived intact. The upright stones in the north wall are elevated around 10 cm above ground level. A small section of the west wall has also endured. A tiny wall with two plaques engraved with the mani mantra was installed inside the enclosure.

Pillars

Six of the seven pillars of Takpur Doring’Thag phur rdo ring form an uneven row situated 60 cm to 80 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. From south to the north, the pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (45 cm [height] by 60 cm [basal girth]). This specimen is offset from the main row of pillars.
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (35 cm by 45 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (35 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided, probably broken (45 cm by 65 cm).
Long-stone DR5: four-sided (1.1 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR6: four-sided, probably broken (25 cm by 50 cm).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (50 cm by 70 cm).

Outlying funerary structure

Roughly 150 m north of the pillars there is a double-course funerary enclosure situated in the gravelly plain. This quadrate structure appears to measure 8 m by 8 m. The east wall of the enclosure is almost absent. It was constructed of larger upright blocky stones (30 cm to 70 cm long), which protrude upwards of 20 cm above the ground surface. If there were once companion structures, all traces of them on the shifting surface have disappeared from view.

Tratsang Doring (Khra tshang rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tratsang DoringKhra tshang rdo ring is located in the upper TratsangKhra tshang valley and locally, it is simply known as DoringRdo ring. The site is situated on the left side of the valley above the marshy bottomland. The views are fairly open in all but the eastern direction, which is constricted by the ridge on the opposite side of the TratsangKhra tshang valley. The terrain is well drained, sandy and gravelly. In addition to two pillars there is still at least one funerary enclosure at the site.

Oral tradition

According to local elders, Tratsang DoringKhra tshang rdo ring magically sprang into existence in primordial times.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is now highly fragmentary. There is a 3 m long fragment of the west wall (50 cm thick) still in place, which is situated 60 cm west of the pillars. This double-course wall segment is composed of stones 20 cm to 25 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface. East of the pillars there are two east-west oriented wall fragments, the most southerly of which may have been part of the enclosure’s south wall. A 5 m length of this wall is in situ and it is of the same construction as the west wall. The other east-west wall fragment is located 50 cm north of the south wall fragment. This seems to be an uncharacteristic placement for a wall in this monument typology. This inner east-west wall fragment (2.4 m long, 40 cm wide) is composed of upright stones, 15 cm to 25 cm in length.

Pillars

The two unhewn pillars of Tratsang DoringKhra tshang rdo ring are spaced 35 cm apart. The intact, four-sided specimen measures 80 cm (height) by 1.1 m (basal girth). The other specimen is broken (30 cm by 90 cm). These pillars are made of a white rock that has turned red in certain places. The area in front of the pillars moderately slopes down to the east, in the direction of the valley bottom. When the pillars were originally installed, this ground is liable to have been much more level.

Outlying funerary structure

There is a rectangular enclosure (4.5 m by 2.3 m) situated 17 m north of the two pillars on moderately sloping ground. Its partially intact double-course walls (40 cm to 50 cm thick) are composed of cobbles and blocky stones (10 cm to 50 cm long). The larger stones project upwards of 15 cm above the ground surface. A small mani wall is found 14 m north of this funerary enclosure. One can only wonder if it was created from stones extracted from other funerary enclosures of the site.

Omatsé Doring (’O ma tshe rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Omatsé Doring’O ma tshe rdo ring is located up valley from the village of Oma Tsé’O ma tshe. From the southwest to the northwest directions, the views from this site are constrained by the enveloping mountains. The views in the other directions are quite open. The terrain is sandy and slopes down in a northeast direction. Omatsé Doring’O ma tshe rdo ring consists of seven pillars erected inside an enclosure and four easily recognizable funerary enclosures. There appears to be faint traces of other funerary structures on the sandy surface of the site as well.

Oral tradition

According to villagers of Oma Tsé’O ma tshe, Omatsé Doring’O ma tshe rdo ring spontaneously appeared at the beginning of existence.

Site elements

Enclosure

Only small remnants of the walls that enclosed the pillars have survived. The west wall of the enclosure appears to have been around 6.5 m in length. It is composed of pieces of granite 15 cm to 35 cm in length, which were lain flat on the ground. These stones have almost no protrusion above the surface. In situ fragments of the south wall indicate that it was about 12 m long and built in the same fashion as the west wall of the enclosure. Tiny sections of the north wall are also extant. The double-course south and north walls are about 80 cm thick, and are composed mostly of granite, as well as some pieces of a dark gray metamorphic rock. These stones vary in length up to 40 cm. The east wall of the enclosure has been nearly obliterated.

Pillars

The pillars stand about 40 cm from the inner edge of the west, north and south walls, forming a U-shaped pattern. The pillars next to the west and north walls are made of white granite. The pillars next to the south wall are made of a dark-colored metamorphic stone.

North wall group (from east to west):

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (65 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]). In close proximity there is an uprooted tabular pillar 1.6 m in length with broad faces that are about 40 cm wide. The original placement of this pillar is not clear.
Long-stone DR2: tabular (80 cm by 80 cm).
West wall group (from north to south):
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped (1.3 m by 1.3 m).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided (1.3 m by 1.2 m).
South wall group (from west to east):
Long-stone DR5: broken (25 cm by 50 cm).
Long-stone DR6: broken (20 cm by 40 cm)
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (40 cm by 60 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (13 m by 21 m) is situated immediately west of the walled pillars. This very fragmentary large sub-rectangular enclosure is divided into two parts. The double-course perimeter walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) are mainly composed of stones (up to 40 cm in length) laid flat. There are also some upright stones in the enclosing walls. Stones piled up on the perimeter may indicate that parts of this enclosure were more than one vertical course in height.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (approximately 6 m across) is situated 7.5 m west of FS1. This enclosure is highly fragmentary.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5 m by 6 m) is situated 36 m north of FS2. This enclosure appears to have a quadrate form. Small fragments of the double-course perimeter walls remain in situ. The center portion of FS3 is elevated about 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. Immediately to the northeast of FS3 there may be another funerary enclosure but very little structural evidence is still left to observe.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (7.5 m by 6 m) is situated 24 m southwest of FS3. A double-course wall segment (60 cm thick) is intact on the southwest side of what appears to have been a rectangular enclosure. This wall fragment is composed of stones up to 70 cm long.

Gokdeu Doring (Sgog rde’u rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gokdeu DoringSgog rde’u rdo ring is located on the northeast side of Dawa TsoZla ba mtsho (Moon lake). As the name suggests, the site is found on an eminence, which is situated in the midst of the mostly marshy lake basin. Gokdeu DoringSgog rde’u rdo ring is so located that it occupies the middle of the Dawa TsoZla ba mtsho basin and enjoys a 360° panorama. To the north is the important sacred mountain known as Shel GangchamShel gangs lcam.177 Also in view to the northeast is the local territorial deity (yüllha) YaktsangG.yag tshang, a reddish ridge. The terrain around the standing stone is well drained and sandy. The lone pillar is made of a light gray volcanic rock that has turned red in places due to weathering processes. This well-formed pillar (1.7 m [height] by 1.3 m [basal girth]) has each of its faces oriented in the cardinal directions. Gokdeu DoringSgog rde’u rdo ring tilts slightly to the west.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Gokdeu DoringSgog rde’u rdo ring magically arose in primordial times. It is also associated with the LhandréLha ’dre spirits and thought to be dangerous if disturbed.

Khangmar Dzashak (Khang dmar rdza shag)

General site characteristics

Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag is one of the more extensive and better preserved quadrate arrays of pillars appended to temple-tomb sites in Upper Tibet. The site is located on a narrow bench, rising above the left side of the RonggoRong mgo valley (a feeder of TongtsoStong mtsho), close to the NakchuNag chu prefecture border. The sandy, partially turf-covered bench gently slopes down in a southerly direction, before dropping approximately 20 m to the valley floor. To the north, the site is hemmed in by a ridge, but in other directions there are wide vistas. To the south, Shel GangchamShel gangs lcam, the principal sacred mountain in the region, is plainly visible. Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag consists of three similarly sized and designed complexes: west, central, and east. There are also a few funerary structures dispersed between the west and central complexes. The three complexes are at a considerable distance from one another, an unusual spatial feature in this type of monument. This must be, in part, because the bench on which they were constructed is too narrow to accommodate the complexes side by side.

As per the most common design parameters of this monument typology, both the edifices and concourses of pillars are aligned in the compass points. All structures are made from local brown sandstone. The exterior faces of the slabs and blocks used to build the temple-tombs were hewn flat, as were the faces of the standing stones in some cases. It would appear that the south side (down-slope side) of the three appended edifices was set on a plinth or underpinned by an apron wall. These supporting masonry masses are roughly 50 cm in height and perhaps extending 1 m laterally from the south side of each superstructure. Structural evidence for this constructional feature, however, is fairly obscure. The pillars are all naturally occurring pieces of sandstone that protrude a maximum of 80 cm above the surface. The pillars exhibit heavy weathering and support a considerable amount of orange climax lichen growth.

Oral tradition

The drokpa of the region report that Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag is the burial grounds of the ancient MönMon. Local cultural proscriptions are still in place, which continue to insure that the site is not disturbed by those who live in its general proximity.178

Site elements

West complex

Appended edifice

The west complex edifice is an above-ground temple-tomb, measuring 5.6 m (north-south) by 3 m (east-west), which has been reduced to around 1 m in height. The most intact wall segments are found on the south side of the structure; reaching a maximum height of 60 cm and are comprised of four horizontal courses of masonry. Due to the very pronounced subsidence of the structure, the fabric of the walls is not discernable but they must have been of coursed-rubble, like the mortuary tombs of the central and east complexes. The stones used in construction are of variable length (10 cm to 50 cm in length) and are of the slab (3 cm to 10 cm in thickness) and block (thickness roughly equal to length and width) forms. On the east and north sides of the edifice, only wall footings have endured. On the west side of the temple-tomb, some wall fragments are still intact.

Pillar array

The most westerly pillar in the west complex array is found standing 5.5 m east of the appended temple-tomb. From that point, the dimensions of the array are approximately 26 m (east-west) by 12 m (north-south). Precise dimensions are unattainable because less than one-third of the original pillars are still planted in the ground. Structural evidence from other monuments of this type suggests that the rows of pillars probably extended in closer proximity to the funerary edifice. A portion of the southwest sector of the array has been destroyed by powerful erosive forces. There are a few dislodged pillars lying in the west complex array. As in the central and east complexes, the shorter pillars (15 cm to 25 cm in height) are squat and often pointed. The taller pillars are usually tabular but there are also some four-sided specimens. The average height of the pillars is between 35 cm and 40 cm. The broad sides of the tabular specimens are oriented north and south, in the normal fashion of the typology. Nine meters east of the current extent of the array there is a lone 60 cm high tabular pillar, perhaps indicating that the array was substantially larger than it now appears. In close proximity to this lone pillar there are small, highly fragmentary double-course slab walls. These are comprised of small stones set edgewise into the ground, which are more or less flush with the surface. These are the only slab walls visible in the pillar arrays of Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag, although they appear with a fair degree of regularity at other large sites of this monument typology.

Outlying funerary structures

There are also more than four funerary structures at Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag. The wide spacing of these structures, their limited number and their proximity to the west and central complexes of the necropolis has an exclusive air about it. This seems to suggest that they accommodated burials and/or the contents of mortuary rites of individuals with a relatively high social position.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 70 m northeast of the eastern extent of the pillar array. Its superstructure consists of a slab-wall enclosure divided into two unequal-sized cells (5 m by 9 m and 5.7 m by 5 m). The slabs were laid in parallel courses to form walls 60 cm to 90 cm in thickness. Large stones, up to 90 cm in length and protruding a maximum of 40 cm above the surface, were employed in the construction of the enclosure. In close proximity there are the obscure remains of a smaller funerary structure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 35 m east of FS I. It was recently cut open by a seasonal torrent to reveal a human burial. Several foot bones were extracted from the exposed surface of the corpse for chronometric analysis. The obtained results demonstrate that Khangmar DzashakKhang dmar rdza shag has been a burial ground since the first third of the first millennium BCE.179 Only fragmentary wall segments covering an area of 3 m by 1.7 m still survived at the time of the survey. A 60 cm high sub-surface wall segment clung to the side of the gully that was formed through the action of turbulent water. It is likely that this tomb has been totally obliterated by more recent summer rains.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (approximately 6.5 m by 4 m) is located 360 m east of FS2. This highly degraded superstructure is situated a little east of a gully. FS3 contains both flat and projecting stones in the perimeter walls, the character of which is no longer discernable. In the same area are the remains of what appear to be the superstructures of two smaller tombs.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (approximately 7.8 m by 7 m) is located 120 m east of FS3. This superstructure is in an advanced state of decay.

Central complex

Appended edifice

The central complex temple-tomb is situated 330 m east of funerary structure FS4. This central complex edifice is in the best state of preservation of the three complexes. It measures 5.1 m (north-south) by 3.1 m (east-west). On its east and south sides, the edifice still attains a maximum height of 2 m. Given the fairly diminutive dimensions of the structure, its original elevation may have not been much higher than its current maximum extent. The coursed-rubble walls are 60 cm to 80 cm thick. They are composed of dressed sandstone blocks and slabs. Structural evidence of the central burial chamber has been largely eradicated.

Pillar array

The most westerly pillar in the central complex array is found 12 m from the funerary edifice, but evidence from both the west and east complexes indicates that more proximate rows of stelae once existed. The array as it now exists measures 33 m (east-west) by 13 m (north-south), yet only around 90 pillars remain in situ. This is perhaps less than 20 percent of the original amount. The pillars project 20 cm to 60 cm from the surface, with a mean height of around 40 cm.

East complex

Appended edifice

The east edifice is sited 155 m east of the eastern edge of the central complex pillar array. The edifice measures 7 m (north-south) by 3.1 m (east-west) and currently stands around 1.2 m in height. Coherent wall segments are found on all four sides of this rectangular structure, showing that it was constructed in the same manner as the central complex edifice. The largest intact wall fragment is found on the south side of the structure. It is 90 cm in height and contains stones up to 60 cm in length. Lying nearby is a dislodged stone, 1 m in length, which at one time may have been part of the same wall.

Pillar array

The first in situ pillar of the east complex array is found 4.5 m east of the temple-tomb. The dimensions of the extant array are 15.7 m (east-west) by 11 m (north-south). There is, however, a lone pillar situated 3.8 m east of the south side of the array, as well as a single small pillar well beyond the north side of the array. These outlying pillars probably signal that the concourse was at one time significantly larger than at present. The east array of pillars gently declines towards the east. The pillars are mostly tabular and have a mean height of around 35 cm. The shortest specimens are only 15 cm in height. By measuring the distances between extant stones in the rows, it can be estimated that only around one-third the total number of pillars are still standing in the east complex array.

Tsengo Doring (Btsan sgo rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tsengo DoringBtsan sgo rdo ring is located on the west edge of the valley through which the main road between TsochenMtsho chenand RakhaRa kha passes. The site is named for TsengoBtsan sgo, a cleft in a sacred red cliff, situated just northwest of the two walled pillars. From the site, views in all directions but the west are open. The terrain is level and covered in gravel and cobbles.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The walls of the enclosure are aligned in the cardinal directions and measure 9 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). The double-course walls of the enclosure vary between 50 cm and 80 cm in thickness. They contain variable-length (10 cm to 80 cm long) slabs, blocks and cobbles of various colors and types of rock. Many of the stones of the walls project prominently above ground level (up to a height of 25 cm). Two stones in the east wall are set perpendicular to the course, creating a space 80 cm in width. However, the north-south wall course continues to run in between these two “portal” stones.

Pillars

There are two highly eroded pillars remaining in the enclosure. Given its size and the position of the pillars, there may originally have been others standing inside the enclosure. The two pillars were planted 90 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. The south pillar is heavily inclined and well centered in the enclosure (80 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). Some of its top section may have been lost. This light brown stele has four uneven sides. The brownish north pillar stands nearer the north wall of the enclosure (70 cm by 1 m). It also has four uneven sides. No other archaeological structures are visible at Tsengo DoringBtsan sgo rdo ring, but the construction of corrals in the vicinity may have obliterated the evidence.

Domilang (Rdo mi lang)

Basic site data

Site name: Domilang
English equivalent: Standing Man Stone
Site number: C-36
Site typology: II.1a
Elevation: 4630 m
Administrative location (township): Puwa
Administrative location (county): Pelgön
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: September 20, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. A cultic site.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A couple mani plaques.
Maps: UTRS IX
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General site characteristics

The lone pillar of DomilangRdo mi lang is located in the middle of an eponymous valley. It is situated in a region of NamruGnam ru traditionally known as RingpaRing pa. The watercourse of the DomilangRdo mi lang valley drains into the Jakar TsangpoJa dkar gtsang po. The terrain is level, sandy and turf-covered.

Oral tradition

One common oral tradition of NamruGnam ru holds that DomilangRdo mi lang emerged with existence in the primal epoch. Another oral tradition of the region claims that this pillar is related to the katsik doring (pillar edict) of ZhölZhol in LhasaLha sa. A more elaborate oral tradition relates that the magical she goat, Ramo GyamoRa mo rgya mo (Black She Goat with Brownish Facial Markings), was appointed to carry sand to fill in Oma Tso’O ma mtsho (Milk Lake), in order to prepare for the construction of the JokhangJo khang temple in the center of LhasaLha sa.180 While on her mission, Ramo GyamoRa mo rgya mo was on the lookout for a place suitable for the founding of the RamochéRa mo che temple. This she goat passed by the DomilangRdo mi lang valley and pillar, an important location, but it was determined not to have the qualities needed for the founding of a great Buddhist temple. This location was incomplete, like a monk without his robes (chögö). The location also fell under the influence of the inauspicious mountain, NakguNag gu (Blackness), the residence of an evil spirit (dré’Dre), rather than the auspicious Karru LhatsoDkar ru lha mtsho (White Divine Lake) locale. Furthermore, the mountain, LangchéGlang che (Great Elephant), to the north lacked a trunk and a saddle, and its spring was like a vase (bumpa) without a cloth lid. Finally, the nearby mountain, LangchungGlang chung (Lesser Elephant), lacked kidney fat. The she goat left her droppings at Karru LhatsoDkar ru lha mtsho, causing a scrub willow forest to appear there. According to this well-developed legend, the DomilangRdo mi lang pillar was already erected by the early seventh century CE.

Site elements

The four-sided blue-gray igneous pillar is slightly inclined to the northwest (1.85 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). The top of the pillar narrows until it has a girth of only 50 cm. The southeast and northwest faces of DomilangRdo mi lang are somewhat broader than its other two sides. The pillar is surrounded by five cairns topped with pieces of milky quartz and a couple of plaques inscribed with the mani mantra, a shrine that is no longer maintained. The heads of goats and sheep are tied to the top one-third of the pillar. This is an apotropaic cult practice to protect the remaining animals of the herd from sickness. Butter and red ochre have also been applied to the pillar, a sign of its sacred status and the healing power it is supposed to possess. There are three faint markings on the southeast face of the pillar, which look a little like Tibetan letters. The faint vestiges of a wall running east-west (15 m long) begins 14 m south of the pillar. On both ends it connects with even more obscure walls running north-south. Although no coherent fragments have survived, it could be determined that these walls are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. A dark-colored metamorphic rock (10 cm to 35 cm long) was used in the construction of these walls. They may possibly represent the remains of a separate funerary enclosure.

Ngoring (Sngo ring)

General site characteristics

NgoringSngo ring is located in the ZhungchuGzhung chu valley, which empties into the east side of Gomang TsoSgo mang mtsho.181 The old name of NgoringSngo ring is reported to be NakdongNag gdong (Black Face; the name may have been changed due to inauspicious phenomena associated with it). The site is found on the north flank of the ZhungchuGzhung chu valley and is surrounded by the herder’s hamlet of NgoringSngo ring. The terrain is sandy, turf covered and gently sloping. These white granite pillars were erected inside an enclosure. This enclosure appears to be of a design at variance with the standard double-course enclosures in which type II.1b pillars are planted.

Oral tradition

The enclosure of NgoringSngo ring is locally referred to as a möndo ra (MönMon stone enclosure), and is associated with the ancient MönMon. NgoringSngo ring is one of the most easterly archaeological sites in Upper Tibet that is attributed to the MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure approximately measures 8.5 m by 6 m. The enclosure is highly fragmentary and its lower part has been heavily impacted by geomorphologic changes. Its configuration and mode of construction are not clear. There is a little structural evidence to suggest that the perimeter walls were of the double-course variety. The enclosure was not aligned in the cardinal directions. Uncut pieces of white granite, up to 1.2 m in length, went into its construction. Some of these stones protrude prominently from the ground surface. This enclosure appears to represent a transitional monumental form between the isolated pillars of the far eastern JangtangByang thang (see C-7 and C-36) and those enclosed inside well-delineated walls common farther west. The enclosure of NgoringSngo ring may have been of more rudimentary construction.

Pillars

The pillars stand in the upper portion of the enclosure. The three standing specimens are spread out over a distance of 3 m. Their position relative to the enclosure is not clear. These white granite pillars are heavily worn and discolored in places:

North pillar: four-sided (85 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]).

Central Pillar: irregularly shaped (1.4 m by 1.1 m).

South pillar: irregularly shaped (70 cm by 1.1 m). There is also a collapsed pillar in close proximity, which may still be rooted in the ground.

Doring (Rdo ring)

General site characteristics

DoringRdo ring (pronounced locally as dorang) is located near the northeast shore of Gomang TsoSgo mang mtsho. The terrain is almost level, well drained and turf covered. This uniquely designed site is dominated by two parallel rows of upright stones, which extend for 67 m. It seems likely that DoringRdo ring represents a variant type of archaic funerary monument. It possesses structural features of both isolated pillars and slab wall sites.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, DoringRdo ring was an ancient MönMon site.

Site elements

The two rows of pillars are oriented northwest-southeast, and stand 4.2 m to 4.7 m from one another. Unfortunately, the integrity of the site was recently compromised when stones were extracted in order to line the edge of the neighboring road. Near the northwest end of the site many stones are now missing, making an analysis of the morphological characteristics of DoringRdo ring difficult. It is possible that there were more than two rows of upright stones at the northwest end of the site. The two extant rows consist of uncut light-colored granite and limestone slabs and blocks (20 cm to 90 cm long) embedded in the ground edgewise. These stones are flush with the ground surface or are elevated above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. The only exceptions are a few more prominently elevated stones in the middle portion of the east wall. These taller stones are dominated by a firmly planted pillar-like granite boulder (1 m [height] by 1.4 m [basal girth]). On the southeast end of DoringRdo ring there are traces of a single line of upright stones bisecting the two main rows of stones.

Nyungkar Doring (Nyung dkar rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nyungkar DoringNyung dkar rdo ring is located on the southern margin of the Zimpuk TsoGzims phug mtsho basin. NyungkarNyung dkar is the name of the small hill immediately north of the monument. The view to the west is the most open at the site, but the southern and eastern vistas are also encompassing. The well-drained terrain is broad, level, sandy, and with some grasses. A small stream flows very close to the south and west flanks of Nyungkar DoringNyung dkar rdo ring. The site consists of a small example of a single pillar erected inside a rectangular enclosure. It is very unusual to find this type of monument so close to running water.

Oral tradition

According to an elderly drokpa who resides on the opposite side of the NyungkarNyung dkar hill, Nyungkar DoringNyung dkar rdo ring was erected in the distant past to mark the death of someone. Given the archaeological evidence associated with the walled pillar typology, this oral tradition appears to be historically accurate.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 8.2 m (east-west) by 3.4 m (north-south). The entire enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain. Substantial parts of all four walls of the enclosure are intact. These walls (45 cm to 60 cm thick) are mostly composed of small pieces (around 10 cm long) of blue-gray limestone. These small stones were laid in multiple parallel courses in order to traverse the full width of the walls. There are also double-course wall sections (such as the east wall) made up of larger stones (up to 70 cm long).

Pillar

The single irregularly shaped pillar is 70 cm in height and has a basal girth of 85 cm. The pillar is centered between the north and south walls, 80 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. The highly worn gray pillar has weathered to assume a reddish and blackish color.

Nyenta Doring (Gnyan rta rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nyenta DoringGnyan rta rdo ring is situated in a narrow valley with a perennial watercourse running through it. This stream debouches into the east side of Drakpo TsoBrag po mtsho. The valley is ruled by a red escarpment, the territorial deity (yüllha), NyentaGnyan rta. Nyenta DoringGnyan rta rdo ring is situated near the right edge of the valley. As the NyentaGnyan rta valley is narrow, there are only wide open views west towards the Drakpo TsoBrag po mtsho basin, an unusual orientation. The lake from the site, however, is just out of view. The terrain is gently sloping, sandy and spotted with turf. The site consists of an enclosure with four in situ pillars. The existence of Nyenta DoringGnyan rta rdo ring demonstrates that this region was settled long before the current drokpa tribes began to arrive in the 17th century CE.182

Oral tradition

Nyenta DoringGnyan rta rdo ring is said to be under the protection of the local territorial deity NyentaGnyan rta.

Site elements

Enclosure

The not well aligned enclosure measures 5.3 m (north-south) by 6.1 m (east-west). Parts of all four double-course walls have survived. The enclosure walls are around 60 cm in thickness, and are composed of variable length (20 cm to 60 cm long) blocks and slabs laid flush with the ground surface or which project above it a maximum of 20 cm. A blue-gray metamorphic rock was used to build the enclosure. In the east/downhill wall there is a slab that runs perpendicular to the wall course. This slab may be the remains of a ritual portal.

Pillars

The four well-worn pillars were erected near the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. As is customary, the two broad sides of the tabular specimens are parallel to the north and south walls of the enclosure. From north to south, the pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: tabular, blue-gray (55 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]).

Long-stone DR2: tabular, grayish (60 cm by 65 cm).

Long-stone DR3: tabular, blue-gray (70 cm by 1 m).

Long-stone DR4: a smaller, four-sided reddish sandstone pillar with a broken top (35 cm by 50 cm).

Kyiser (Skyid gser)

General site characteristics

KyiserSkyid gser is located on the western edge of a vast plain. KyiserSkyid gser is the name of a long, low ridgeline that forms the western backdrop of the site. Closed off to the west, the site has profound views to the east and is open to the north and south as well. KyiserSkyid gser is a diverse funerary complex of considerable importance. As the array of pillars appended to an edifice (II.1c) is the largest and most prominent element of the location, it appears to have constituted the central feature of the KyiserSkyid gser necropolis. This prominence is reinforced by the conspicuous location of the array and edifice on the margins of the large plain. The smaller monumental elements of the location were established in more secluded and harder to find sites. The KyiserSkyid gser necropolis also includes an isolated pillar (II.1a), pillars erected inside an enclosure (II.1b), funerary enclosures (II.2b), unusually designed slab walls, and other types of funerary structures. The existence of the three common Upper Tibetan pillar typologies at one site, underscores the integral nature of these monuments in an architectural, cognitive and ritual sense. By virtue of these monuments being found together, it can be surmised that they had complimentary functions. The integrated nature of the various monumental components of the site may also indicate that they were built and used within the same timeframe. The various funerary monuments of KyiserSkyid gser are all constructed of uncut pieces of brown sandstone. This sandstone is found in abundance on the abutting ridge. KyiserSkyid gser is sited in a locale with a scarcity of potable water, as are many other funerary sites in Upper Tibet. Given the size and complexity of KyiserSkyid gser, it is certainly possible that certain outlying funerary structures were overlooked during the survey.183

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of DrabukGra sbug township, the array of pillars at KyiserSkyid gser have ancient MönMon and Ling GesarGling ge sar associations. There is a traditional proscription in place against harming the site. It is also said that the KyiserSkyid gser ridge lies in an inauspicious location. According to these sources, the holy mountains, RigyelRi rgyal to the southwest and MentsiSman rtsis (sp?) to the northeast, have forced KyiserSkyid gser to be more virtuous. The negative aura hanging over the site is probably dim recognition of its archaic funerary identity.

Site elements

Array of pillars appended to an edifice complex (Site 1)

Appended edifice

The remains of the appended edifice (temple-tomb) sits on the edge of the plain. This structure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 5.2 m (east-west) by 16.7 m (north-south). The poorly preserved edifice is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding plain. Originally, it would have been substantially taller. A tiny coherent wall fragment is found in the exterior north face of the edifice. Another intact wall fragment is part of the inner west wall of the edifice. A slight depression on top of the edifice marks the location of the central chamber. Evidence from other sites of the same typology suggests that the central chamber was flanked by very heavily constructed walls. Variable-length (up to 60 cm long) stones were used in the construction of the temple-tomb.

Array of Pillars

The array is aligned in the cardinal direction, as is often the case in this monument typology. The array approximately measures 16 m (north-south) by 16.7 m (east-west). The west half of the array of pillars has been obliterated. The east-west dimensions provided are between the most outlying row of pillars and the east wall of the appended edifice. Originally, there were roughly 20 east-west oriented rows of pillars in the array. There are still around 130 standing stones, less than 15 percent of the original number. As intact lines of pillars are spaced 30 cm to 50 cm apart (with wider spacings more common), it can be extrapolated that there were no less than 1000 standing stones in the array. All of the brown sandstone pillars are highly eroded and extremely weathered. Most of the in situ pillars are tabular but there are also four-sided and irregularly shaped specimens, especially among the smaller ones. The broad sides of the tabular pillars are oriented north and south. There are 26 larger pillars (40 cm and 60 cm high), which are mostly concentrated on the east side of the array. Some uprooted specimens up to 70 cm in length lie about the concourse.

The east side of the array of pillars is bordered by a single-course slab wall. A northern fragment of this wall is 8.4 m long. This wall is composed of slabs 15 cm to 60 cm in length, which are only around 1 cm in thickness. These slabs are flush with the ground surface or slightly project above it. There are also three east-west running double-course slab-wall fragments bordering and inside the pillar concourse. The parallel courses of slabs are spaced 20 cm to 30 apart. These three double-course walls are highly fragmentary and their original configuration and lengths could not be determined. The most intact of these wall fragments (3.3 m long) is found on the north side of the pillar array. The double-course wall fragment bordering the south side of the pillar array is 2.9 m in length. On its west end there is a connecting double-course wall 90 cm in length that runs perpendicular. Little pieces of milky quartz in small amounts are scattered around the array of pillars. These stones must have been used in the ornamentation of the site.

There is an isolated small group of pillars situated 8.5 m south of the temple tomb. These pillars are up to 65 cm in height. They are planted in the ground with no discernable pattern. A square slab-wall structure (1 m by 1 m) is found 5.2 m east of the main pillar array. It is composed of pairs of slabs (50 cm to 1 m in length) arranged side by side, which were inserted into the ground edgewise. These slabs project as much as 30 cm above the ground surface. I have theorized that such structures may represent sikhung, one of the apotropaic ritual structures of the Tibetan archaic funerary tradition.184

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (2 m by 2.6 m) is situated 16 m north of the appended edifice. This fragmentary structure probably had double-course perimeter walls. These walls are composed of variable-length (up to 60 cm long) stones that are flush with the ground surface or which project above it as much as 20 cm.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 24 m west of the appended edifice. The walls of this enclosure are aligned in the cardinal directions, and measure 8 m (north-south) by 6.8 m (east-west). Small segments of the double-course perimeter walls (40 cm thick) are intact.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 11.8 m south of FS2. It consists of a lone pillar (60 cm high) probably erected on the perimeter wall of another enclosure. There appear to be other funerary structures in the proximity of FS3, but there is not enough structural detritus visible to know for certain. The disintegration of FS3 and sister structures was largely caused by water-borne damage to the site (marked by gullies and depositions). The construction of a tent site (nangra) and a corral (lhera) in the vicinity may also have impacted FS3.

Slab-wall network (Site 2)

Slab walls

Site 2 is situated roughly 400 m west of the array of pillars (4510 m). It consists of three unusually designed slab walls, which run east-west (parallel to the axis of the sandy slope) at the base of the KyiserSkyid gser ridge. The south wall (9 m long) consists of parallel courses of slabs set about 1 m apart. This incomplete wall is partitioned in eight spots by single slabs placed at right angles, creating eight discrete box-like structures. The brown sandstone slabs used in construction are up to 95 cm in length and were embedded in the ground edgewise. These slabs are level with the ground surface or are elevated as much as 20 cm above it. The fragmentary middle wall (6.1 m long) and north wall (1.4 m long) are designed and built in the same fashion as the south wall. These three walls span an 8.6 m transverse section of the slope. A similarly constructed wall (7 m long) that runs north-south (perpendicular to the axis of the slope) is situated 2 m south of the south wall. All the walls of Site 2 are likely to have had a funerary ritual rather than a burial function.

Funerary Structure FS4

A funerary structure is situated 14 m west/uphill of FS3. This structure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 3.6 m (east-west) by 5 m (north-south). The forward side of this well-built structure is elevated about 1 m above the slope, while the rear side is flush with the slope. There are small intact double-course masonry fragments along the sides and rear of the structure. They are composed of as many as three vertical courses of blocks and slabs laid flat. The structural evidence remaining suggests that FS4 had a significant superstructure.

Isolated pillar (Site 3)

Pillar

Site 3, which is dominated by a lone pillar, begins 33 m southwest of Site 2 (56.835 / 11. 869΄ / 4500 m). Site 3 occupies a similar aspect to Site 2: a slightly inclined flat at the edge of the slope. The sandy terrain is strewn with pieces of sandstone. The highly worn four-sided sandstone pillar is 1.4 m in height and has a basal girth of 1 m. It is heavily tilted in an east/downhill direction. Some stones have been stacked up around the base of the pillar.

Walled terraces

A walled terrace, measuring 21 m (north-south) by 7 m (east-west), is located 6 m upslope of the pillar. This terrace is subdivided into three sections by partition walls. The perimeter of this lower terrace is of the heaped-stone wall type. Immediately above it there is another walled terrace, which measures 16 m (north-south) by 5.5 m (east-west). It also appears to have been divided by two partitions walls into three units. Portions of the walled upper terrace are composed of upright slabs. These two terraces as an integral part of Site 3 appear to have had a funerary function.

Pillars erected inside an enclosure (Site 4)

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 6.5 m (north-south) by 9.5 m (east-west) (56.738΄ / 11.885΄ 4510 m). It occupies the same type of aspect as Site 2 and Site 3, and is situated 15 m above the edge of the plain. Parts of the east and south walls of the enclosure have been engulfed by drama brush and the mounds of sand that form around it. The double-course perimeter walls in most places are around 70 cm in thickness. They exhibit all three major types of stonework found in this typology: stones laid flat of one vertical course, stones laid flat in multiple vertical courses, and upright stones embedded into the ground. The north wall is composed of slabs of as many as four vertical courses of masonry. The north wall is elevated 30 cm above the adjoining terrain. The double-course south wall is flush with the ground surface and appears to consist of only one layer of flat slabs. The west wall and south portion of the east wall are composed of double-course upright slabs. These slabs project as much as 20 cm above the surface. Mostly larger stones (40 cm to 90 cm long) went into the construction of the enclosure.

Pillars

There are three pillars erected inside the enclosure. The main pillar (Long-stone DR1) is well centered between the south and north walls, and is situated 80 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. The four-sided main pillar is 1.3 m in height and has a basal girth of 1.2 m. Long-stone DR2, an irregularly shaped pillar (60 cm by 1 m), is situated 40 cm east of the main pillar. Long-stone DR3 is also irregularly shaped (80 cm by 95 cm), and is situated 1.8 m north of DR1. What appear to be the remains of a square funerary superstructure are located 40 m north of the walled pillars at the same elevation.

Satellite funerary structures (Site 5)

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (13.7 m by 6 m) is situated in the plain at the edge of the KyiserSkyid gser ridge (56.761΄ / 11.927΄ / 4490 m). This poorly preserved incomplete enclosure is bereft of coherent walls.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 is situated 3 m northwest of FS5. This smaller specimen is even more fragmentary than FS5.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 is located on a level area along the base of the slope (56.660 / 11.851 / 4510). It consists of an east-west double-course wall (runs parallel to the axis of the slope) 6.7 m in length. At its high end there are traces of other double-course wall fragments, which run perpendicular to the axis of the slope. The alignments and construction of these walls are unusual.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (2 m by 1.4 m) appears to be a small funerary structure. The stones forming the superstructure do not seem to have been laid out in an orderly manner. A gully now cuts into FS8, imperiling its long-term survival.

Satellite funerary structures (Site 6)

Site 6 is a cluster of at least three funerary structures built on sandy ground near the north edge of the KyiserSkyid gser ridge (57.198΄ / 11.722΄ / 4510 m). They were established in a small sandy hollow, bisected by a gully. They include a complete enclosure (1.3 m by 60 cm) composed of stones flush with the ground surface or rising above it slightly. There is also a partial enclosure measuring 2.8 m across. Finally, there is an enclosure (3.5 m by 3.5 m) that appears to have both single-course and double-course perimeter walls. The stones in the perimeter walls of this latter specimen are level with the ground surface or project above it to a height of 20 cm.

Chunak Doring (Chu nag rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring is located on the right side of the ChunakChu nag valley upstream of KhardongMkhar gdong/Khyunglung Ngül KharKhyung lung dngul mkhar (A-45) and GurgyamGur gyam (B-112). The site occupies a flat that is elevated a few meters above the ChunakChu nag flood plain. The terrain is gravelly and dotted with grass and drama scrub. The sheer size of Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring makes it one of the most important funerary sites in Upper Tibet. In total, Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring covers approximately 20,000 m², making it the largest ceremonial site surveyed to date. It consists of walled pillars, a large tumulus, and several large and smaller groupings of enclosures. Altogether, there are no less than 330 double-course enclosures at ChunakChu nag. All of these cobble structures appear to be part of an integrated funerary complex. This necropolis may be functionally connected to Khyunglung Ngül KharKhyung lung dngul mkhar as complimentary components (residential and burial) of this area’s monumental infrastructure. These two sites are in eyeshot of one another. The presence of so large a funerary complex as ChunakChu nag seems to enhance the importance of KhardongMkhar gdong, in keeping with the legendary status accorded Khyunglung Ngül KharKhyung lung dngul mkhar in Tibetan literature.185

Oral tradition

According to the monks of GurgyamGur gyam monastery, Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring contains the ruins of an ancient MönMon settlement.

Site elements

Pillar enclosure

The large enclosure is situated just above the right bank of the ChunakChu nag flood plain (31° 09.808΄ N. lat. / 80° 39.087΄ E. long.). It is generally aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 19 m by 19 m. This elaborately built square enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. The enclosure, located near the western extremity of the enclosed pillar typology territorial range, represents a unique variant of the monument. It is bisected into two sections by an east-west running wall. The north section is 12.5 m in width and the south section is 6.5 m wide. The north section is further subdivided by a north-south aligned wall (7.6 m long) that joins the central bisecting wall and an east-west aligned wall (6 m long) that joins the east perimeter wall to form an inner enclosure. The double-course and multiple-course cobble perimeter and subdividing walls (50 cm to 80 cm thick) are composed of different colored (tan, red, gray, and beige) variable-length cobbles (10 cm to 35 cm long). The coherent wall sections are mostly level with the ground surface. There are also disintegrated portions of the perimeter walls composed of stones, which are piled up to a maximum height of 50 cm. These elevated wall sections may have been composed of several vertical courses of cobbles.

Pillars

In the north section of the enclosure there is a single highly weathered pillar (Long-stone DR1), which is centered between the north and south walls. This four-sided grayish pillar (1.3 m [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]) stands next to the inner edge of the west wall. In the south section of the enclosure there is a not well centered highly weathered tan tabular pillar (1.2 m by 1 m) (Long-stone DR2). It was erected next to the inner edge of the west wall. There are two smaller gray pillars (Long-stones DR3, DR4) 60 cm in height, which were planted against the inner edge of the south wall, near the west end of the enclosure. There are also three broken pillars (Long-stones DR5, DR6, DR7) that were erected within the cobble courses of the south wall. Another broken pillar (Long-stone DR8) was raised inside the south wall near the east end of the enclosure. It appears that yet another small specimen was erected within the courses of the central bisecting wall of the enclosure. The erection of standing stones inside the wall courses is a highly unusual morphological feature of the ChunakChu nag site. By virtue of their presence among scores of superficial enclosures, the walled pillars must have fulfilled an extremely important funerary ritual role at ChunakChu nag. The location of the walled pillars at the eastern extremity of the site is also liable to have significant ritual and cognitive undertones.

Tumulus

Approximately 50 m west of the walled pillars there is large quadrate tumulus (bangso) (09.796΄ / 39.008΄). This tumulus is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 17.8 m (north-south) by 15 m (east-west). This flat-topped structure varies between 2 m and 3 m in height. The surface of the mound is covered in loose cobbles; whatever coherent walls there were have completely disintegrated. On the top of the tumulus there are three cobble-filled depressions up to 1 m in depth. They appear to be the result of excavations carried out long ago. The looting of the contents is likely to be the only motive for such excavations in pre-modern times.

On the east side of the tumulus, at its base, there is a large interconnected rectangular enclosure that measures 22 m (north-south) by 8 m (east-west). It is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding plain. This enclosure is comprised of walls such as are found in other enclosures of ChunakChu nag. The appended enclosure appears to have been subdivided into three east-west sections: south (6 m wide north-south), central (8.5 m wide) and north 6.5 m (wide). The occurrence of enclosures at the base of a large bangso is also met with at Darlung GyangroDar lung gyang ro (D-88). These two tumuli more or less circumscribe the eastern and western margins of the core Upper Tibetan paleocultural entity; that region in which walled pillars (II.1b) and pillar arrays appended to edifices (II.1c) are distributed. The tumulus of ChunakChu nag appears to have been a central monumental feature of the site. In sites where there is a large bangso it often is found amid smaller and more superficial funerary structures. These large bangso are probably the burial sites of very high status individuals and/or where collective mortuary rites took place. In any case, it would appear that they constituted the ritual and monumental heart of many necropoli.

Clusters of enclosures

The superficial enclosures are mainly square and rectangular in form but there are also some sub-rectangular examples among them. They range between 3 m by 5 m to 15 m by 16 m in size. The perimeter walls (50 cm to 1 m thick) are composed of different colored (tan, red, gray, and beige) cobbles, which are between 10 cm and 35 cm in length. Many of the extant walls are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. The cobble perimeter walls are double-course or multiple-course in make-up. These walls are typically flush with the ground surface. There are also what appear to be heaped-stone walls 20 cm to 50 in height. In a few enclosures, these elevated wall sections reach 1 m in height. Rather than an inherent design feature, this piling of stones is probably due to the disintegration of neatly built walls, which were more than 1 vertical course in height. In all but a few cases, the area inside the perimeter walls of each enclosure is free of structural elements. There are also a few outlying structures of smaller proportions that are fully covered in stones embedded in the ground surface. The enclosures are interconnected to form clusters or networks of structures. The design and construction of these enclosures most resembles those of Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po (D-41), a site not too far away from ChunakChu nag. Many of the walls of the enclosures have been destroyed and many have depressions inside. These depressions are probably the result of excavations carried out long ago and possibly due to subsidence as well.

Main cluster of enclosures

The main cluster of enclosures begins 24 m west of the large tumulus. This long swath of interconnected enclosures has two obvious breaks, creating three different sectors. Small amounts of white quartz are scattered around the main cluster of enclosures. These pieces of stones may have embellished the structures but in what form is unknown.

The north sector (63 m by 23 m) has a north-south axis. It contains around 30 enclosures, measuring between 2 m by 5 m and 7 m by 10 m. The north end of the north sector is at 09.963΄ / 38.931΄.

The central sector of enclosures begins 40 m south of the north sector. It measures 380 m by 40 m to 60 m and covers some 13,000 m². The central sector contains about 200 enclosures ranging in size up to 16 m by 15 m. In a few places there are small gaps between the groups of enclosures. The northern half of the central sector has a north-south axis, but further south the axis bends to the east. At the northwest corner of the central sector, a large enclosure (16 m by 15 m) contains a smaller enclosure (6 m by 7 m) inside its perimeter walls.

There is a gap of 8 m between the central and south sectors. The south sector measures 88 m by 25 m and terminates near the ChunakChu nag stream (09.669΄ / 39.035΄). This cluster has an east-west axis. The south sector contains perhaps 25 enclosures. In proximity to the south sector there are approximately 15 smaller enclosures aggregated in little groupings. Beginning about 200 m west of the south sector there is another cluster containing about 23 enclosures distributed over a fairly large area.

Upper cluster of enclosures

To the west of the flat in which the main cluster of enclosures is located there is a bench about 30 m higher in elevation. On this bench is the upper cluster of enclosures (09.938΄ / 38.708΄). The principal upper cluster measures 67 m (north-south) by 30 m (east-west), and contains about 20 enclosures of the kind found elsewhere at ChunakChu nag. Many of the perimeter walls have been destroyed and depressions, up to 1.5 m in depth, pockmark the interiors of quite a few enclosures. These depressions are likely to be the remains of excavations carried out long ago (drama grows on some of the depressions). A cluster of around ten enclosures is located 27 m south of the principal upper cluster. This smaller site was very heavily disturbed in the past.

On the southern tip of the bench there are three more enclosures, which have been partially destroyed by the failure of the slope. On the flat, between the main cluster and upper cluster, there are at least four more enclosures of the type found all over ChunakChu nag.

Rinchen Chundé Doring (Rin chen chu ’ded rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Rinchen Chundé Doring
English equivalent: Jewel Water Runoff Long-stones
Site number: C-122
Site typology: II.1b
Elevation: 4670 m
Administrative location (township): Barga
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: October 25, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A fragment of an inscribed plaque.
Maps: UTRS V, UTRS X, HAS C3
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General site characteristics

Rinchen Chundé DoringRin chen chu ’ded rdo ring is located not far from the south side of a pass known as Chumik Sharlé LaChu mig shar la’i la. The site is set in the middle of a plain and has long views in all directions. The tip of the holy mountain, Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, is visible 50 km to the northeast. A cross-section of the Uttaranchal Himalaya can be seen in the southwest. The terrain is level, sandy and turf-covered. Rinchen Chundé DoringRin chen chu ’ded rdo ring consists of a typical example of pillars erected inside an enclosure.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Rinchen Chundé DoringRin chen chu ’ded rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9.4 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). Although parts of all four walls are discernable, they are in a state of advanced disintegration. These walls are composed of variable-length (10 cm to 40 cm long) blocky pieces of gray limestone and a harder brown rock. The ground on the east end of the enclosure is uneven. On the west end of the enclosure there is a rise of about 1 m, which can probably be attributed to localized geomorphologic changes. The north side of the enclosure is partly overgrown with drama brush.

Pillars

Close to what was the west wall of the enclosure there is a white tabular pillar (1.2 m [height] by 1.2 m [basal girth]). The two broad sides of the standing stone are oriented north and south. This highly worn menhir (Long-stone DR1) is discolored in places. The pillar is not well centered in the enclosure; it was at least one of two main pillars near the west wall. The other main pillar is dislodged and lies just outside the enclosure. It is a well-formed four-sided white specimen (1.2 m long by 70 cm girth). Along the west wall, near the north side of the enclosure, there are also two small broken dark-colored pillars. They now stand 20 cm in height. Beside DR1 there is a broken inscribed mani plaque.

A small wall fragment of what appears to be a vestige of a funerary enclosure is situated 2 m east of the pillar enclosure.

Tara Doring (Rta ra rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tara DoringRta ra rdo ring is located in a remote part of the region traditionally known as ZhungsaGzhung sa. The views to the east are especially panoramic. They extend all the way to Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, located 65 km to the northeast. A nearby ridge blocks the views to the west. The terrain is level, gravel-strewn and heavily overgrown with drama scrub. The site is dominated by a single tall and slim pillar.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Tara DoringRta ra rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

Only the southeast corner of the enclosure has persisted. The south wall portion of this corner is 4 m in length and the east portion is 2.5 m long. These double-course wall segments (55 cm thick) are composed of variable-length blocky chunks of light-colored limestone. These stones are both flush with the ground surface and slightly elevated above it. The remaining walls of the enclosure have been destroyed or engulfed by drama brush.

Pillar

The lone limestone pillar has a graceful but irregular form. It is 2 m in height and has a basal girth of 85 cm. The broken 13 cm long tip lies on the ground beside the pillar. The highly worn and furrowed pillar was made of a gray stone, which has weathered to a beige and rust color.

Affiliated sites

ChakraLcags ra

On top of a small hill known as ChakraLcags ra (Walled Zone) there is an old mani plaque array, which is supported by pre-existing walls of significant size (30° 43.031΄ N. lat. / 80° 44.890΄ E. long. / 4620 m). It is not clear what type of structures originally stood at ChakraLcags ra. The remains are up to 2 m in height and much more massive than those typically associated with mani walls. Perhaps the dry-stone random-rubble walls are those of revetments, which once supported residential superstructures. The ancient identity of the site is confirmed in the oral tradition of ZhungsaGzhung sa.

Sharma Doring (Shar ma rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring is located in the middle reaches of the SharmaShar ma valley. The narrow SharmaShar ma valley is sandwiched between the mountains Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po to the west and Takri TrawoStag ri khra bo to the east.186 The only open view from the site is down valley, or to the south. It is unusual for enclosed pillar monuments to have such a circumscribed eastern vista. The site is situated in the middle of the valley on level gravelly and grassy terrain. Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring is an example of the extreme western Tibet variant of the walled pillars typology, which is marked by east and west walls that are longer than the north and south walls. There is also an isolated pillar and 15 funerary structures at Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring emerged with the beginning of existence. The site is considered potentially harmful (ka nyenpo). The rocks used as pillars are believed to have been transported from Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po (see E-27).

Site elements

Enclosure

The walls of the enclosure are roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. The enclosure approximately measures 18 m (north-south) by 8 m (east-west). There are no distinguishable signs of its west wall. On the west side of the enclosure, a small trough has formed. Near the northeast corner of the enclosure, a 3.4 m long segment of the north wall is still intact. The incomplete east wall measures 16.3 m, illustrating that this was quite a large enclosure. Near the southeast corner of the enclosure, a 5.2 m long segment of the south wall has also survived. These perimeter walls are around 80 cm thick and composed of double courses or multiple courses (two to four stones laid abreast of one another). The tan, beige and gray blocky stones (15 cm to 40 cm long) were laid flat and are level with, or somewhat raised above, the ground surface. Inside the enclosure near its north end, there are two slab-wall fragments. These two walls run in an east-west direction and are spaced 80 cm apart. The north slab wall is 2.3 m long and the south slab wall is 3.4 long. These double-course slab walls are composed of stones (10 cm to 25 cm long) set into the ground edgewise. The parallel courses of each wall are spaced around 15 cm apart.

Pillars

Across the breadth of the west side of the enclosure there are 22 pillars, all but three of which have collapsed. The three in situ specimens are inclined at severe angles. The fallen pillars are four-sided and irregularly shaped and between 1.5 m and 2.8 m in length. Some of the dislodged pillars are partially submerged, suggesting that they naturally collapsed in place through the agency of gravity and subsurface instability. All but two of the pillars (one of which is still standing: Long-stone DR2) are made of a tan stone (quartzitic sandstone?). The other two in situ specimens are made of a gray metamorphic rock. Another dislodged pillar is found in funerary structure FS15, situated approximately 40 m away. Its original position is unknown. Two of the in situ pillars stand in the middle of the west side of the enclosure. Long-stone DR1 has four irregular sides (1.3 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). DR2 is an irregularly shaped (90 cm by 90 cm) pillar. The third standing stone (Long-stone DR3) is found near the north side of the enclosure. DR3 has four irregular sides (1.6 m by 1.2 m).

An isolated standing pillar (Long-stone DR4) is situated 95 m east of the walled pillars. DR4 is a gray tabular pillar (70 cm by 90 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Northeast or up valley of the walled pillars there are 15 funerary structures, most or all of which are of the double-course enclosure type. These substantial structures are heavily damaged, limiting the amount of design and construction data that could be gleaned. For the most part, the quadrate and possibly sub-rectangular enclosures appear to have been well built with neatly ordered walls. With perhaps a couple exceptions, the enclosures were not aligned in the cardinal directions. As with analogous structures throughout Upper Tibet, these enclosures must have been the tomb superstructures and/or funerary ritual venues of an elite component of ancient society. The exclusivist aura of the Sharma DoringShar ma rdo ring enclosures is enhanced by the fact that archaic residential ruins have not been discovered in the area.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (17.5 m by 5.8 m) is situated in the valley bottom. It is not aligned in the cardinal directions; rather its two long walls are aligned with the axis of the SharmaShar ma valley. FS1 is elevated 70 cm to 1 m above the surrounding terrain. It was subdivided by a wall into two roughly equal cells. Small fragments of the double-course perimeter walls (50 cm thick) have survived. They are generally composed of blocky stones, 15 cm to 40 cm in length.

Funerary Structures FS2 to FS15

The remaining funerary structures of SharmaShar ma also appear to have had well built double-course walls. These structures are generally level with the ground surface or slightly elevated above it. Variable-length blocky stones, to 50 cm in length, were used to construct the perimeter walls. In some places the stones of the walls protrude as much as 20 cm to 30 cm above ground level.

Funerary structure FS2 (5.6 m by 10 m) is situated 7 m northwest of FS1 in the valley bottom. It was probably divided into two cells.
Funerary structure FS3 (17 m by 10 m) is situated 13 m southwest of FS2 in the valley bottom. A few small coherent perimeter wall (65 cm thick) fragments have survived.
Funerary structures FS4, FS5, FS6 and FS7 are located near the base of the mountain Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po. These four highly deteriorated specimens are medium (around 70 m²) to large (around 120 m²) in size. They may have been subdivided by walls into smaller cells.
Funerary structure FS4 is situated 40 m northwest of FS3. It is overgrown with drama brush.
Funerary structure FS5 is situated 15 m northeast of FS4.
Funerary structure FS6 is situated 11 m north of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 (10.5 m by 12.5 m) is situated 13 m northeast of FS6.
Funerary structures FS8, FS9, FS10 are situated in the valley bottom.
Funerary structure FS8 (12 m by 12 m) is situated 41 m northeast of FS1.
Funerary structure FS9 (8.2 m by 10.2 m) is situated 10 m south of FS8. Parts of all four walls (70 cm to 80 cm thick) of this enclosure have survived. The walls of FS9 are not aligned in the cardinal directions.
Funerary structure FS10 (21 m by 16 m) is situated 7 m east of FS9. It appears to have been divided into four parts by walls that are aligned with the axis of the valley. Some coherent wall fragments, 60 cm to 80 cm, in thickness are still in place.
Funerary structures FS11, FS12, FS13, and FS14 are in the vicinity of FS1 and the walled pillars.
Funerary structure FS11 (5.4 m by 9 m) is situated 15 m east of FS1. Its two cells combine to give the enclosure an L-shaped form.
Funerary structure FS12 (3.2 m by 2.5 m) is situated in close proximity to FS11. This much less substantial structure appears to have single-course perimeter walls.
Funerary structure FS13 (2.6 m by 2.9 m) is situated 11.5 m east of FS1. The faint remains of the double-course perimeter walls of this small enclosure are around 70 cm thick.
Funerary structure FS14 (3 m across) is situated 14 m west of the walled pillars.
Funerary structure FS15 (8 m by 4 m) is situated 20 m west of FS14.

Mönbu Doring (Mon bu rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is located near the foot of MönbuMon bu; the mountain that is the territorial deity (yüllhaYul lha) of DungkarDung dkar village (situated 11 km to the west). MönbuMon bu, an outlier of the Ayi LaA yi la range, is distinguished from neighboring peaks by the rocky knob on its summit. The MönbuMon bu mountain is referred to as an ancestor (mé) by the residents of DungkarDung dkar, probably indicating a genealogical link with the ancient MönMon tribe. Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is situated in the narrow valley that skirts the east side of Mount MönbuMon bu. The slim, dark blue-gray stele stands on fairly level drama-studded ground. This pillar of three irregular faces stands 2.5 m and has a basal girth of 1 m. mani mantras have been carved on two sides of the pillar. Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is also draped in white offering scarves (khatak) and has been amply smeared with butter. A pile of stones, 1 m in height, has been erected around the base of the pillar. On this pile of stones there is a blue sheep horn (the horns of wild ungulates are often used as ritual offerings on cairns). In close proximity to Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is a ruined complex of all-stone corbelled edifices (B-125).

Oral tradition

According to residents of DungkarDung dkar, Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring is an ancient pillar. It plays a role in rituals for the propitiation of Mount MönbuMon bu. The survival of this cult pillar can at least partially be attributed to the remote location of the site, which is far removed from the Buddhist monastic centers of GugéGu ge. On the third day of the third lunar month, a member of each of DungkarDung dkar village’s 15 households comes to Mönbu DoringMon bu rdo ring for a propitiation and bestowment ritual (lhasöl). At this time, new prayer flags are erected on a mast found located on a nearby hilltop and incense is burnt. The pillar is ornamented as well. A feast for the participants is also held at the site during the lhasöl.

Dralung Doring (Gra lung rdo ring)

General site characteristics

The single pillar of Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring is located on the northern edge of the DelepSde lebs basin. The views to the north and west are constrained by ridges, while the views to the south and east are open. The famous holy mountain Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se is visible 40 km to the northeast. There is a small cliff immediately to the west of the pillar. The turf and gravel covered terrain is moderately sloping.

Oral tradition

Local sources report that Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

The highly worn gray pillar has weathered to assume a brown color in places. The four uneven sides of Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring are roughly oriented in the cardinal directions. It is 2.3 m high and has a basal girth of 1 m. It is now inclined in an uphill direction. The zone up to 4 m south of Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring is strewn with stones, in contrast to the adjoining areas which are free of stones. Perhaps the pillar was once enclosed by walls but, if so, there are virtually no traces left. Near Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring, a few stones are embedded in the ground, however, no order can be discerned in their placement. Another single, tall and slim pillar in the region was indeed erected inside an enclosure (see C-123).

In the vicinity of Dralung MöndurGra lung mon dur there is a small and a larger wall with old inscribed plaques. These two walls were restored after being used in the Chinese Cultural Revolution to form parts of the walls of corrals. On top of the cliff behind Dralung MöndurGra lung mon dur there is a ruined all-stone chöten of significant age. It has a small bumpa reminiscent of early examples of the monument (pre-13th century CE). Old plaques inscribed with the mani mantra are scattered on and around the chöten. Perhaps these mani walls and the chöten were originally erected to subdue what were construed as negative influences emanating from Dralung DoringGra lung rdo ring.

Affiliated sites

Gyamdrak PukGyam brag phug

A cave called Gyamdrak PukGyam brag phug (26 m deep) has a clockwise swastika, conjoined sun and moon (nyida) and a Tibetan letter a scrawled on the ceiling in red ochre (30° 56.4΄ N. lat. / 81° 00.2΄ / 4620 m). Although this cave may have constituted an important ancient shelter in the region, no structural vestiges of the archaic cultural horizon were discovered at Gyamdrak PukGyam brag phug.

Dowa Sumpa (Rdo ba gsum pa)

General site characteristics

Dowa SumpaRdo ba gsum pa is located near the border of the village amalgamations of TridéKhri sde and ZhidéZhi bde. This uninhabited area is known as Burtsé Dok’Bur rtse dog (Hill Peak Earth). The three standing pillars of Dowa SumpaRdo ba gsum pa are found on a shelf that rises above the right bank of the Maja TsangpoRma bya gtsang po. The pillars are firmly planted, not far from the foot of the ridgeline that encloses the west side of the Purang MéSpu rang smad valley. The views from the site are quite open in all directions. The terrain slopes gently down towards the river and is covered in cobbles, which is consistent with the aftermath of a flood event. If there ever was an enclosure around the pillars, it was destroyed by such flooding. The three pillars form an uneven north-south row and are nearly equidistant to one another. All three pillars are made of a soft gray calcareous stone. The pillars are covered in a red encrustation, the result of geochemical processes.187

Oral tradition

Local villagers consider Dowa Sumpa to be an ancient monument. According to a local myth, the three standing pillars are the sons of the prostrate pillar, their mother. They are said to have sprung up after her death.

Site elements

From north to south, the three pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (1.4 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: four-sided (1 m by 1.1 m). DR2 is situated 3.2 m south of DR1.
Long-stone DR3: tabular, its broad sides face east and west (1.3 m by 1.3 m). DR3 is situated 3.5 m south of DR2. Next to DR3 there is a collapsed specimen 1.6 m in length (a portion of this pillar is submerged in the ground so it could be somewhat longer than the figure provided here).

Pelmo Takpur (Dpal mo ’thag phur)

General site characteristics

Pelmo TakpurDpal mo ’thag phur is located on the left side of the mouth of the Tsermo RongMtsher mo rong gorge. The site enjoys broad views to the east towards Tso DepelMtsho sdad spal and has a sweeping panorama of the MukkarSmug dkar range to the south. The views north and west are cut by the mountain ranges hugging these flanks of the site. The terrain is slightly elevated, sloping and covered in grass and gravel. The location of Pelmo TakpurDpal mo ’thag phur is noteworthy in that it appears to form the northeast territorial bounds of the type II.1b monuments. In addition to walled pillars there are four outlying funerary structures at Pelmo TakpurDpal mo ’thag phur.

Oral tradition

According to local mythology, the epic goddess A Tak LumoA stag klu mo/A Tak PelmoA stag dpal mo used the standing stones of Pelmo TakpurDpal mo ’thag phur as the stakes for securing her backstrap loom (takma).

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 12.2 m (east-west) by 7.9 m (north-south). Its four double-course walls (60 cm to 85 cm thick) are largely intact. The enclosure is primarily made up of variable-length (20 cm to 50 cm long) unshaped chunks of blue limestone; however, red sandstone, a beige rock, and a gray rock were also used. Most of these stones were laid flat. The north and south walls of the enclosure are mostly level with the ground surface. The east wall is elevated about 20 cm above ground level and now buckles outwards. In the middle of the east wall there is a gap, which appears to have been caused by damage to the structure. Near the north end of the east wall two or three vertical courses of masonry are exposed. The east side of the north wall terminates in a slab, 60 cm long, which was planted in the ground edgewise. The west wall is elevated about 30 cm above the interior of the enclosure. The elevated east side and sunken west side of the enclosure serve to create a level interior space. There are pieces of milky quartz scattered about the site; these must have functioned as offerings or as a decorative element. There are quite a few stones scattered around the enclosure and the adjoining areas; some of these may have been part of the structure. This disjecta membra suggests that the walls of the enclosure were much better developed than they appear today.

Pillars

There are eight firmly planted unbroken pillars that stand 70 cm to 90 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. They are made of an uncut hard fine-grained gray stone that has uniformly weathered to a reddish brown color (except for Long-stone DR7, which has weathered to a beige color). The line of pillars almost stretches across the full north-south extent of the enclosure. From south to north, the pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (60 cm [height] by 50 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular (75 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped, inclined (80 cm by 1.2 m).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped, inclined (1 m by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR5: tabular (65 cm by 70 cm).
Long-stone DR6: three sided (75 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR7: irregularly shaped (80 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR8: tabular (85 cm by 75 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 21.8 m northwest of the walled pillars. Only three walls of this open limestone enclosure are extant: west wall (6.4 m long), north wall (4.5 m long) and the south wall (3.5 m long). There are traces of the double-course composition of these walls. The walls are made of smaller stones (10 cm to 25 cm long) that were laid flat on the ground.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.5 m by around 1.5 m) is situated on a small rise 8.4 m north of FS1. This rectangular structure is primarily made of limestone chunks (up to 70 cm long), which are level with the ground surface or which project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. There are many stones scattered around FS2, giving the appearance that it may have had a solid masonry shell.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (4 m by 1.4 m maximum) is situated 24.4 m northeast of FS2. This specimen is in very poor condition. It appears to be of the same design and construction as FS2.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.8 m by 3.7 m) is a highly fragmentary enclosure.

Gyachung Möndora (Rgya chung mon rdo ra)

General site characteristics

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra is located in the GyachungRgya chung valley, a northeastern effluent of the Jakar TsangpoJa dkar gtsang po. The site is divided into parts: Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra West/Lower (walled pillars) and Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East/Upper (a funerary enclosure). These two parts of the site are separated by a distance of approximately 2 km.

Oral tradition

According to a local resident, Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East is an ancient MönMon tomb and Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra West is also a monument constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra West

Enclosing structure

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra West is found on the open west flank of the GyachungRgya chung valley, at the foot of a rocky conical hill known as NyingriSnying ri (Heart Mountain) (31° 28.904΄ N. lat. / 89° 20.570΄ E. long. / 4700 m). This site has particularly open views to the east and south, but it is somewhat closed in the north, and totally blocked in the west by NyingriSnying ri. This platform-like structure has indistinctly designed walls and no sign of there ever having been ordered segments. It is comprised of a dense covering of stones that are embedded in the ground, giving this structure the appearance of an amorphous dispersion rather than a pen, per se. This structure has a definite rectangular shape, but it is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 5 m (east-west) by 3.9 m (north-south), and is constructed of a variable-length (10 cm to 50 cm long) light-colored igneous rocks. It appears that these stones were quarried from nearby NyingriSnying ri. The stones are flush with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 30 cm.

The lack of formally designed walls may be a design trait related to the site’s position at the eastern extremity of the territorial distribution of walled pillar (II.1b) monuments. Enclosing walls with no set order or arrangement also seem to occur at NgoringSngo ring (C-37), another site situated near the eastern fringe of the sui generis walled pillars. Both of these sites are probably best seen as geographically transitional monuments, which embody characteristics of the isolated pillars of the far eastern JangtangByang thang and the walled pillars of the core region of Upper Tibet.

Pillars

Inside the enclosure stand two highly weathered pillars made of the same type of rock as the enclosure. These pillars are coated in a brown desert varnish and orange climax lichen grows on them. The two pillars are planted around 50 cm from the western edge of the enclosing stones. They are spaced 1 m apart. The north pillar has four irregular sides (75 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]). The south pillar is tabular (65 cm by 85 cm). Some stones are piled up around the base of the pillars.

A depression covered in stones (roughly 3 m²) is situated 25 m east of the pillars. This could possibly represent the remains of a funerary superstructure.

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East

Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East is a sub-rectangular funerary enclosure situated in the GyachungRgya chung valley bottom (27.373΄ / 21.032΄ / 4740 m). It is found in the middle of a gravelly flat. This structure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 16.8 m (north-south) by 12.6 m (east-west). Much of the east perimeter wall is missing. The southwest corner of the enclosure consists of stones stacked to around 30 cm in height. Other wall sections are superficial in nature. These walls have no set design or arrangement. They are composed of a variety of variable-length (up to 50 cm long) rocks (igneous and metamorphic) of different colors. The superficial portions of the walls are made up of stones, which are either level with the ground surface or which protrude above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. The highly eroded Gyachung MöndoraRgya chung mon rdo ra East enclosure is subdivided by a swath of stones into two cells.

Gyachen Möndora (Rgya chen mon rdo ra)

General site characteristics

Gyachen MöndoraRgya chen mon rdo ra is located in the fairly narrow GyachenRgya chen valley. The site is situated on the well-drained west flank of the valley between the marshy bottomland and a granite ridge known as GyariRgya ri. The moderately sloping terrain is alternately rocky or covered in turf. The site consists of more than four funerary enclosures and a walled pillar (now collapsed). As the funerary structures of Gyachen MöndoraRgya chen mon rdo ra are distributed over a wide area, some specimens were overlooked in the time allotted to the survey of the site.

Oral tradition

According to a local sources, Mönpé DoringMon pa’i rdo ring of the Gyachen MöndoraRgya chen mon rdo ra site was erected in ancient times to commemorate the death of an old MönMon chieftain (pönpo). The other structures of the site are also associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Mönpé DoringMon pa’i rdo ring

Mönpé DoringMon pa’i rdo ring (Funerary structure FS3) is situated on a gently sloping rock-strewn slope and enjoys wide views to the east (28.372΄ / 23.882΄ 4720 m). This monument is either identical with or closely related to the walled pillars (II.1b) common farther west in Upper Tibet. The quadrate enclosure is fairly well aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 10 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). The enclosure is highly deteriorated and most of the stones used to build it are now dislodged. The only intact double-course perimeter wall fragments are found in the north wall (70 cm thick) and east wall (80 cm thick). It could not be determined if the entire perimeter was built in a similar regimented fashion. The perimeter walls are composed of variable-length uncut metamorphic blocks and slabs (10 cm to 50 cm long), which are flush with the ground level or which project above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. The west wall is slightly depressed and the east wall is somewhat elevated in order to create a level interior space. In the east wall there is a stone 75 cm in length set perpendicular to the wall course. This stone may have been one side of an opening or “portal” in the wall (as is found is certain other examples of the typology). In the middle of the enclosure there is an arched single line of stones (3 m long) embedded in the ground.

On the west side of the enclosure there is a collapsed tabular white granite pillar. This highly eroded pillar is 2 m in length and has a girth of 1 m. It appears to have stood near the west edge of the enclosure and to have been well centered between the north and south walls. According to the local guide, Shangpa GönpoShang pa mgon po (born circa 1934), this pillar fell down before living memory.

Funerary enclosures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m by 4 m) is the most northerly funerary structure at the site. Only in the north are there long views from FS1. This open ovoid enclosure has perimeter walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick), which are flush or slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. These walls appear to be of the double-course variety but they do not now exhibit much design coherence. Metamorphic stones of various colors, 10 cm to 70 cm, in length were employed to build FS1. It is reported that there are two or three funerary enclosures located roughly 500 m to 1 km to the north. These outlying examples were not surveyed.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (8.6 m by 9 m) is situated 2 m south of FS1. FS2 has long views only in the north. This is a sub-rectangular enclosure whose walls are not aligned in the cardinal directions. The rear/west wall is set about 50 cm below the upper slope and the forward/east wall is elevated about 50 cm above the downhill slope, creating a fairly level interior space. In the south, west and east perimeter walls (70 cm to 1 m thick) there are fairly coherent double-course segments. The variable-length (10 cm to 70 cm long) multi-colored metamorphic stones of the walls are level with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. While there are no original interior structural elements, a rudimentary wind block was built on the west side of FS2.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (7 m by 6 m) is a fragmentary sub-rectangular enclosure, whose walls exhibit no prescribed order or arrangement (27.974΄ / 24.421΄ / 4700 m). The structure gently declines to the east and has an open interior. The perimeter walls are mostly level with the ground surface. They are primarily built of small pieces of a dark-colored metamorphic rock. Some larger stones (up to 50 cm long) were also used.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (13 m by 7 m) is an ovoid enclosure with wide, disordered perimeter walls (28.139΄ / 24.449΄ 4690 m). The entire structure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. It is built of unhewn variable-length (10 cm to 75 cm long) igneous and metamorphic rocks. Inside the enclosure there is an area (2 m by 2 m) with a mass of stones embedded in the ground. This structure may mark the location of a subsurface grave chamber.

Doring (Rdo ring)

General site characteristics

DoringRdo ring North is located near the mouth of the DoringRdo ring valley. It is situated on the left side of the valley on quite level sandy and gravelly bottomland. The site is not far from the ridge that encloses the west side of the valley. From it there are sweeping views to the east and quite open views to the north and south as well. DoringRdo ring North is found on the eastern edge of the walled pillars (II.1b) typology. This site, with its neighbor DoringRdo ring (South) (C-162), form the eastern border of the core region of Upper Tibet, as delineated by the distribution of its two sui generis pillar monuments. Like 40 percent of other sites of this typology, there is a visible outlying funerary enclosure at DoringRdo ring (North).

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, DoringRdo ring (North) was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

The square enclosure (17 m by 17.5 m) is aligned in the cardinal directions. This structure slightly declines in an easterly direction. Although much of the enclosure is intact, integral double-course wall segments are in evidence along just a few sections of the perimeter. Most of these wall segments are made up of one vertical course of stones laid flat on the ground. There are also wall segments composed of several vertical courses of flat stones, as well as those of upright stones embedded in the ground that protrude a maximum of 20 cm above ground level. In other words, all three types of stonework (flat stones of one vertical course, flat stones of multiple vertical courses and stones laid edgewise), which regularly occur in enclosures of this typology, are represented at DoringRdo ring (North). The enclosure is constructed of gray and beige metamorphic rocks of variable length.

In the middle section of the west wall (17 m long) there are slabs that run perpendicular (east-west) to the wall course to create a barred pattern. This type of wall has not been encountered in any other enclosure of the II.2b typology. The coherent double-course segments of the north wall (16 m long) are 90 cm thick. On the east end of the north wall there are two or three vertical courses of double-course stones laid flat, with a height of around 25 cm. The east wall (17.5 m long, 75 cm thick) has segments consisting of three or four vertical courses of flat stones with a maximum height of 40 cm. There are also double-course upright stones in the east wall. One of the erect slabs of the east wall projects 30 cm above ground level. There are also longer stones, set perpendicular to the east wall course, which demarcate one or possibly two openings. If indeed, there were two portals or punctuations in the east wall, these were not symmetrically arrayed. The south wall is 17.5 m in length. Inside the enclosure there are three or four parallel lines of upright slabs. These meandering slab courses generally run east-west and extend for 2 m. The network of slab walls lies 5 m from the north wall and 9 m from the south wall of the enclosure. The slabs are between 15 cm and 45 cm in length, and project a maximum of 10 cm above the ground surface. Two more lines of the same type of upright slabs are situated inside the enclosure, 2 m farther west. A similar use of slab walls to mark the interior of an enclosure is found at Doring ChakraRdo ring lcags ra (C-74).

Pillars

There is a single north-south line of 12 pillars, 13 m in length, which is situated near the inner edge of the west wall. Eight of these pillars are made of a grayish or beige metamorphic rock, and three are of a light-colored igneous rock (Long-stones DR8, DR9 and DR11). Some orange climax lichen grows on the pillars, especially on their north side. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of these pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided, heavily inclined (60 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular (60 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped (55 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (45 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped, broken (20 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR6: tabular, broken (30 cm by 90 cm). An upper section of this pillar (30 cm long) lies beside the in situ portion.
Long-stone DR7: tabular, broken (25 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR8: irregularly shaped (70 cm by 70 cm). There is a significant gap between DR7 and DR8 in which there is a tiny in situ pillar. This broken specimen is made of a dark gray rock.
Long-stone DR9: irregularly shaped (1.3 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR10: tabular (1.6 m by 1.4 m).
Long-stone DR11: (60 cm by 90 cm).

Outlying funerary structure

There is a square funerary enclosure (2.5 m by 2.5 m) situated 25 m east of the walled pillars. It is found on broad and level sandy ground. This structure is made of the same kind of metamorphic rock used to fence the pillars. The funerary enclosure is in quite poor condition. It appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions and to have had double-course perimeter walls. These walls are composed of upright slabs (10 cm to 50 cm long), which project 5 cm to 20 cm above the ground surface. Although stones are scattered around the enclosure, it does not appear to have any interior structural elements.

Doring (Rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Doring (South)
English equivalent: Long-stones (South)
Site number: C-162
Site typology: II.1b, II.1c
Elevation: 4780 m
Administrative location (township): Mentang
Administrative location (county): Pelgön
Survey expedition: HTWE
Survey date: May 19, 2004
Contemporary usage: Minimal cult offerings and light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS IX
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General site characteristics

DoringRdo ring (South) is located in the middle of the broad DoringRdo ring valley, on the west side of the watercourse. The site has good views up and down the valley (to the north and south). The terrain gently descends to the east and is sandy and spotted with turf. DoringRdo ring (South) consists of a unique combination of walled pillars (II.1b) and an array of pillars (II.1c). Rather than a temple-tomb edifice, the walled pillars are appended to the west side of the concourse of pillars. This constitutes a unique ceremonial facility, the design and construction of which probably reflect localized cultural and/or political proclivities. The close physical integration of these two types of monuments underscores their allied temporal, functional and cognitive relationships. In conjunction with neighboring DoringRdo ring (North) (C-128), DoringRdo ring (South) represents the most easterly expression of the sui generis pillar monuments of the core region of Upper Tibet. The two DoringRdo ring sites circumscribe the eastern border of a distinctive paleocultural entity, which in a general sense can be equated with prehistoric and early historic Zhang ZhungZhang zhung.188 DoringRdo ring (South) was discovered in 1928 by Roerich’s Central Asiatic Expedition.189

Oral tradition

In far western NamruGnam ru, sites such as DoringRdo ring (South) are generally ascribed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Walled pillars

The rectangular enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 10 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). The perimeter walls are flush with the ground surface and in a poor state of preservation. The exception is the south wall, which includes a coherent double-course segment (90 cm thick). The walls of the enclosure were built primarily using light-colored stones of variable length. These stones appear to have been laid flat on the ground. The interior of the enclosure is free of structural elements.

There are two standing pillars fixed in the ground near the inner edge of the disintegrated west wall of the enclosure. These two pillars are spaced 2 m apart. The south pillar is an irregularly shaped dark metamorphic rock (65 cm [height] by 70 cm [basal girth]). The north pillar is a four-sided light-colored igneous rock (1 m by 90 cm). The north pillar has been singled out for butter offerings (Marchö). Circular depressions have been carved into the top portion of this pillar and filled with butter. There is also a single line of prayer flags tied to the base of the north pillar. These offerings are probably related to the propitiation of personal, household and territorial deities. There are a few stones scattered around the base of the two pillars; these are likely to be the vestiges of the sacrificial structure, which Roerich reports existed here in 1928.190 There is also a collapsed pillar (1.3 m long) now lying in the middle of the enclosure among a small pile of stones. A photograph taken of the site in 1928 shows that there were four sizable in situ pillars erected more or less in a row at that time.191 One of these pillars appears to be the dislodged specimen. The whereabouts of the fourth pillar (it appears to have been a tabular specimen in the northernmost placement) is unknown. Geomorphologic changes and vandalism probably account for the degradation of the monument.

Array of pillars

The array of pillars begins 1.5 m east of the enclosure with the stelae. There do not appear to have been any intervening structures between these paired monuments. The array of pillars is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 26.5 m (east-west) by 7 m (north-south). The 14 m long eastern half of this concourse is extremely degraded, and contains less than 40 tiny in situ pillars. Although virtually all structural evidence has been effaced, it seems likely that the array of pillars was originally wider than 7 m, given its length and the usual rectilinear proportions of this monument typology. Water flowing over the locale from one or more flood events (as evidenced by alluvial depositions) has had a detrimental impact on the site.

In the west half of the array there are roughly 100 intact and broken pillars still left standing. Some of these pillars have orange climax lichen growing on them. The tallest specimen (60 cm) is found near the northwest corner of the array. Other unbroken specimens are 15 cm to 30 cm in height. Most of the Doring are tabular and made of a light-colored metamorphic rock. Near the southwest corner of the array there is an uprooted pillar 1 m in length. An analysis of the pattern of spacing between pillars, suggests that originally there may have been around 1000 standing stones in the concourse. There are now roughly 13 east-west rows of pillars with slabs placed edgewise in the ground in the same rows. These slabs are 10 cm to 30 cm in length and are generally flush with the ground surface. Perhaps there were alternating superficial slabs and standing stones in each row (it is now difficult to distinguish pillars that may have been broken off at the base from slabs that were installed at ground level). DoringRdo ring (South) is the only site with this particular slab and pillar configuration surveyed to date. This distinctive design feature, like the absence of an appended edifice, may be related to the site’s position at the extreme eastern edge of the territorial distribution of the monument typology. The lack of an appended temple-tomb raises questions as to where local burials were conducted. Scattered around the array of pillars are small pieces red quartzitc sandstone (?) and milky quartz. These stones must have been used as decorative elements at the site.

Gyamngön (Gyam sngon)

General site characteristics

GyamngönGyam sngon is located in the bottom of an eponymous valley. From the site there is an expansive view east across the plains of upper ZhidéZhi bde. The views north and west are partly constrained by higher ground. The view south is blocked by a low-lying ridge on the opposite side of the watercourse. The intermittent stream of the GyamngönGyam sngon valley runs through a gully immediately south of the monument. The terrain is level and turf-covered. The site consists of a walled pillar and four outlying funerary structures. The small size of the enclosure with the pillar, the high elevation of the site and its far northern geographic position suggest that this region was somewhat marginal to the main concentration of archaic cultural settlement in Upper Tibet. Save for the white pillar, primarily unshaped brown and bluish metamorphic rocks were used to construct the structures of GyamngönGyam sngon. These rocks probably came from the slopes south of the site. GyamngönGyam sngon appears to have been heavily impacted by human activities.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, GyamngönGyam sngon was an ancient MönMon habitation (dösa). It is also believed to have emerged with primordial existence as did the MönMon themselves.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is highly fragmentary and slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. It measures approximately 6.5 m (east-west) by 3.2 m (north-south). All fragments are generally aligned in the compass points. There are two stones (20 cm and 40 cm long) fixed around 60 cm from the pillar, the last remaining vestiges of the west wall of the enclosure. On the east side of what was the north wall there are a few stones in a single line that appear to be the sole surviving structural component of this enclosure wall. Similarly, on the south side of what was the east wall there are three small partially buried stones, which appear to be part of the original structure. There are also small stones embedded on what was the south side of the enclosure, but these exhibit no discernable coherence. Loose stones are scattered around the interior of the enclosure. This contrasts with adjacent areas, which are mostly free of stones.

Pillar

There is a lone broken tabular white pillar (35 cm [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]). The two broader sides of the pillar face north and south, as is typical in this monument typology. The pillar is highly eroded and has weathered to an orange brown color in places. It appears to be fairly well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure.

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 16 m north of the walled pillar on the opposite side of the motorable track that runs through GyamngönGyam sngon. This highly degraded structure appears to have consisted of both an outer and inner enclosure. The square inner enclosure (2.5 m by 2.7 m) seems to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. It contains stones that are flush with the ground surface or slightly elevated above it.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 154 m west-northwest of the walled pillar. This quadrate funerary enclosure was established on sandy ground, and its walls appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. FS2 measures approximately 4 m by 5 m. Its north wall (50 cm thick) is the most intact. It is composed of double-course blocks and slabs (15 cm to 40 cm long) set into the ground edgewise. These stones are level with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 15 cm. The south wall fragment (2.8 m long) consists of a single line of stones (30 cm to 60 cm long) embedded in the ground, which protrude about 10 cm above ground level. The west wall has been nearly destroyed. The east wall has only one or two in situ stones remaining. Inside the enclosure there is a single-course slab-wall inner enclosure, which measures 1.5 m (north-south) by 1 m (east-west). Perhaps marking the location of a burial chamber, the four walls of the inner enclosure are mostly intact. The north and south walls are composed of smaller stones that project about 10 cm from the ground surface. The east and west walls are each dominated by a slab about 50 cm in length. This inner enclosure is situated 1.1 m from the inner edge of the south wall of the outer enclosure, 1.4 m from the north wall, 2.2 m from the east wall, and 1 m from the west wall of the outer enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 34 m west of the walled pillar. This single-course quadrate enclosure consists of variable-length blocks and slabs (up to 60 cm long), which are level with the ground surface or which project above it a maximum height of 10 cm. The north wall of FS3 has been destroyed by the local road. The south wall (5.1 m long) has an east-west axis. The west wall appears to be double-course and has been reduced to 4 m in length. Some of the west wall was cut by the road. The east wall of the enclosure was almost completely destroyed by the road. The highly fragmentary south wall appears to be of the double-course variety. Between FS3 and the walled pillar there is a small unused corral, consisting of a ring of stones. This structure was probably built with stones extracted from the funerary structures.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.7 m by 4.2 m) is situated roughly 200 m north of the walled pillar (34.137΄ / 20. 543΄). This quadrate enclosure is highly deteriorated. It appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter walls are composed of variable length-blocks and slabs that project a maximum of 25 cm above ground level. In the north wall there is an insecurely fixed slab 80 cm in length. There also appears to have been an inner enclosure that is offset towards the west wall of the outer enclosure.

Sokpo (Sog po)

General site characteristics

SokpoSog po, named for the Central Asians of yore, is located on the west side of a large basin. There are long views in all directions except for the west (the direction of a low-lying ridge). The terrain is sandy, well drained and gently declines towards the east. Although the extant structural evidence is inconclusive, with its profound eastern vista, SokpoSog po has locational characteristics commonly associated with the walled pillar monument typology. The general morphological configuration of the site is also in conformance with such monuments. SokpoSog po appears to have been heavily impacted by human activities.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, SokpoSog po is an ancient site.

Site elements

Enclosure

About 1 m west of the in situ pillars there may be vestiges of the west wall of the enclosure. No other wall traces are discernable. Some small stones are scattered around the site in contrast to adjoining areas that are largely free of stones. These stones may have formed part of the enclosure.

Pillars

There are three small in situ pillars that form a north-south oriented row 3.2 m in length. From north to south, these pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped white granite pillar, inclined (50 cm [height] by 70 [basal birth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped brown metamorphic pillar (40 cm by 65 cm).
Long-stone DR3: four-side light-colored igneous pillar (30 cm by 55 cm). In close proximity there is a dislodged white igneous specimen 1 m in length. It is reported that this pillar was rooted in the ground until a few years ago. Northwest of the pillars there are the possible traces of funerary superstructures.

Dröwo Doring (Gros bo rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Dröwo DoringGros bo rdo ring is located in an expansive basin, which is drained by an effluent of the Sau TsangpoSa’u gtsang po river system. This site has deep views to the east, and is also open in the south and west. The view to the north is cutoff by a proximate ridge. The terrain is level, sandy and gravelly. Dröwo DoringGros bo rdo ring consists of two pillars erected inside an enclosure and at least nine outlying funerary enclosures.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 8.1 m (north-south) by 4.2 m (east-west). Much of the double-course slab-wall enclosure has survived intact. The individual slabs are flush with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 15 cm. The double-course east wall (50 cm thick) consists of slabs 20 cm to 40 cm in length. There is an opening or “portal” in the east wall, demarcated by two slabs (40 cm and 50 cm long), which run perpendicular to the wall course. This 30 cm wide portal is fairly well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. The north wall (50 cm to 65 cm thick) of the enclosure is composed of slabs up to 55 cm in length. The first 5.5 m of the east side of the north wall is largely intact, while the remaining segment to the west has lost the inner course of parallel slabs. Most of the outer line of slabs in the south wall and the inner line of slabs in the west wall are also in situ. These slabs are up to 65 cm in length. The south wall is punctuated by an opening 1.1 m in width, which is demarcated by two slabs (40 cm and 50 cm long) placed perpendicular to the wall course. This opening begins 3.9 m from the southwest corner of the enclosure. This appears to be the only example of a “portal” in any but the east wall surveyed to date, but due to much degradation of the enclosure, the structural evidence is somewhat ambiguous. The horns of goats and sheep are scattered around the enclosure. It is a fairly common practice for drokpa to deposit the horns of livestock at such sites as a magical means to protect the herds.

Pillars

There are two highly eroded pillars planted inside the enclosure. The unbroken specimen is situated 40 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. This irregularly shaped gray pillar has weathered to a reddish brown color (1.2 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). The unbroken pillar slightly tilts to the north. There is also a broken tabular or irregularly shaped pillar standing to the north of the unbroken specimen (55 cm by 1.3 m). The massive girth of the broken pillar indicates that originally it must have been of substantial height. Like its unbroken counterpart, this uncut gray piece of rock has weathered to a reddish brown color.

Outlying funerary structures

Funerary structures FS1 to FS5 are all located on the level floor of the basin.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 52 m northwest of the walled pillars. This quadrate double-course upright slab-wall enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 6.8 m (north-south) by 7.2 m (east-west). Surviving double-course wall fragments are 40 cm to 80 cm in thickness. In the west wall there is a segment 1.6 m in length and 60 cm in thickness, which is composed of multiple courses of small slabs. There are five to seven of these slabs (10 cm to 30 cm long) running abreast of one other in meandering lines.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 30 m north of the walled pillars. This structure has been reduced to just three adjacent slabs (50 cm to 85 cm long). Two of these upright slabs run perpendicular to the alignment of the third one. FS2 appears to be a small remnant of a more elaborate funerary structure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 56 m north of the walled pillars. There are just six slabs (30 cm to 70 cm long) laid edgewise into the ground in the south wall of this highly fragmentary quadrate enclosure. There are also three in situ slabs in what appears to be the northwest corner of the structure and one slab in place in its northeast corner. The surviving structural evidence suggests that FS3 may have had single-course perimeter walls.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 5.3 m) is situated 26 m north of FS3. The perimeter walls of this quadrate enclosure consist of a single line of blocky stones flush with the surface. FS4 is not aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 4 m north of FS4. This highly deteriorated quadrate enclosure roughly measures 14.2 m (north-south) by 6 m (east-west). Only a few blocks and slabs of the walls are still in place. The largest in situ slab is 75 cm in length. FS5 may have consisted of several interconnected cells.

Funerary structures FS6 to FS8 are located on the foot of the ridge that bounds the north side of the basin.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (6 m by 5.3 m) is situated 71 m northwest of FS5. FS6 is not aligned in the cardinal directions. Only some blocks and slabs are still in place in the perimeter walls of this enclosure. These stones are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. There appears to be a highly fragmentary enclosure in close proximity to FS6, which extends 7 m to the north.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 is situated 7.7 m northwest of FS6. This poorly preserved enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 13.8 (east-west) by 7.4 m (north-south). Only small bits of its slab and block walls have survived. FS7 is elevated about 70 cm above the adjacent terrain on its south side, while its north/uphill side is level with the slope. The north wall, with its small double-course fragments (around 50 cm thick), is the most intact portion of FS7. There is a depression in the interior of this enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (1.6 m by 1.7 m) sits between FS6 and FS7, on gently sloping sandy ground. The perimeter walls of this small enclosure are composed of a single line of upright slabs (10 cm to 25 cm long). The south side of this structure has been destroyed. Given its diminutive size, FS8 may have served a very different funerary function from that of neighboring structures.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (2.3 m by 2 m) is situated 8.4 m north/uphill of FS8. Only a few slabs (15 cm to 50 cm long) are still in place and upright in this highly degraded enclosure. The slab that attains 50 cm in length projects 25 cm above ground level. There are possibly other minor funerary structures in the vicinity but virtually all evidence of them has been effaced.

Dolhé (Rdo lhas)

Basic site data

Site name: Dolhé
English equivalent: Stone Corral
Site number: C-132
Site typology: II.1b, II.2x
Elevation: 4830 m
Administrative location (township): Metok
Administrative location (county): Tsochen
Survey expedition: HTWE
Survey date: June 11, 2004
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Plaques inscribed with the mani mantra and other prayers.
Maps: UTRS VII
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General site characteristics

DolhéRdo lhas is located on a high strip of ground between two watercourses and marshes. The site is situated outside the pastoral village of DolhéRdo lhas. It has moderately long views to the east and west. The view to the south is very open, while the view to the north is constrained by a mountain. The terrain is well drained, sandy and gravelly. DolhéRdo lhas consists of walled pillars, most of which are made of a light-colored granite. There were at least 20 menhirs erected inside the enclosure. There is also a small tumulus and traces of another structure at DolhéRdo lhas. These outlying structures are probably funerary in nature.

Oral tradition

According to Mertsa TsetopMer rtsa tshe thob (born Tiger Year, 1938) of DolhéRdo lhas village, the DolhéRdo lhas pillars appeared at the beginning of existence, echoing a common mythological theme found across much of Upper Tibet.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 12.5 m (east-west) by 8 m (north-south). Only a few stones are still in place in the walls of the enclosure. The east wall has been nearly obliterated. The west half of the north wall is partially intact. It consists of parallel courses of granite blocks (20 cm to 60 cm long) that form a wall around 70 cm thick. These stones are flush with the surface or rise above to a maximum height of 10 cm. There are also in situ traces of the inner course of the west wall. The outer course of the west wall has all but disappeared. Only fragmentary bits of the south wall of the enclosure have survived.

Pillars

All the pillars are heavily eroded and some geochemical induced discoloration of their surfaces occurred. There is also a little orange climax lichen growing on some of the pillars. Each of the pillars has four irregular sides. Unless otherwise noted below, all them are made of light-colored granite.

There is a row of pillars situated against the west half of the south wall of the enclosure. These pillars stand among a heap of old broken inscribed plaques. From east to west, the dimensions and characteristics of these pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: radically inclined (1.3 m [height] by 1.2 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: made of a darker gray igneous rock, moderately inclined (70 cm by 75 cm).
Long-stone DR3: (60 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR4: (80 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR5: radically inclined (50 cm high).
The main row of pillars is 4 m in length. This uneven row stands 40 cm to 90 cm from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of these pillars are as follows:
Long-stone DR6: (90 cm by 80 cm).
Long-stone DR7: (35 cm by 55 cm).
Long-stone DR8: radically inclined (75 cm high).
Long-stone DR9: (1.5 m by 1.4 m). Between DR8 and DR9 there are two uprooted specimens, 65 cm and 1.1 m in length.
Long-stone DR10: radically inclined (80 cm high).
Long-stone DR11: radically inclined (1 m high).
Long-stone DR12: made of a fine-grained darker gray rock that has weathered to a reddish color in places (1.1 m high). It has a broken top. Beside DR12 there is a tiny standing four-sided pillar made of a dark gray metamorphic rock (20 cm by 35 cm).
Long-stone DR13: (90 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR14: made of a darker gray igneous rock (95 cm by 90 cm). Beside DR14 there is a dislodged pillar 1.3 m in length.
Long-stone DR15: is situated near the north wall of the enclosure, 4.6 m from the west corner. This is a dark gray igneous pillar (30 cm by 65 cm).

Outlying funerary structures

There is a mound situated 17 m south of the walled pillars. This mound appears to be aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9 m (north-south) by 5 m (east-west). This highly eroded structure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. A few stones are strewn around its surface and there is a concavity on the top. The mound must be a funerary structure of some kind. In close proximity, there are the faint traces of what appears to have been another funerary structure.

Donak Doring (Rdo nag rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Donak DoringRdo nag rdo ring is located just east of a dark-colored rocky formation known as DonakRdo nag. DonakRdo nag sits on the eastern edge of the huge Drapyé TsakhaGrab ye tshwa kha basin. A low saddle to the east admits morning sunlight between the summits of DonakRdo nag. The view to the west is extremely encompassing. The terrain is sandy and gently declines in a westerly direction. Donak DoringRdo nag rdo ring consists of two dark gray irregularly shaped pillars spaced 1 m apart. The pillars measure 70 cm (height) by 85 cm (basal girth) and 40 cm by 70 cm. These standing stones are heavily worn and are naturally polished, probably through the action of blowing sand. A few loose stones are scattered around the pillars.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Donak DoringRdo nag rdo ring was erected by the ancient MönMon.

Affiliated sites

It is reported that there are two sites with superficial structures in the same general area as Donak DoringRdo nag rdo ring. These structures are associated with the ancient MönMon. There are supposed to be two of these at a locale called GyapraRgyab ra, and others on the southern margin of the Drapyé TsakhaGrab ye tshwa kha basin at a place known as BakdoBag rdo (sp.?).

Domilang (Rdo mi lang)

General site characteristics

DomilangRdo mi lang is located on the western edge of a basin. The longest vista is in the east, while the view to the west is hemmed in by a closely bound ridge. The terrain is level, well drained and sandy. The site consists of a single pillar erected inside an enclosure. Although this monument has geographic and morphological traits associated with walled pillars, only ill-defined vestiges of the enclosure are still visible. It is reported that a Chinese military patrol camped at DomilangRdo mi lang in 1959 and removed stones from the enclosure.

Oral tradition

It is said by local sources that DomilangRdo mi lang was named for its resemblance to a standing person. Local drokpa also report that this site is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Enclosure

Very little of the enclosure has endured to the present day. Tiny traces of its south wall run for nearly 5 m, beginning just east of the pillar. The few extant metamorphic (?) stones are around 20 cm in length and are level with the ground surface. These stones are uncut and blocky. There are also a few in situ stones comprising a 1 m long segment of the north wall. These two wall segments appear to be oriented east-west, suggesting that the entire enclosure was aligned in the cardinal directions. The distance between the north wall and south wall fragments is 3.8 m, indicating that this was a smaller example of this enclosure type. There is a double-course slab wall 4.2 m in length situated 6.2 m east of the pillar. This slab wall appears to be quite well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. Its relative position indicates that it constituted an interior structural feature of the enclosure. The slab wall is generally oriented east-west, but its course is not perfectly straight. Slabs (10 cm to 30 cm long) inserted into the ground edgewise make up the wall. The slabs project a maximum of 5 cm above the ground surface. Two different types of rock were selected for use as slabs. Some loose stones are scattered in and around the enclosure.

Pillar

The single pillar appears to stand near what was once the west wall of the enclosure. This pillar seems to have been well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. The irregularly shaped blue-gray metamorphic (?) menhir is 90 cm in height and has a basal girth of 1.3 m. The pillar is highly eroded, somewhat discolored, and is gently inclined towards the east.

Drakbuk Doring (Brag sbug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Drakbuk DoringBrag sbug rdo ring is located in the PenchéPhan che region on the south side of the Somé TsangpoBso med gtsang po valley. The views east and north are wide open, while the views west and south are much more constrained. The terrain is level, open, sandy and turf-spotted. Drakbuk DoringBrag sbug rdo ring consists of two walled pillars, the entire monument being made of blue limestone.

Oral tradition

According to the local drokpa’Brog pa, Drakbuk DoringBrag sbug rdo ring is an ancient site.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the intermediate directions, and measures 9.6 m (northwest-southeast) by 4.3 m (northeast-southwest). The double-course perimeter walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick) are mostly comprised of smaller uncut pieces of limestone (10 cm to 45 cm long). These stones are flush with the ground surface or are elevated above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. There are also a few slabs that were laid flat on the ground near the south corner of the enclosure. The southeast wall of the enclosure is largely intact and the other walls are partially so. There is possibly an opening (around 30 cm wide) in the southeast wall. This apparent opening is situated 1.65 m and 2.6 m from the corners of the enclosure.

Pillars

The main pillar is well centered in between the longer walls of the enclosure. This irregularly shaped tabular pillar (90 cm [height] by 1.3 m [basal girth]) is planted 70 cm from the inner edge of the northwest wall. The broad sides of this pillar are oriented parallel to the long walls of the enclosure. Orange climax lichen grows on the north side of the main pillar and there are brown encrustations on this side of the standing stone as well. Near the west corner of the enclosure there is a much smaller irregularly shaped pillar (30 cm by 70 cm).

Trachap Doring (Khra chab rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Trachap DoringKhra chab rdo ring is located in the wide valley bottom of TrachapKhra chab, in the PenchéPhan che region. The site is open up (north) and down (south) the valley, and has a more closed aspect in the east and west directions. The terrain is level, well drained and gravelly. Trachap DoringKhra chab rdo ring consists of a single gray and pink four-sided granite pillar.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Trachap DoringKhra chab rdo ring appeared with the emergence of primordial existence. It is also said to be in the possession of a local territorial deity (yüllha), DrupwaBrub ba (sp.?). The pillar is considered potentially harmful (ka nyenpo) and no religious rituals take place here.

Site elements

Each of its four sides of the pillar (1.1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]) is aligned in the cardinal directions. The pillar is slightly inclined to the south. In close proximity there are three pieces of gray granite (35 cm, 50 cm and 70 cm long), which may have been part of other pillars at one time. Between 50 cm and 1.4 m from the pillar, four granite slabs (around 15 cm long) are embedded edgewise into the ground. These stones must be the remains of a slab-wall structure.

Tsendo (Btsan rdo)

General site characteristics

TsendoBtsan rdo is located in a locale known as Gakchen’Gag chen, in the PenchéPhan che region. The Gakchen Chu’Gag chen chu forms the traditional border between PenchéPhan che and Drongpa Tsogu’Brong pa tsho dgu. Immediately to the north of the site there is a dark-colored rocky hill known as TsenriBtsan ri. To the south there is a white calcareous outcrop named tsenkhangBtsan khang. TsendoBtsan rdo has quite wide vistas in all directions. The terrain is sandy and gravelly. The site consists of an extremely degraded array of pillars and the faint vestiges of other structures.

Oral tradition

TsendoBtsan rdo is so named because it is believed to be the haunts of a tsen spirit. The site is considered potentially dangerous (ka nyenpo) and is generally avoided by the area’s drokpa. The identification of the site with the tsenBtsan spirits may possibly be implicit recognition of its ancient funerary status.

Site elements

Possible edifice

A small white calcareous outcrop is situated 5 m west of the most westerly pillars in the array. The appended edifice (temple-tomb), if indeed it ever existed, must have been built on or in front (to the east) of this outcrop. A few sandstone blocks lie on and around the little outcrop. These may have been part of the appended edifice. The stones around the outcrop are up to 90 cm in length.

Pillar array

The array has been reduced to only around 40 in situ pillars, about half of which are broken near the base. The unbroken specimens are uncut naturally pointed pieces of stones, 20 cm to 40 cm in height. The extant standing stones are made of gray and brown quartzitic sandstone (?), and are arrayed in eight different rows. These rows are oriented east-west, as is common in this monument typology. Four upright slabs in two parallel courses, situated east of the pillars, may mark the easternmost extent of the array. These parallel slabs (up to 35 cm long) appear to have been part of a double-course wall around 25 cm thick. The distance from this tiny wall fragment to the most westerly standing stone (broken at the base) is 13.3 m. The maximum east-west extent of the array is 4.9 m. These dimensions and the topographical constraints of the locale indicate that this was a fairly small example of an array of pillars. Originally, this array must have boasted several hundred standing stones.

Large chunks (up to 70 cm long) of the soft white calcareous material, which is found at TsendoBtsan rdo, are situated 14 m east of the pillar array. These chunks may have been part of an enclosure around 10 m in length (east-west). Pieces of brown and gray sandstone are also found in this disintegrated structure. As reflected in the spatial characteristics of the dispersion, this structure may have had interior structural elements. It is likely to have had a funerary function.

Drankhor Do (Sbra ’khor rdo)

General site characteristics

Drankhor DoSbra ’khor rdo is located east of the dark-colored mesa known as Drankhor DoSbra ’khor rdo. This site is situated on the northern margin of the huge Sele PukSe le phug basin. The views in all directions but the east are constrained by higher topographical features. To the east one can see a great distance all the way across the Selé PukSe le phug basin to the Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho basin. The terrain is sandy and gently slopes down towards the east. Drankhor DoSbra ’khor rdo consists of three in situ pillars.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The highly weathered pillars of Drankhor DoSbra ’khor rdo are mostly made of a dark gray volcanic (?) rock. The three standing specimens form a north-south line 2.4 m in length, which is oriented perpendicular to the axis of the slope. From south to north, these three pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: irregularly shaped (50 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (60 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR3: tabular (90 cm by 1 m). The broad sides of this pointed pillar are anomalously oriented east and west.

There are also two uprooted pillars at the site; a pinkish tabular specimen (90 cm long) and a partly submerged dark gray specimen (90 cm long).

Kanyin Doring (Ka nyin rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Kanyin DoringKa nyin rdo ring is located in a relatively narrow valley south of the Salé PukSa le phug basin. This locale is also called DotsupRdo rtsub (Rocky). Kanyin DoringKa nyin rdo ring is situated near the bottom of a relatively narrow valley. The views in all directions are quite circumscribed. The terrain is sandy and gently declines to the east. The site is named after a rocky ridge known as KanyinKa nyin, which bounds the northeast side of the valley. Kanyin DoringKa nyin rdo ring consists of five pillars erected inside an enclosure. All structural elements of the monument are made of the same type of gray rock.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is roughly aligned in the intermediate directions. It approximately measures 9.2 m (northeast-southwest) by 6.1 m (southeast-northwest). This orientation may have been adopted due to the exigencies of the local topography. The valley in which it is found is aligned in the southeast (upstream) and northwest (downstream) directions. The enclosure walls are all highly disintegrated. However, parts of all but the southwest wall are extant. The southwest wall must have been parallel to the row of pillars and in close proximity, as suggested by the dispersion of unfixed stones. The perimeter walls contain both flush blocks and upright slabs, up to 60 cm in length. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it as much as 20 cm. The specific design traits and thickness of the perimeter walls is no longer evident. Two prominent stones set perpendicular to the course of the northeast wall form the sides of an opening 1.1 m in width. These two upright “portal” slabs are 70 cm in length (with a 20 cm projection above the ground surface) and 60 cm in length (with a 25 cm projection above the surface). The portal is situated 2 m from the southeast corner and 3 m from the northwest corner of the enclosure. The northeast wall course seems to span the portal thus it is not completely open. Many stones are scattered around the enclosure. At one time, these must have been part of this structure.

Pillars

The five pillars of Kanyin DoringKa nyin rdo ring form a southeast-northwest row 2.8 m in length. From northwest to southeast, they have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: four-sided (60 cm [height] by 75 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (45 cm by 60 cm).
Long-stone DR3: tabular, broken (45 cm by 90 cm).
Long-stone DR4: irregularly shaped (80 cm by 1 m).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped (60 cm by 80 cm).

A superficial funerary structure is possibly situated 30 m northwest of the walled pillars. Nevertheless, not enough of this structure has survived to secure a positive identification.

Gyungnak Tsuk Doring (Gyung nag gtsug rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Gyungnak Tsuk DoringGyung nag gtsug rdo ring is located on the southwestern margin of the Salé PukSa le phug basin. This site is close to the road that links the RuntorRu ’thor and YakraYag ra regions. The site is named for Gyungnak TsukGyung nag gtsug, a proximate rocky ridge that bounds the Salé PukSa le phug basin. Gyungnak Tsuk DoringGyung nag gtsug rdo ring enjoys profound views to the east. The site consists of three in situ pillars erected on a well-drained gravel flat.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The three standing pillars form a southeast-northwest aligned row 6.1 m in length. From northwest to southeast, these three pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: tabular (40 cm [height] by 50 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: irregularly shaped (75 cm by 1 m). Lying beside DR2 is an irregularly shaped pillar 1 m in length.
Long-stone DR3: irregularly shaped (60 cm by 1.1 m). There are two uprooted pillars in close proximity to DR3, 1.2 m and 1 m in length.

There is a small concentration of stones 5.4 m east of the pillars. This may possibly be the ill-defined remains of a funerary structure.

Affiliated sites

In the vicinity of Gyungnak Tsuk DoringGyung nag gtsug rdo ring there is a lone gray pillar stub (31° 16.566΄ N. lat. / 82° 46.394΄ E. long. / 4800 m). It is planted on open, level gravelly ground. This highly worn four-sided standing stone has been reduced to 40 cm in height. Some smaller stones are scattered about the site, but traces of other structures are not discernable.

Nyerma Gyam Doring (Gnyer ma gyam rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Nyerma Gyam DoringGnyer ma gyam rdo ring is located near an eponymous ridge. The site is named for the many furrows in this ridge, which are thought to resemble the wrinkles on a forehead. The views south and west are blocked by Nyerma GyamGnyer ma gyam, while the views north and east are wide open. The site is situated upon a high, level bench on turfy and rocky ground. There is a gully just east of the site. Nyerma Gyam DoringGnyer ma gyam rdo ring consists of a single pillar erected inside an enclosure.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Nyerma Gyam DoringGnyer ma gyam rdo ring is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

Very little of the enclosure has managed to survive. It is made of uncut blocky blue and white limestone. The enclosure was probably roughly aligned in the intermediate directions, and approximately measures 3.1 m by 2.5 m. Nyerma Gyam DoringGnyer ma gyam rdo ring is a smaller example of the walled pillars typology. Immediately west of the menhir, four stones form a southeast-northwest aligned structure 1.4 m long. These four stones, the remains of the west wall of the enclosure, are each 25 cm to 45 cm in length and project a maximum of 15 cm above ground level. A fifth stone is offset from these four stones, the sole surviving element of the second course of the west wall. At the southeast corner of the enclosure, a double-course wall fragment 1.9 m in length and 50 cm in thickness has endured. This wall fragment contains stones (20 cm to 40 cm long) that are flush with the ground surface or which project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. A tiny portion of the east wall of the enclosure is also intact. Partially submerged stones are strewn in and around the enclosure.

Pillar

The lone, irregularly shaped pillar (1.4 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]) is inclined towards the west. This gray pillar has undergone a significant degree of weathering and has turned a reddish color in places. Although the pillar is firmly fixed in the ground, it appears to have been replanted sometime in the past. This is indicated by a wide flange situated above the current ground level. This splayed section of the standing stone, as is found in many other Upper Tibetan pillars, is normally buried underground. Such a bulge adds to the stability of the pillar. The original height of the pillar above ground level was probably in the vicinity of 1 m.

Jiri Buk (Byi ri sbug)

General site characteristics

Jiri BukByi ri sbug is located in the RongRong valley, an effluent of the Rukyok TsangpoRu skyog gtsang po. The site occupies a well-drained, turf-carpeted bench on the south side of the valley. To the north, the valley bottom is swampy. The ridge of Jiri BukByi ri sbug is situated only about 100 m to the south. On the north side of the valley there is the mountain known as GyabukRgya sbug. Both JibukByi sbug and GyabukRgya sbug are local territorial deities (yüllha). There are long views up (east) and down (west) the RongRong valley. Jiri BukByi ri sbug consists of a medium-sized example of an edifice (temple-tomb) appended to an array of pillars. The pillars, slab walls and edifice are primarily made of a grayish volcanic (?) rock.

Jiri BukByi ri sbug is the most easterly example of its monument typology surveyed south of the Transhimalaya ranges. It is situated 65 km northwest of the sacred mountain, Tsanglha PudarGtsang lha phu dar (and just 40 km west of the meridian that passes through it), the border marker of Tibet and Zhang ZhungZhang zhung, according to the BönBon text Trowo WangchenKhro bo dbang chen.192 Jiri BukByi ri sbug, a sui generis monument of the core Upper Tibetan region, furnishes independent verification of information contained in this text concerning the territorial range of Zhang ZhungZhang zhung.

Oral tradition

According to some local drokpa, Jiri BukByi ri sbug is where the invading Gorkhas (late 18th century CE) hitched their horses (tandok). Other local drokpa’Brog pa contest this tale but were unable to provide an alternative oral tradition.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The temple-tomb edifice is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9 m (north-south) by 6.5 m (east-west). No coherent wall fragments have survived in this highly degraded structure. It has been reduced in appearance to a mound ringed with stones. This structure is elevated 80 cm to 1.5 m above the surrounding terrain. Variable-length (up to 75 cm long) stones were used in its construction.

Pillar array

The concourse of pillars approximately measures 20 m (east-west) by 17 m (north-south). It is in very poor condition: only about 130 specimens are still left standing. There are also a few uprooted pillars strewn around the concourse. These standing and dislodged pillars are but a small fraction of the perhaps 1000 menhirs that originally stood at the site. The individual pillars range between 10 cm to 60 cm in height, with an average height of approximately 20 cm. Most of these unhewn standing stones are irregularly shaped, and some of them support orange climax lichen growth. The majority of the in situ pillars are in the southwest portion of the array. Only the tallest pillar at the site and one other specimen still stand in the northern half of the array (nothing else has survived in this obliterated part of the array). A maximum of three pillars adjacent to one another stand in any one row, providing some idea of how fragmentary the array has become.

Four meters east of the most easterly in situ pillar there is a double-course north-south running slab-wall fragment (approximately 6.5 m long). This wall is composed of parallel courses of upright slabs, (7 cm to 40 cm long) set about 25 cm apart from one another. These slabs are level with the ground surface. The south end of this slab wall seems to coincide with the southeast corner of the pillar array. A single line of upright slabs forms a roughly square enclosure (70 cm by 70 cm), which lies adjacent to the east side of the double-course slab wall, 4.5 m north of its southern end. A zone of tiny slab fragments oriented both east-west and north-south is situated 3.5 m east of the south end of the double-course slab wall. The precise configuration of these wall fragments is no longer discernable. The north-south running, double-course slab wall bounding the east side of the pillar array is connected to an east-west aligned slab wall of the same type (6.3 m long). This east-west wall bounds the south side of the pillar array.

Tsoksum Doring (Tshogs gsum rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Tsoksum DoringTshogs gsum rdo ring is located on the west side of the Bupzhung TsangpoSbub gzhung gtsang po valley. The site is just west of TsoksumTshogs gsum and on the opposite side of the valley from TakchenStag chen. These two small mountains are local territorial deities (yüllhaYul lha). There are quite wide vistas to the east, west and north. The terrain slightly dips to the east, and is well drained, sandy and grassy. The site consists of two walled pillars. No outlying funerary structures were detected at the site.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Tsoksum DoringTshogs gsum rdo ring emerged with primordial existence.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9.3 m (east-west) by 4.5 m (north-south). It is constructed of a bluish and reddish volcanic rock. The partially intact east wall of the enclosure is punctuated by an opening, which is demarcated on either side by a slab placed perpendicular to the wall course. This 90 cm wide opening begins 1.6 m from the southeast corner of the enclosure, thus it is not particularly well centered. The south “portal” stone is 60 cm long and projects upwards of 30 cm above ground level. The north portal stone is 55 cm long and projects around 20 cm above ground level. The opening itself is divided into two parts by a smaller transverse stone (30 cm long, 20 cm projection above the surface) set right in the middle of it. On either side of the portal there is a large upright slab (around 70 cm long, 10 cm projection above the surface), which dominate the east wall course. In all probability, the east wall was of double-course composition, but this cannot be confirmed with the structural evidence at hand. The south wall of the enclosure is mostly intact and indeed has a double-course composition. The south wall is around 50 cm thick and is made up of variable-length (10 cm to 60 cm long) stones set in the ground edgewise. These stones are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 10 cm. The double-course west wall of the enclosure is now highly fragmentary. The north wall also has been mostly destroyed. Many stones that were once an integral part of the structure now litter the enclosure.

Pillars

There are two small pillars standing inside the enclosure. They are located about 30 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. These two pillars are in very close proximity to one another, 3 m to 3.5 m from the south wall. They are, therefore, not well centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure. Their position suggests that other pillars may have once shared the enclosure as well. The gray grained pillars have weathered to a reddish color. Some stones have been piled up around the base of the pillars. The north pillar (55 cm [height] by 60 cm [basal girth]) has four irregularly shaped sides. The south pillar (70 cm by 75 cm) is three sided. The tips of both pillars have been broken off. What may have been a smaller pillar lies in close proximity to the two in situ specimens.

Doring (Rdo ring)

General site characteristics

DoringRdo ring is located below the confluence of two canyons known as SuyakSu yag (sp.?) and Jashang ShangBya shang shang. The site is situated on a well-drained gravelly prominence elevated about 10 m above the east side of the canyon floor. The canyon floor boasts a perennial stream and tall grass, which is cut for fodder. The site is dominated by a single pillar that was erected on moderately sloping ground.

Oral tradition

According to residents of DongpoGdong spo, DoringRdo ring magically arose on its own in ancient times. It is considered a good fortune stone (yangdo).

Site elements

The highly weathered main pillar is made of a gray rock (1.3 m [height] by 80 cm [basal girth]). It has four sides that are generally aligned in the intermediate points. The tip of the pillar has been partially broken. A few stones are scattered around its base. The base of a second, much smaller pillar (15 cm by 18 cm) is situated 1.45 m to the north. Reportedly, this pillar was broken by a youth in the early 1960s. A tabular stone (50 cm basal girth) that projects 20 cm above ground level is situated 75 cm north of the broken pillar. There are also two slabs fixed in the ground 90 cm north of the tabular stone. These slabs are 20 cm and 40 cm in length and protrude about 10 cm above ground level. The three projecting stones were deliberately planted in the ground. Given the scant structural evidence, however, it is not clear what type of structure these and other stones on the site may have constituted.

Affiliated sites

NgöyuDngos g.yu

NgöyuDngos g.yu, a site with substantial arable land, lies downstream of DoringRdo ring in the same drainage system (31° 07.080΄ N. lat. / 80° 11.399΄ E. long. / 4210 m). No farming has taken place here in living memory. An attempt was made in the Chinese Cultural Revolution to restore water to NgöyuDngos g.yu but this project proved a failure. The loss of water resources for irrigation can largely be attributed to the long-term desiccation of the GugéGu ge region. Recently, two houses were built by herders amid the old agricultural holdings. In close proximity to these houses there is a rammed-earth residential carcass (13 m by 7 m) that has been converted into a livestock pen. Downstream of the benches on which the defunct farm fields lie there is a bifurcation in the canyon. On the tip of the spur dividing the two branch canyons there is a ruined chöten and above it, a rammed-earth structure (7 m by 13 m by 2.5 m). Above the rammed-earth structure there is a stone building foundation (15 m by 5 m). These residential structures straddling the spur are said to be the castle ruins of a local chieftain, who had the title of ngöyu chupön. (sp.?). These ruins can be confidently ascribed to Buddhist architectural styles that became common after 1000 CE.

About 1 km upstream of the ngöyu chupön site, at the next bifurcation in the canyon, there are several ruined chöten and an adobe-block carcass, the remains of a Buddhist chapel (lhakang) in all probability (4260 m). Nearby, there are two clusters containing a total of around 15 caves that were hewn from the earthen formation. These cave complexes may have constituted the original locus of settlement in NgöyuDngos g.yu.

ShediShel did

The remains of a large dispersion are found in the bottom of the DongpoGdong spo valley, above the west bank of the Dongpo TsangpoGdong spo gtsang po (31° 07.4΄ N. lat. / 80° 07.2΄ E. long. / 4130 m). This site known as ShediShel did (sp.?) consists of contiguous piles of stone rubble and depressions in the ground. No authoritative oral tradition about ShediShel did could be collected. It is said that some of the pits on the site are the remains of old gold mines. ShediShel did may possibly represent the traces of an early settlement in the DongpoGdong spo valley, a valley without cave complexes to speak of. The site was constructed from red, blue and gray cobbles. ShediShel did can be divided into two sectors: northwest (170 m by 200 m) and southeast (90 m by 100 m).

The northwest sector dispersion of ShediShel did is devoid of stone wall fragments. There is, however, a rammed-earth carcass (5 m by 13 m by 3.5 m) in the northwest sector. It is built on a prominence that overlooks the Dongpo TsangpoGdong spo gtsang po. The long straight walls and truncated west end of this structure are in conformance with Buddhist temple construction, particularly that of the 11th to 15th century CE. The existence of this ruin confirms the testament of one elderly resident, claiming that a Buddhist facility once existed at ShediShel did. This high elevation edifice appears to belong to a latter phase of construction than the superficial stone dispersions surrounding it. The main link road in DongpoGdong spo cuts right through the northwest sector, and stones taken from it were used to line the roadbed. The southeast sector contains disintegrated revetments, a clear indication that superstructures of some kind once stood here. The revetment fragments reach a maximum height of 1.5 m. A corral and chöten were recently built in the southeast sector.

Rokhung (Ro khung)

General site characteristics

RokhungRo khung is located northwest of TongtsoStong mtsho. This important funerary site has lent its name to the entire valley in which it is situated. This fairly narrow north-south oriented valley has no permanent water source in the vicinity of the archaeological site (further upstream there are springs). Mountains in the range that rises above the north side TongtsoStong mtsho basin hem in the site. RokhungRo khung features two walled pillar complexes as well as a variety of outlying funerary structures. The site is divided into two sectors: east (walled pillars, a funerary enclosure and two tumuli) and west (a set of 13 uniquely designed square funerary structures). The integrity of the east sector of RokhungRo khung is potentially threatened by an ill-placed link road that runs through the valley.

Oral tradition

The name of the site clearly indicates that RokhungRo khung is thought of as a burial ground. RokhungRo khung is believed to have been built and used by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

East sector walled pillar complexes

The east sector is situated in the valley bottom on gently sloping gravelly ground. The two walled pillar complexes were established in the middle of the valley bottom and command good views north and south. Small pieces of red sandstone and milky quartz are lightly scattered around the site. These stones may have been used as decorative elements at the walled pillar complexes and/or other funerary structures.

South enclosure

The south enclosure is part of the smaller down valley, walled pillar complex. This enclosure is not well aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9 m (east-west) by 6 m (north-south). It is primarily built of brown sandstone and a bluish metamorphic rock. The entire structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding terrain. Parts of all four double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) of the enclosure are intact. These walls are constructed of uncut variable-length slabs and blocks (less than 10 cm to 50 cm long), which were laid flat. The stones are even with the ground surface or slightly rise above it.

South pillars

There are four in situ pillars inside the south enclosure, all of which are made of the same type of bluish metamorphic rock. These pillars are fairly well centered in the enclosure. Two of these unshaped pillars (Long-stones DR1 and DR2) are set against the inner edge of west wall. The north pillar (Long-stone DR1) is tabular and slightly inclined (65 cm [height] by 90 cm [basal girth]). Its broad sides are oriented north and south. The adjacent pillar to the south (Long-stone DR2) is also tabular (65 cm by 80 cm), but its broad sides face east and west. Long-stone DR3 is situated a little south of DR2 and is offset 35 cm from the west wall. DR3 is a three-sided specimen (50 cm by 65 cm). Long-stone DR4 is situated 40 cm east of DR3. DR4 is a tabular specimen (30 cm by 50 cm), whose broad sides are oriented east and west.

North enclosure

The enclosure of the north pillar complex is located 7 m north of the south pillar complex. It is unusual to find two such installations in such close proximity. The north enclosure (10.1 m by 10.5 m) is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. Its square form is an uncommon design variant in this monument typology. The north enclosure is primarily built of brown sandstone and a bluish metamorphic rock. As in the south enclosure, the slabs and blocks of the enclosing walls were laid flat in parallel courses (60 cm to 70 cm thick). These stones are level with the ground surface or project above it slightly. Parts of all four walls of the enclosure have survived intact. The east wall is somewhat elevated above the adjacent terrain.

North pillars

There are about 50 pillars erected inside the north enclosure, the largest number of pillars found in a single enclosure of this typology. The pillars were erected in uneven rows that gravitate towards the west and north walls of the enclosure. The pillars extend along the north wall 5 m east of the west side of the enclosure. Most of the menhirs are made of that bluish metamorphic stone common at RokhungRo khung. However, several other types of rocks were also used, including brown sandstone and at least two types of lighter colored rocks. The use of no less than four different kinds of rocks lends the pillars a multi-colored aspect. The various pillars are three-sided, irregularly shaped and tabular (with the broad sides oriented in various directions). The pillars range in size from 20 cm by 40 cm to 90 cm by 1.1 m. The average height of these standing stones is around 50 cm. A tabular pillar with a broken top (40 cm by 1 m) is found 3.5 m east of the west wall of the enclosure. The broad sides of this isolated specimen are oriented east and west.

East sector outlying structures

Minor arrays of stones

A zone of stones embedded in the ground (1.8 m by 75 cm) is situated 2.1 m west of the west wall of the north enclosure. These stones form a dense array, level with the ground surface. They do not exhibit any discernable design pattern or form. Another dense amorphous mass of stones embedded in the ground (6.5 m by 1.5 m) is found 1.7 m to the west of the smaller array. This larger array is elevated as much as 30 cm above the surrounding ground level. These two concentrations of stones do not appear to be geofacts, but rather funerary ritual structures of some kind.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (5.5 m by 7.5 m) is a quadrate enclosure situated 11 m north or up valley of the north walled pillars complex. The fragmentary double-course perimeter walls (60 cm to 80 cm thick) of FS1 are primarily composed of bluish metamorphic stones. These stones are 10 cm to 40 cm in length and were laid flat on the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 47 m north of FS1. This quadrate mound is aligned in the cardinal directions and appears to have had a modified L-shaped plan. It measures 15 m (north-south) by 8 m (east-west: south half) and 6 m (east-west: north half). FS2 has a height of around 1 m. This well-built structure, constructed primarily of brown sandstone, has undergone much degradation. Originally, it may have been somewhat longer than the length given above. There is much rubble around FS2, at least a portion of which was once an integral part of the structure. The most intact element of FS2 is its east wall. The east wall is comprised of as many as eight vertical courses of slabs and attains a height of 50 cm. This wall shows that FS2 was endowed with significant freestanding walls. A small portion of the west wall has also endured. A right angle bend in the west wall demonstrates that FS2 did not have a simple rectangular plan. The top of FS2 undulates, due to the effects of erosion. A small hole was dug on top of this structure, probably in an attempt to recover valuable artifacts.

Approximately 2 m south of the mound there is some evidence that a low-lying wall delineated this side of FS2. The structural traces of this ostensible wall are obscured by rubble. The effects of minor flood events have come quite close to the east side of FS2. Stones found north of the mound, which merge into the flood damaged area, may also have been part of an enclosing wall or an alternative type of ancillary structure. There is a dense zone of stones sticking out of the ground (2.2 m by 1.7 m) 2.7 m west of FS2. An analogous dispersion (6.7 m by 1.8 m) is located 6 m farther west.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3, another low-lying funerary mound, is situated 41.5 m west of FS2. This highly degraded structure approximately measures 18 m (north-south) by 6.5 m (east-west), and has a maximum height of 1 m. FS3 is primarily built of brown sandstone. The top of FS3 is highly eroded and undulating. Some small remnants of walls have persisted along the edges of the structure. These double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) are of the same design and construction as the walls enclosing the pillars. Other walls of the same type seem to have divided the structure into three or four cells. An analogous double-course wall fragment (5 m long) is located 3 m east of FS3. This poorly aligned east-west wall remnant may have been a constituent element of the mound, forming a portion of an east cell or other type of structural extension.

West sector

Square funerary structures

The west sector of RokhungRo khung is located on the opposite or west side of the valley. The west sector consists of 13 square funerary structures of uniform design and size. They are set about 10 m above the intermittent streambed, on well-drained sandy and grassy slopes. These structures occupy a 65 m long swath of terrain that rises to the west at a moderate angle. The highly degraded square structures of the west sector generally measure 2 m by 2 m, and are built of brown sandstone slabs and blocks (10 cm to 30 cm in length). Integral walls have been reduced to 15 cm to 35 cm in height and, together with the rubble lying on top of them, these structures attain a maximum height of 50 cm. They were skillfully built masonry constructions, which may have reached a height that would have given them a cubic form. One specimen has a rubble-filled depression in the middle of the base, suggesting that these structures possessed central chambers. These chambers most plausibly served as reliquaries or ossuaries.

The morphological affinities that the west sector structures share with the mountaintop cubic tombs are self-evident. There being 13 of these structures at RokhungRo khung is liable to have significant cognitive and procedural significance. In any event, the number 13 played a prominent role in Upper Tibetan and other old Inner Asian cosmological and ritual traditions. While the functional and chronological interrelationships between the east and west sectors of RokhungRo khung are not yet clear, it seems likely that they formed an integrated necropolis. If so, each of the various architectural components of the site and their spatial relationships to one another were constituent parts of a cultural narrative and ritual regimen.

The 13 structures of the west sector are aggregated in five groups plus one isolated specimen. Several specimens are found side by side. These groups are separated from one another by a distance of 4 m to 12.5 m.

Funerary structures FS1, FS2 and FS3 make up the north group:

Funerary structure FS1 is situated 98 m west of FS3 of the east sector. FS1 has an east wall 30 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS2 is situated 2.6 m west of FS1.
Funerary structure FS3 is situated 1.6 m south of FS1. FS3 has what appear to be traces of a central chamber.

Funerary structures FS4 and FS5 constitute intermediate group 1:

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 5.3 m south of FS3. FS4 has significant coherent wall traces.
Funerary structure FS5 is situated 1.7 m south of FS4. FS5 also has significant coherent wall traces.

Funerary structures FS6, FS7 and FS8 constitute intermediate group 2:

Funerary structure FS6 is situated 12.5 m south of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 is situated 2.4 m south of FS6.
Funerary structure FS8 is situated 1.8 m west of FS7.

Funerary structures FS9 and FS10 constitute intermediate group 3:

Funerary structure FS9 is situated 5.2 m south of FS7.
Funerary structure FS10 is situated 2 m west of FS9.

Funerary structures FS11 and FS12 constitute intermediate group 4:

Funerary structure FS11 is situated 9.2 m south of FS10.
Funerary structure FS12 is situated 2.4 m south of FS11.
Funerary structure FS13 is situated 4 m south of FS12, and is the most southerly specimen in the west sector. FS13 is especially disintegrated.

Drarong Möndur (Gra rong mon 'dur)

General site characteristics

Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur is located within 200 m of the southeast foot of the limestone mount upon which Drarong Mön DzongGra rong mon rdzong (A-21) sits. It is named for drama, a woody shrub that grows in many places in Upper Tibet. The site occupies a well-drained gravelly plain that is bound in the north by the valley’s watercourse. The site has fairly constrained views in most directions. Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur is comprised of a highly deteriorated array of pillars appended to an edifice. These structures were of middling size for this type of site. The rows of pillars and edifice appear to have been aligned in the cardinal directions, a common feature in this monument typology. Reportedly, the site was dismantled during the Chinese Cultural Revolution in order to build corrals and other structures. Two such corrals stand abandoned near the foot of the Drarong Mön DzongGra rong mon rdzong formation. The structures of Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur were constructed using uncut pieces of local blue limestone and a greenish stone. The chronological and functional links between Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur and Drarong Mön DzongGra rong mon rdzong are still unclear. It is certainly possible that they formed interrelated parts of the monumental infrastructure of the area, reflecting the lifecycle of the ancient builders.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Drarong MöndurGra rong mon 'dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Appended edifice

It is reported that, until the Chinese Cultural Revolution, the edifice (temple-tomb) had standing walls around 1 m in height. This structure is now leveled and most of its stones having been carted off. It was primarily built of unshaped blue limestone blocks. The edifice roughly measures 5 m by 5.5 m, and has been reduced to 70 cm or less in height. There are no surviving coherent wall fragments. The structure now presents itself as nothing more than a stony mound.

Array of pillars

Only around 40 in situ pillars remain in the array, most of which are broken. Originally, there must have been at least 500 pillars, erected in rows, in this array. Those few surviving pillars and broken stubs are concentrated in what was the central portion of the array. Most of the pillars are made of a greenish stone. There is a distance of 11.6 m from the east edge of the edifice to the most easterly pillar. The width (north-south) of the array is conjectural (it appears to have been at least 8 m wide). The largest in situ pillar is irregularly shaped (30 cm [height] by 55 cm [basal girth]). The second largest in situ specimen is only 15 cm in height. The other unbroken pillars are even shorter. Some of the broken examples are tabular in form with their broad side oriented north and south.

Beyond the most easterly standing pillar in the array there is a network of double-course slab-wall fragments, extending 9 m further east. As would be expected, these slabs walls are also aligned in the cardinal directions. They are composed of lines of parallel slabs, spaced about 20 cm apart. The slabs (10 cm to 45 cm long) were placed in the ground edgewise, and are level with the ground surface or project above it slightly. Three of the slab-wall fragments are oriented north-south. The first of these north-south segments (1.6 m long) is found 60 cm east of the last pillar in the array. This wall segment connects with an analogous east-west slab-wall fragment that extends 8.6 m to the east. This east-west slab wall seems to coincide with the southern delimits of the pillars array. The second north-south running slab-wall fragment, a highly dissolute structure, is located 2.6 m east of the one described above. The third north-south oriented slab-wall fragment (5.2 m long) is found 2.3 m east of the second example. It runs between the east-west running slab wall to the south and another east-west aligned slab-wall fragment (3.6 m long) to the north.

Dolang Nyidrik (Rdo lang gnyis sgrig)

General site characteristics

Dolang NyidrikRdo lang gnyis sgrig is located just outside the village of PusumSpu gsum on high ground in the Pundri TsangpoPhu ’bri gtsang po/Putö TsangpoSpu stod gtsang po valley. The site is situated on a sandy bench that gently slopes down towards the west, in plain view of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho and the TagoRta rgo range. A ridge to the east partly blocks the view in this direction. Dolang NyidrikRdo lang gnyis sgrig consists of four pillars erected inside a rectangular enclosure. No outlying funerary structures were detected at the site, but they could have been easily engulfed by the sandy terrain. Dolang NyidrikRdo lang gnyis sgrig is one of six walled pillar monuments (C-49, C-50, C-68, C-69, C-71, C-72) in the Pundri TsangpoPhu ’bri gtsang po valley, one of the greatest concentrations of such sites in Upper Tibet. This cluster of funerary pillar sites is probably associated with the chain of residential sites that were located near the shores of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho, as complementary parts of its archaic monumental assemblage.

Oral tradition

The elders of PusumSpu gsum are uncertain as to whether Dolang NyidrikRdo lang gnyis sgrig is an ancient MönMon or Zhang ZhungZhang zhung monument.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 6.5 m (south wall) by 7 m (north wall) by 5 m (west wall) by 4.5 m (east wall). Parts of all four double-course walls (50 cm to 80 cm thick) are extant. These walls are composed of uncut pieces of gray limestone, 10 cm to 50 cm in length. These stones were laid flat and inserted edgewise into the ground, and are generally level with the surface or project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. The west/lower side of the enclosure is somewhat elevated in order to compensate for the slope gradient. The interior of the enclosure is entirely open.

Pillars

The four pillars form a somewhat uneven north-south oriented row. These highly eroded, beige to brownish standing stones have a white grain, a well developed patina and orange climax lichen growing on them. As there are no suitable stones in the vicinity, these pillars must have been transported from somewhere else. From south to north, the dimensions and characteristics of the pillars are as follows:

Long-stone DR1: four uneven sides, located 1 m from the inner edge of the west wall of the enclosure (1 m [height] by 1 m [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: tabular, located 1.5 m north of DR1 and 50 cm from the west wall (1.1 m by 1.25 m).
Long-stone DR3: three irregular sides, broken tip, situated 50 cm north of DR2 and about 1.2 m from the west wall (75 cm by 85 cm).
Long-stone DR4: four-sided, broken top, located 20 cm north of DR3 and about 1.2 m from the west wall (30 cm by 70 cm).

Lukdo Möndur Khung (Lug rdo mon dur khung)

General site characteristics

Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung is located near the foot of a large light-colored limestone outcrop of the same name. The views north and west of the site are somewhat constrained by distant ridges, while the views to the south, southwest and east are wide open. The site has been heavily disturbed by the construction of houses and corrals in the adjoining village of LukdoLug rdo. Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung consists of two main complexes of walled pillars as well as outlying funerary enclosures. Many stones have been extracted from the archaeological monuments in order to build the residential and pastoral facilities. Even though the local inhabitants believe that this location is an ancient MönMon burial grounds, it did not deter them from founding a modern settlement here. This colonization seems to reflect a breakdown in native proscriptions barring such settlement. Fortunately, the local inhabitants now appear to be committed to preserving what remains of Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of LukdoLug rdo, Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung is an ancient MönMon burial grounds. Reportedly, the site was also desecrated in the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

Site elements

West sector

The west walled pillar complex of Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung is situated northwest of the LukdoLug rdo formation. There are also six well demarcated funerary enclosures between the pillars and the rock formation.

Enclosure

Unfortunately, the enclosure, like all other ancient structures at Lukdo Möndur KhungLug rdo mon dur khung have been heavily damaged by the pilferage of stones (31° 00.425΄ N. lat. / 85° 53.542΄ E. long.). The enclosure (14.2 m by 5.7 m) is found on fairly level sandy ground strewn with rocks. Only small sections of the four walls of the enclosure have survived. The enclosure appears to be generally aligned in the intermediate directions. It is built of local unshaped variable-length (up to 50 cm long) pieces of white limestone. The stones of the double-course perimeter walls are flush with the surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. The level interior of the enclosure is set a little below the northeast/upper wall and is slightly elevated above the southwest/lower wall.

Pillars

There are now two pillars erected inside the enclosure. These two pillars are made of a dark-colored rock that has a distinct white grain. Given their relative positions and the size of the enclosure, it seems likely that, originally, there were more standing stones inside the enclosure. The south pillar has a non-uniform tabular form (85 cm [height] by 1 m [basal girth]). It stands 2.2 m from the inner edge of the west wall. The north pillar (70 cm by 1.2 m) is irregularly shaped and is situated 1.8 m from the west wall.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (4 m by 4 m) is situated 12.5 m northeast of the walled pillars (00.429΄/ 53.545΄). This heavily impacted quadrate enclosure appears to have had double-course perimeter walls. Limestone chunks up to 35 cm in length went into the construction of FS1. The enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain and it has an open interior. A small enclosure (1.3 m by 1 m) is situated 9.5 m north of FS1. Each wall of the small enclosure is comprised of just three or four stones. Stones are also embedded in the interior as well. The stones of this diminutive structure project 5 cm to 20 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (7 m by 7 m) is situated 31 m east of the walled pillars (00.425΄ / 53.565΄). This heavily built, double-course square enclosure is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. Parts of all four perimeter walls have survived. The north wall of the enclosure is elevated around 30 cm above the adjacent ground and the south wall is level with the ground surface, in order to compensate for the gentle gradient. These walls (70 cm to 80 cm thick) contain stones up to 70 cm in length, which were laid flat or edgewise in the ground. These stones are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. Many stones have been extracted from FS2.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3 m by 3 m) is situated 24 m east of FS2 (00.419΄ / 53.581΄). This structure has been partially excavated and its perimeter walls torn up. Stones 30 cm to 70 cm in length went into its construction.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 4.8 m) is situated 33 m southeast of the walled pillars (00.415΄ / 53.563΄). This quadrate double-course enclosure is not aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter walls (60 cm thick) are composed of stones (up to 50 cm long) that were laid flat in the ground. These stones are level with the ground surface or protrude above it a maximum of 25 cm.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (4 m by 4 m) is situated in closer proximity to the LukdoLug rdo formation on very rocky terrain (00.438΄ / 53.578΄). This highly disturbed funerary structure is not very recognizable. The stones of the perimeter walls project as much as 30 cm above ground level. The construction of corrals in the vicinity has had a catastrophic impact on FS5.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (1.8 m by 2 m) is situated 12 m southeast of FS5 (00.431΄ / 53.587΄). Like FS5, FS6 has been nearly destroyed through the construction of corrals. The stones of this structure project a maximum of 30 cm above ground level. Between FS5 and FS6 there appear to be three more small funerary structures. There also appear to be no less than six funerary enclosures south of FS5 and FS6, but the faint structural evidence is inconclusive. Other possible funerary structures extend over a transection of 100 m or more. These highly obscured structural vestiges suggest that the west sector was a much more extensive funerary site than what is now presented to the eye.

East complex

The east complex is dominated by an enclosure in which at least 18 pillars were erected (00.240΄ / 53.730΄). This monument is located in the middle of the LukdoLug rdo settlement and suffers from the dumping of refuse and other human impacts.

Enclosure

The enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 10 m (east-west) by 11 m (north-south). This is one of the only pillar enclosures surveyed to date, outside of far western Tibet, in which the north-south dimension is larger than the east-west one. Only small sections of the four walls are still intact. The double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) are composed primarily of upright stones, up to 75 cm in length. These white limestone blocks and slabs are even with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. The open interior is covered in gravel and smaller stones. A fragment of a plaque inscribed with the mani mantra is propped up against a central pillar.

Pillars

The 18 pillars form a north-south row 9.8 m in length, which parallels the west wall of the enclosure. These pillars stand about 50 cm from the inner edge of the west row. In those standing stones with two broader sides; these are usually oriented to the north and south, as is typical in this monument typology. Most of the pillars are made of a dark reddish and grayish volcanic (?) rock. Several specimens are made of white limestone. Ten of the pillars are broken; having been vandalized during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Four of the pillars are around 70 cm in height, while the other specimens are shorter.

Another pillar enclosure

There are the remains of another quadrate enclosure 9 m west of the walled pillars. A portion of its north wall (6.7 m long) and a portion of the west wall (3 m long) have survived. These double-course walls are around 60 cm in thickness and contain stones 20 cm to 50 cm in length. The pieces of white limestone are flush with the ground surface or project above it as much as 20 cm. There are what appear to be traces of the south wall just 3.6 m from the north wall, suggesting that this was a very narrow enclosure. There is also a single irregularly shaped pillar (50 cm [height] by 80 cm [length]) standing 1 m from the west wall of the enclosure. The relative placement of this enclosure and its general form constitute an unusual addition to the east sector structural ensemble.

Jori Doring (Jo ri rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Jori DoringJo ri rdo ring is located near the west foot of the sacred mountain JoriJo ri (approximately 5200 m elevation). The site overlooks a vast plain to the east. There are also long views in the north and south (in the direction of the Great Central Himalaya). Jori DoringJo ri rdo ring is found on a broad grassy and sandy slope, which gives way to steeper slopes in the west. It consists of three main pillars standing inside an enclosure.

Oral tradition

According to a local folktale, the mountain god JoriJo ri (a tsenBtsan spirit) tied his dog to the pillars of Jori DoringJo ri rdo ring.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 8 m (east-west) by 5.7 m (north-south). Only small fragments of the walls of the enclosure have endured. The enclosure is so degraded that the composition of its walls is no longer discernable, but they are most likely to have been double-course. A grayish and brownish metamorphic (?) rock of variable length (20 cm to 70 cm long) was used to construct the enclosure. In order to maintain a level interior, the east wall of the enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the downhill slope. There is a well-centered opening (75 cm wide) in the east wall, which is demarcated by two large stones that are set perpendicular to the wall course. These threshold stones are 80 cm long with a maximum projection of 40 cm from the ground surface and 50 cm long with a 20 cm projection. There is virtually nothing left of the west wall. It appears to have been laid within 1 m of the pillars. There is also very little remaining of the south and north walls of the enclosure. Many smaller stones (5 cm to 15 cm long) are scattered about the interior of the enclosure. These stones must have been an integral part of the structure at one time.

Pillars

There are three pillars inside the enclosure, the middle one being the tallest among them. These pillars are grayish to brownish in color and are heavily worn and darkened. The pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

South pillar: a metamorphic rock of four uneven sides, (70 cm [height] by 1.1 m [basal girth]). Just north of the south pillar there is a small broken pillar (20 cm by 70 cm).

Central pillar: a sedimentary tabular rock whose broad sides are oriented north and south, (1.6 m by 1.3 m). The central pillar is situated 1.4 m north of the south pillar.

North pillar: a gray crystalline irregularly shaped rock (80 cm by 1.6 m). The north pillar is situated 80 cm north of the central pillar.

Affiliated sites

Jori TsenkhangJo ri btsan khang

Higher up the west flanks of JoriJo ri there is a ruined Buddhist monastic facility known as Jori TsenkhangJo ri btsan khang (30° 04.6΄ N. lat. / 83° 05.7΄ E. long. / 4870 m). This Nyingma institution was destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. It has never been rebuilt, despite there being no other monastic centers in HorpaHor pa. This smaller monastic complex was built just below a line of red crags. The core of the site is the Jori TsenkhangJo ri btsan khang cave, which is located behind what was the main building of the site (contained a chapel, lama’s residence and kitchen). It is reported that a stone pillar used to stand inside this cave. JoriJo ri is also an important BönBon holy site. It is the abode of the BönBon protective deity MakpönDmag dpon.

Droklhé Doring (Grog lhas rdo ring)

General site characteristics

Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring is located on a sandy and grassy gentle slope that abuts a vast plain, which spreads out far to the east. To the west, the site is skirted by an adjacent ridge. Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring consists of three pillars erected in a north-south oriented row. There is a rocky area east of these pillars, which may be the remains of some type of walled structure. There may even be wall traces around all sides of these pillars but the evidence is inconclusive. If it was fenced, Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring actually belongs to the II.2b typology. In any event, areas adjoining the site are largely free of stones. Like nearby Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo (C-170), Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring probably had a funerary ritual function. Nevertheless, there are no traces of other mortuary structures in the proximity. These structures, if they do exist, may lie buried under the sands of the site.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Droklhé DoringGrog lhas rdo ring is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

The three pillars are made of rocks of sharply contrasting colors. These pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

South pillar: a red non-uniform tabular specimen with its broad sided oriented north and south (60 cm [height] by 1.1 m [basal girth]).
Central pillar: a blue non-uniform tabular specimen with its broad sides oriented north and south (80 cm by 1.3 m). The central pillar is situated 45 cm north of the south pillar.
North pillar: a red broken specimen (30 cm by 90 cm). The north pillar is situated 40 cm north of the central pillar.

Zangdong Möndo (Zangs gdong mon rdo)

General site characteristics

Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo is located just west of a red escarpment known as ZangdongZangs gdong. To the east, a vast plain stretches to the horizon. In the south, this plain is bounded by the Great Central Himalaya range and in the north, by the Transhimalaya range. Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo consists of groups of pillars erected on a sandy slope at the foot of the red escarpment, as well as funerary enclosures established on the sandy and gravelly edge of the plain. The pillars and enclosures are primarily built of a bluish metamorphic (?) stone. These two types of structures occupying adjoining but different types of terrain appear to belong to the same integrated necropolitan complex. Pillar group 1 was possibly erected inside a quadrate enclosure, but this could not be determined with any surety.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Zangdong MöndoZangs gdong mon rdo is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Pillar group 1

Pillar group 1 consists of a north-south oriented line of pillars 4.3 m in length. The slope upon which they were erected is quite steep and very sandy. It appears to have undergone significant geomorphologic changes over time. The uneven row of mostly smaller pillars is aligned perpendicular to the angle of the slope. Many of the bluish pillars are broken, and gaps in the row suggest that some of them are missing altogether. The north end of the row may have had upwards of 10 diminutive pillars. The 1.7 m long south end of the row contains five larger standing stones. From south to north, they have the following dimensions: 40 cm (height) by 95 cm (basal girth), 50 cm by 75 cm, 70 cm by 85 cm, 1.3 m by 1.2 m, and 80 cm by 95 cm. The tallest specimen is quite tabular in form and its two broad sides are oriented north and south. There appears to have been walls around this line of pillars, which were aligned in the cardinal directions. This prospective enclosure approximately measures 5 m (east-west) by 7.2 m (north-south). Virtually nothing but a faint outline remains of the possible enclosure. Its highly nebulous form and the sharply sloping terrain make positive identification of this structure difficult.

Other pillars

A non-uniform tabular pillar (1.1 m by 1.9 m) is situated 16.5 m uphill/west of pillar group 1. This standing stone is made of the same bluish rock and its broad sides face north and south. There are two smaller pillars (30 cm and 50 cm high) situated 37 m north of pillar group 1. The vestiges of other small pillars and walls seem to be distributed over nearby sandy slopes. Due to stringent time limitations, these more superficial dispersions could not be surveyed.193

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (9.6 m by 9.6 m) is a square enclosure aligned in the cardinal directions (05.44΄ / 10.44΄ / 4600 m). FS1 occupies an isolated position on the edge of the plain. This enclosure appears to primarily have single-course perimeter walls, but there are also a couple sections along the perimeter that may be of double-course construction. The upright variable-length unshaped stones (20 cm to 70 cm long) of the walls project 10 cm to 40 cm above the ground surface. The interior is free of structural elements.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is a single-course rectangular enclosure aligned in the compass points (05.60΄ / 10.47΄). It measures 5 m (east-west) by 2.8 m (north-south). The south and east walls of this enclosure have been largely destroyed. The walls contain variable-length rocks (up to 70 cm long) that were laid edgewise in the ground. These unshaped stones project as much as 30 cm from the ground surface. The interior is free of structural elements.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.9 m by 3.9 m) is situated 13 m north of FS2. This single-course enclosure has an open interior. Its perimeter walls are single-course and are composed of unshaped upright stones 20 cm to 70 cm in length, which project 5 cm to 40 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 4 m north of FS3. This unusually designed funerary structure is comprised of 12 interconnected square cells. FS4 is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 29.4 m (north-south) by 2 m (east-west). This structure has single-course perimeter walls, which contain upright stones up to 70 cm in length, which project as much as 35 cm from the ground surface. The 12 cells (2 m by 2 m) form a single line of structures, and are separated from one another by a distance of 40 cm to 90 cm. These cells appear to have open interiors despite the presence of many small stones strewn all over FS4.

II.2. Superficial structures: Primarily funerary superstructure

Superficial structures, mostly consisting of stone enclosures, many of which appear to be the superstructures of tombs or funerary ritual venues, are found all over Upper Tibet. In this work 92 such sites are detailed. Without the benefit of excavation, the analysis of subsurface grave architecture and the study of grave goods, the typological classification proposed here must be seen as provisional. It is based on a visual appraisal of the morphology, orientation and constructional qualities of the various kinds of superficial structures, and makes no provision for chronological development or cultural affiliation. Superficial structures are found in large numbers throughout Upper Tibet, demonstrating that burial was once a dominant form of corpse disposal in the region. The archaeological evidence shows that the culture of burial spread widely and took a number of distinctive forms in the region. Very significant chronological, social, economic and even cultural variability is likely reflected in the diverse types of tombs found in Upper Tibet. It has not yet been determined which funerary superficial structures overlie tombs and which were only used in mortuary rites.

Superficial structures are frequently attributed in the oral tradition to the MönMon in all areas east of the 89th meridian. They are commonly labeled möndur (MönMon tombs), mönpé durkhung (tombs of the MönMon), möndo (MönMon stones), mönra (MönMon enclosures), and mönkhang (MönMon houses). In the eastern JangtangByang thang, the MönMon do not figure as a legendary motif; rather, large tomb complexes are often fancied to be the remains of monasteries that were destroyed by Mongol groups such as the 18th century CE Jungarjun gar.

Drak Tsangpo (Brag gtsang po)

Basic site data

Site name: Drak Tsangpo
English equivalent: Rock Formation River
Site number: D-41
Site typology: II.2b, II.2c
Elevation: 4680 m to 4710 m
Administrative location (township): Hor
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: April 23, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. Stones are also being extracted from the archaeological monuments in order to build corrals.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS X, HAS C4
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General site characteristics

Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po is the name of the locale, as there does not appear to be a specific name attached to the archaeological ruins. The site is situated on the edge of a shelf overlooking the north bank of the Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po, the largest volume river that feeds into the famous sacred lake Tso MapamMtsho ma pham/Tso MapangMtsho ma pang. The terrain is slightly sloping, sandy and covered in grasses and drama brush. On the opposite side of the Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po is the KharchenMkhar chen site (A-52). It is not clear what kind of relationship (chronological, functional and cultural) these residential and ceremonial archaeological sites had. Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po is composed of no less than 60 sizable rectangular and rectangular enclosures aggregated into at least 15 main groups, which stretch over a northwest-southeast transection of about 1 km. The walls of many enclosures consist of neatly built double-course white igneous cobbles that have a height of just a single stone. These stones (mostly 15 cm to 35 cm in length) are embedded into the ground surface. Other enclosure walls contain multiple courses of cobbles along their breadth, while still others are made of stones heaped up to a height of 50 cm to 1 m. The enclosure walls vary between 50 cm and 1 m in thickness, with many around 70 cm thick. The enclosures of Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po are almost certainly funerary in nature. The walls are not of a design typically associated with freestanding structures. Further archaeological inquiry is required if we are to understand the subsurface characteristics of the site. In terms of design and construction, Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po is closely akin to the enclosures of Chunak DoringChu nag rdo ring (C-121), another large site in extreme southwestern Tibet.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Most groups of enclosures consist of interconnected cells of various rectilinear proportions. In addition to the 15 groups of enclosures delineated here, there are many others (in whole or in part) distributed over the site. More survey work is needed to properly quantify the extent of Drak TsangpoBrag gtsang po. Starting from the northern extremity of the site, the dimensions and aspects of the 15 main groups of enclosures is as follows:

Funerary structure FS1 (12.5 m by 13.5 m).
Funerary structure FS2 (10.5 m by 10.5 m) is situated 75 m south of FS1.
Funerary structure FS3 (14 m by 13.5 m) is situated 17 m south of FS2.
Funerary structure FS4 (26 m by 15 m) is situated 108 m south of FS3.
Funerary structure FS5 (5 m by 5 m) is located in close proximity to FS4.
Funerary structure FS6 (14 m by 14 m) is situated 21 m south of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 is situated 30 m south of FS6. FS7 is a large zone of interconnected enclosures disturbed by the construction of corrals.
Funerary structure FS8 (14 m by 16 m) is situated 30 m south of FS7.
Funerary structure FS9 (15 m by 22 m) is situated 65 m south of FS8.
Funerary structure FS10 (16 m by 25 m) is situated 33 m south of FS9.
Funerary structure FS11 (21 m by 19 m) is situated 7 m south of FS10.
Funerary structure FS12 (170 m by 20 m to 30 m) is situated 53 m south of FS11.
Funerary structure FS13 (22 m by 29 m) is situated 30 m east of FS12.
Funerary structure FS14 (extending for 65 m) is situated 35 m east of FS13.
Funerary structure FS15 (extending for 25 m).

Purang Khyöl (Spu rang ’khyol)

Basic site data

Site name: Purang Khyöl
English equivalent:
Site number: D-42
Site typology: II.2
Elevation:
Administrative location (township): Khyunglung
Administrative location (county): Tsamda
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date:
Contemporary usage: None.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Nearby there is a cairn and prayer flags marking the summit.
Maps: UTRS V, UTRS X, HAS C3
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General site characteristics

Purang KhyölSpu rang ’khyol consists of highly eroded upright slab-wall remnants that were erected on the top of the pass connecting KhyunglungKhyung lung village with the higher tablelands to the south. The terrain is level, sandy and with some grass cover. Large slabs and blocks of stones form a large single-course rectangular enclosure. These stones prominently protrude up to 40 cm above the ground surface. This enclosure appears to be funerary in function.

Oral tradition

According to a myth circulating around KhyunglungKhyung lung, Purang KhyölSpu rang ’khyol is named for the movement of a giant black serpent. This serpent slithered across the Purang KhyölSpu rang ’khyol pass after its den was disturbed in Khyunglung YülméKhyung lung yul smad during the construction of a mani wall. Khyöl is the local variant of khyil; a twisting or winding motion).

Dziden Chungwa Möndur (Brdzi gdan chung ba mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Dziden Chungwa Möndur
English equivalent: Lesser Scent Block Mön Tombs
Site number: D-43
Site typology: II.2a, II2b
Elevation: 4500 m to 4630 m.
Administrative location (township): Götsang Mé
Administrative location (county): Gar
Survey expedition: UTAE and THE
Survey date: May 17, 2001 and May 25, 2006
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. Stones have been recently extracted from the monuments to use in local building projects.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS V
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General site characteristics

The funerary superstructures of Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur are widely scattered across a large flat above the left bank of the Tritso TsangpoKhri tsho gtsang po (a tributary of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po). These plain and adjoining elevated areas are known as DzidenBrdzi gdan. Funerary structures FS1 to FS8 are located near a ridge that encloses the west side of DzidenBrdzi gdan. The structures of Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur were constructed from variable-length (15 cm to 80 cm) blocks and slabs of a tan, dark-grained rock. There are also other superstructures in more outlying locations (Dopo TagaRdo po rta sga and Mönnak DzongMon nag rdzong) that are subsumed under this catalogue entry. The enclosures of this composite site have quadrate and sub-rectangular forms. As a monumental counterpoint to these various funerary structures, there are a number of archaic residential loci in the TritsoKhri tsho basin and the adjoining Pangar ZhungDpa’ ngar gzhung basin (see A-31, A-32, A-137, A-138, B-135).

Oral tradition

It is understood by local shepherds that the structures of Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur are tombs. It is reported that human remains have been unearthed here during excavations. The tombs are believed to hold the remains of the MönMon, an ancient tribe of Upper Tibet.

Site elements

Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 has been reduced to a 1 m deep pit that is 8.5 m in diameter. In recent years local drokpa have removed most stones from the monument for local building projects and in the search for valuable artifacts. Only one coherent wall fragment (3.5 m long by 60 cm thick) remains. It is situated on the east side of the pit and was built with smaller stones. This wall fragment indicates that the superstructure of FS1 consisted of a quadrate enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated approximately 2 km north of FS1. It was built on level, sandy ground near the foot of a range of hills. FS2 measures 14.2 m (north-south) by 9.1 m (east-west), but it is not very well aligned in the cardinal directions. The structure is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain, on its downhill flank. The walls of the quadrate enclosure are double-course (60 cm to 1 m thick) and built mostly with larger blocks and slabs (50 cm to 1.1 m long). Some of the stones of the walls are flush with the ground surface, but many project prominently above it to a maximum height of 40 cm. The enclosure appears to have been divided into two unequal parts by an east-west running wall. There may have been other walls further subdividing the enclosure but not enough is intact to know for certain. Parts of all four perimeter walls are missing due to the predations of the local population. Stones have been recently extracted in order to build a corral.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is located south of FS2 in close proximity. Only poorly preserved vestiges of the enclosure (approximately 13 m by 4.7 m) are left. An integral wall fragment (4.7 m long by 80 cm thick) of the enclosure has endured. This double-course wall fragment is primarily made up of blocky stones around 20 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface or protrude above it to a height of 30 cm. On the west side of the structure there are the remains of a smaller enclosure (1.8 m by 1.1 m) that is liable to have had a funerary ritual function. It is also made of smaller stones that are flush with the ground surface or that are slightly raised above it. This ancillary structure appears to have had double-course perimeter walls.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 appears to have been roughly aligned in the compass points. This highly fragmentary structure may have been around 9 m long (north-south). An east-west wall fragment (5.8 m long) connects to a lesser wall fragment (3.2 m long) to create an L-shaped remnant. These double-course walls are around 60 cm thick. The stones of the walls are flush with the ground level or rise above it to a maximum height of 30 cm.

Funerary Structures FS5, FS6 and FS7

Funerary structures FS5, FS6 and FS7 (4610 m) form a compact northwest-southwest running row of structures situated at slightly lower elevation than their counterparts to the north. They are likely to represent an integrated funerary unit. The three enclosures were built with stones (20 cm to 50 cm long) that project 10 cm to 30 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary structure FS5 is a small quadrate structure (2.1 m by 2.2 m), which is generally aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter of the structure is elevated about 20 cm above the surrounding plain. Many small pieces of blue-gray limestone are found strewn on top. This limestone residuum must have formed a structural element of FS5. Funerary structure FS6 (4 m by 4 m) does not appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. The entire structure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. It is mostly composed of smaller stones, however, its perimeter walls have been largely destroyed. Funerary structure FS7 is roughly aligned in the compass points and measures 5 m (east-west) by 6.9 m (north-south). These dimensions represent what may have been just the west cell of the structure. There may also have been a contiguous east cell but the structural evidence is inconclusive. The three partially intact perimeter walls are 80 cm to 90 cm in thickness, and contain mostly blocky stones (20 cm to 50 cm long). In the north wall there are sections made up of two vertical courses of blocks laid flat. These walls reach a maximum height of 30 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (1.7 m by 1.1 m / 4610 m) is the smallest structure surveyed at Dziden Chungwa MöndurBrdzi gdan chung ba mon dur. It is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions and is mostly composed of smaller stones. The perimeter walls are only partly intact. FS8 is elevated about 20 cm above the circumjacent plain.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (approximately 11.5 m by 7 m) is found near a hill enclosing the east side of DzidenBrdzi gdan. Situated on a slightly sloping sandy plain, only small coherent wall segments of the enclosure are still intact.

Dopo TagaRdo po rta sga

There are two more enclosures at a location known as Dopo TagaRdo po rta sga (Rocky Horse Saddle). The more intact specimen (approximately 8 m by 6.5 m) was recently excavated. This structure is elevated 70 cm above the surrounding terrain, giving it the appearance of a funerary mound (bangso). Its enclosing walls were constructed from smaller blocky stones. In close proximity there is another highly fragmentary möndur with little evidence remaining as to its form of construction.

Mönnak DzongMon nag rdzong

Mönnak DzongMon nag rdzong (Black MönMon Fortress) is comprised of two enclosures that integrate large boulders in their walls. They were built on hard, gently sloping ground east of Dziden ChungwaBrdzi gdan chung ba. Funerary structure FS1 has been reduced to a 3.5 m line of five boulders and dispersed stones of the superstructure. Funerary structure FS2 (approximately 6 m by 6 m) is situated 45 m north of FS1. Along its perimeter (which is quite closely aligned in the cardinal directions) there are now 14 boulders, less than half the amount needed to fully enclose the space. It would appear that smaller stones dispersed around the vicinity were also originally part of the perimeter walls. The largest boulder has a cubic form, and measures 60 cm across and projects 75 cm above ground level.

Jorkhok (’Byor khog)

General site characteristics

Jorkhok’Byor khog is the name of a locale east of old Oma’O ma. In a sandy plain, just south of the main road running between GertséSger rtse and TsakhaTshwa kha, are the remains of a number of large single-course quadrate enclosures. Sadly, since circa 2000, the site has been decimated by local residents intent on extracting stones for local building projects. The plain of Jorkhok’Byor khog has few naturally occurring stones and easy access to the site has made it highly vulnerable to drokpa families expanding their homesteads in the area. At the time of the survey, many of the uprooted stones still lay on the site, ready for pickup. Little or no excavation seems to have taken place within the enclosures.

Oral tradition

Local residents associate Jorkhok’Byor khog with the ancient MönMon. Its ostensible name suggests that it is traditionally perceived as being very inauspicious.

Site elements

The dimensions, locations and characteristics of the superstructures are as follows:

Funerary structure FS1 (12 m across) has only small wall fragments that remain in situ. Two dislodged stones at the enclosure are 1.5 m and 1.2 m in length.
Funerary structure FS2 (11 m across) is situated 47 m south of FS1. FS2 was recently damaged and very little remains intact.
Funerary structure FS3 is located immediately south of FS2. Three walls of this square enclosure are still partly intact. Aligned in the cardinal directions, FS3 measures 5.7 m (east-west) by 5.3 m (north-south). The variable-length (up to 85 cm long) stones of the walls are elevated 10 cm to 15 cm above ground level.
Funerary structure FS 4 was a smaller enclosure of which little still remains. It was recently shorn of stones.
Funerary structures FS5, FS5, FS6, and FS7 formed a row 60 m in length. Every single stone in these structures has been wrenched from the ground. These enclosures were composed of many larger stones (50 cm to 70 cm long). There are traces of other funerary superstructures of the same typology in the proximity.

A rectangular enclosure (6.3 m by 3.7 m) on the south side of Oma Tso’O ma mtsho was built on level sandy ground. More than 50 percent of stones in the enclosing walls were recently removed. In situ stones reach a maximum length of 70 cm and project as much as 30 cm above ground level. There is also reported to be a similar enclosure on the north side of Oma Tso’O ma mtsho at a locale called LorpukLor phug (sp.?).

Burkar Zhung (’Bur dkar gzhung)

General site characteristics

Burkar Zhung’Bur dkar gzhung is located in a sandy plain east of the Kongchen ChuKong chen chu. There are probably eight or nine quadrate and sub-rectangular funerary superstructures at Burkar Zhung’Bur dkar gzhung. However, the integrity of the site is significantly threatened by local drokpa, who are removing stones from the structures in order to build pastoral facilities. A couple of corrals (lhera) belonging to a seasonal encampment are found at Burkar Zhung’Bur dkar gzhung. The double-course perimeter walls of the larger enclosures contain variable-length blocky stones (primarily 20 cm to 60 cm long), which are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a height of 50 cm. Some of these walls appear to have been more than one vertical course in height. The larger enclosures are free of superficial structural elements within the perimeter walls.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (9.5 m by 6 m) is the most northerly structure at the site. The well-built double-course walls are 60 cm to 70 m thick. The corners of the FS1 enclosure appear to be somewhat rounded.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated beside FS1. Very little of this smaller specimen has survived.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (8 m by 9 m) is the largest enclosure at the site. It is situated 76 m southwest of FS1.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (80 cm by 1 m) is situated 11 m north of FS3. This tiny sub-rectangular enclosure is comprised of just ten stones 40 cm or less in length. Most of the stones of the enclosure protrude above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (2 m by 2.7 m) is situated 40 m west of FS3. This fragmentary structure is partially obscured by stones that have broken free of it and it is slightly elevated in the center. The design characteristics of FS5 are now ambiguous.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 is situated 30 m south of FS3. Not much of this smaller specimen is still intact. There are probably at least two or three more funerary structures at Burkar Zhung’Bur dkar gzhung, but they are too highly degraded for clear identification.

Nakra Möndur (Nag ra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Nakra MöndurNag ra mon dur is located on a small sandy plain sandwiched between an eponymous watercourse and escarpment. The plain gently rises toward the approximately 200 m tall vertical walls of the NakraNag ra escarpment. The permanent pastoral settlement of NakraNag ra is situated about one-half km from the archaeological site. The bulk of the site is comprised of slab-wall funerary superstructures that form a line about 60 m in length (oriented 330° by 150°). This line of structures runs perpendicular to the axis of the NakraNag ra escarpment. The site consists of a complex array of well-built quadrate enclosures. Unfortunately, not one structure has survived with all its walls fully intact. The fragmentary nature of the remains makes an analysis of the design of the structures difficult. It appears that there was an almost continuous line of enclosures, many of which were subdivided by walls into smaller cells. The survival of at least 50 wall segments of 1 m or more in length indicates that these were intricately designed enclosures with many subdivisions or cells.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Nakra MöndurNag ra mon dur is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Most enclosure walls were of the double-course variety, but there appear to be several single-course slab walls as well. There are also a few examples of multi-course slab walls, whereby several parallel courses of stones were set into the ground edgewise to make up a perimeter wall. Walls subdividing the enclosures into smaller units appear to have been less massively constructed than the perimeter walls and to be primarily of the single-course type. The double-course slab walls are 60 cm to 90 cm thick. Grayish stone slabs (averaging 30 cm to 60 cm in length) were used in the construction of the walls. The maximum length of slabs is 80 cm to 1.1 m and the smallest examples are less than 25 cm in length. Many of the slabs protrude prominently above the ground surface. The maximum projection of slabs above the ground is 40 cm.

The longest single wall segment at Nakra MöndurNag ra mon dur is 9.5 m in length. There are around ten wall fragments 5 m or more in length at the site. Near the south end of the site, three walls (only one of which is whole) were part of an enclosure approximately measuring 8 m by 5 m. Near the north end of the site, the area with the densest collection of walls, there may have been even larger enclosures. Fifteen meters north of the 60 m long interconnected line of structures there is a zone of approximately 100 m² with highly fragmentary walls. The 15 m intervening between these two dispersions appears to be free from structural traces, but as so many disturbances to the site have occurred, it is difficult to be certain. About 20 m west of the interconnected line of structures there are many scattered stones but no coherent wall segments. This is possibly all that remains of another funerary dispersion at Nakra MöndurNag ra mon dur.

Tsapo Deumbur (Tshwa po rde’u ’bur)

General site characteristics

Tsapo DeumburTshwa po rde’u ’bur is the name of a rocky ridge near the southern rim of the Tsatsa KhaTshwa tshwa kha basin, which I refer to as the “Valley of the Dead” (see C-91, C-92, C-153, D-68). There are profound views east from this zone of funerary sites. In the sandy valley floor south of Tsapo DeumburTshwa po rde’u ’bur there are six structures (probably enclosures) forming a cruciform alignment. This alignment does not conform to the compass points; it appears rather to have a localized spatial orientation. In addition to the enclosures there are double-course slab-wall fragments at the site. This network of slab walls seems to have circumscribed intricate patterns on the ground surface. All structures at Tsapo DeumburTshwa po rde’u ’bur are primarily made of pieces of a grayish grained rock, primarily 30 cm to 80 cm in length. Some of these stones may have been partially dressed to produce flat, even faces.

Oral tradition

Among the drokpa of this region (GegyéDge rgyas), sites such as Tsapo DeumburTshwa po rde’u ’bur are commonly identified as MönMon burial grounds.

Site elements

Funerary structure FS1 (13 m by 9 m), the most northerly structure of the north-south oriented row, has deteriorated into a rocky tumulus 1.5 m in height. No coherent wall segments remain in FS1.
Funerary structure FS2 (10 m by 6 m), the middle structure in the cruciform array, is situated 25 m south of FS1. It appears to have been a rectangular enclosure, but it has disintegrated into an incoherent mass of stones. Within the FS2 enclosure there is a 1.5 m long pillar-like prostrate stone.
Funerary structure FS3 (6 m by 11m) is situated 41 m south of FS2. Small intact wall fragments have survived in FS3, which appears to have had a rectangular form.
Funerary structure FS4, the most westerly structure of the east-west oriented row, is a small, very poorly preserved specimen.
Funerary structure FS5 (9 m by 5.5 m) is situated 17 m east of FS4. Small integral wall segments have survived in FS5. FS2, the centrally-located structure, is situated 25 m east of FS5.
Funerary structure FS6 (1.6 m by 2.6 m) is situated 14 m east of FS2. There appear to be the faint remains of even more minor structures in outlying areas.

Just east of funerary structure FS3 (the most southern structure) there is a group of fractional double-course walls. They include a 2.5 m long wall made from slabs (generally 20 cm to 30 cm long) set edgewise into the ground. The two parallel courses of slabs are set at a distance of about 25 cm from one another. Another double-course wall segment is now just 1.4 m long. In one of its parallel courses, only three slabs remain in situ. In the other course there are 13 blocky stones each averaging 10 cm in length. In close proximity there is an L-shaped double-course wall fragment (each arm is 1 m in length). It was constructed with tiny stones (mostly 3 cm to 4 cm long) set in parallel courses, 15 cm apart from one another. Much smaller fragments of the same wall are found nearby.

Drakratar Möndur (Brag ra thar mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Drakratar Möndur
English equivalent: Freed Goat Rock Formation Mön Tombs
Site number: D-47
Site typology: II.2a
Elevation: 4850 m to 4890 m
Administrative location (township): Dungru
Administrative location (county): Rutok
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: May 30, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing. Probable extraction of stones for the construction of nearby pastoral facilities.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS II
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General site characteristics

DrakratarBrag ra thar is the name of a small pastoral winter encampment (Günsa) and the dark-colored rock formation behind it, located in the Arula GyapA ru la rgyab region. In the vicinity there are several funerary superstructures of the so-called möndur type. They appear to be of rudimentary construction. These are among the most northern archaeological assets surveyed to date. The presence of Riu GönpaRi’u gdon pa, an important archaic residential site (B-25) and good pasturage to the south, may have had some bearing on the founding of funerary structures at this site.

Oral tradition

In this region (RutokRu thog), sites such as Drakratar MöndurBrag ra thar mon dur are generally ascribed to the MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (6.8 m by 8 m) is situated on a shelf at the edge of the DrakratarBrag ra thar formation (33° 57.751΄ N. lat. / 81° 52.789΄ E. long. / 4890 m). Only a few vestiges of this highly degraded enclosure are extant. Nearly all the large stones in the enclosing walls have been removed. Nearby, on a slope below the shelf, there are the possible remains of a smaller enclosure, but not enough is intact to make a positive identification.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2.6 m by 2.4 m) is a single-course enclosure, whose larger upright stones reach 70 cm in length and project as much as 40 cm above the ground surface (57.724΄ / 52.923΄ / 4880 m).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (1.8 m by 1.8 m) is a single-course enclosure made up of upright rocks, up to 75 cm in length, which project upwards of 30 cm above the ground surface (57.631 / 53.026 / 4880 m). Stones of the perimeter walls have broken free and lie scattered inside the small enclosure.

Affiliated sites

AyakA g.yag

Farther up valley, at a location called AyakA g.yag there is what appears to be another funerary superstructure (56.131΄ / 56.209΄ / 4850 m). This rocky tumulus (3 m across by 1 m high) has no visible coherent wall segments remaining. A few meters up valley of this structure there are the remains of a small enclosure approximating a rectangle (2 m by 1.1 m). The perimeter walls consist of a single line of stones inserted into the ground edgewise. These slabs are up to 55 cm in length and project as much as 15 cm above the ground surface. On the down valley side of the tumulus there are small wall fragments of other funerary structures.

Between DrakratarBrag ra thar and AyakA g.yag there is an area of light-colored rock formations known as Dranpa NakkhaDran pa nag kha (sp.?). It is reported that two or three “möndur” are located here.

Deumbur Nakri Möndur (Rde’u ’bur nag ri mon dur)

General site characteristics

Deumbur Nakri MöndurRde’u ’bur nag ri mon dur is situated in the sandy valley bottom around the Deumbur NakriRde’u ’bur nag ri formation. This site is located in a region known as Arula GyapA ru la rgyab. This site consists of a slab-wall funerary superstructure with extremely high walls, a row of standing stones and a long wall of unknown provenance.

Oral tradition

In this region (RutokRu thog), sites such as Deumbur Nakri MöndurRde’u ’bur nag ri mon dur are often associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Pillars

A row of about 14 small standing stones is found in sandy ground at the base of Deumbur NakriRde’u ’bur nag ri (33° 53.483΄ N. lat. / 82° 00.294΄ E. long. / 4890 m). At the time of installation, it is likely that the terrain was more stable than it is in the contemporary period, with its shifting sands. These pillars form a curved row, 10 m in length. The irregularly shaped stones are raised 20 cm to 75 cm above the current ground level, broken specimens notwithstanding. Mostly dark-colored, naturally occurring rocks were selected for erection. It is possible that there is more to this monument than meets the eye: parts of it may lie buried under the deep sand.

Long wall

Near the row of pillars there is a small highly deteriorated superstructure in the valley bottom (53.457΄ / 00.716΄ / 4880 m). On its uphill side there are the remains of a partly submerged wall 60 m in length that follows the same elevation contour. This wall, made of a single line of small upright stones, appears to be an ancient feature. On one end of this wall there are the remains of another highly degraded, small superstructure.

Slab-wall enclosure

A prominent slab-wall enclosure is found near the confluence of the Arula Gyap ChuA ru la rgyab chu and a stream flowing from the south (53.281΄ / 00.004΄ / 4880 m). It was built on flat sandy ground. Measuring 3 m by 2.5 m, the single-course perimeter of this enclosure is made up of thin upright slabs, 11 of which are still in situ. Other slabs lie broken on the ground beside the structure. Each of the in situ slabs is elevated more than 20 cm above ground level. The largest among them (45 cm long) is raised 70 cm above the surface. These slab walls may have been aligned in the cardinal directions, but they have shifted too much for a definite assessment. All the slabs are inclined at various angles through the effect of gravity. These naturally occurring, dark gray rocks are just 3 cm to 5 cm thick. All in all, this superstructure exhibits the most highly elevated slab walls of any superstructure surveyed to date. Due to its design, it superficially resembles tombs of the Slab Grave culture of north Inner Asia.194

Rindzin Möndur (Ri ’dzin mon dur)

General site characteristics

Rindzin MöndurRi ’dzin mon dur consists of a series of highly degraded, single-course superstructures situated on wide, unobscured, slightly sloping ground. The remains of at least three enclosures are found at the site. They are constructed primarily of an unhewn, grayish metamorphic rock of variable length (20 cm to 75 cm long).

Oral tradition

In this region (GegyéDge rgyas), sites such as Rindzin MöndurRi ’dzin mon dur are frequently associated with the MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7 m by 4 m) consists of a quadrate single-course perimeter whose stones are mostly flush with the ground surface (33° 27.596΄ / 81° 58.306΄ / 4680 m). About 30 stones, 50 cm to 75 cm in length, remain in situ.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated several meters from FS1. FS2 consists of highly fragmentary walls. It appears to be of the same design and construction as FS1.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 consists of small single-course wall fragments covering an area of 24 m by 9 m (27.700΄ / 58.168΄ / 4870 m). It appears that more than one enclosure was built here. The extant wall segments (up to 2.4 m long) include uncut blocks flush with the ground and upright slabs that protrude above the surface. The largest in situ stone slab is 75 cm long and is elevated 40 cm above ground level.

Affiliated sites

Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha

At Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha (Child Summer Plain) there are the remains of a single rectangular enclosure (33° 30.39΄ N. lat. / 81° 52 58΄ E. long. / 5020 m). This small enclosure (2.5 m by 1.5 m) has three single-course walls and one double-course wall (east), and is divided into two parts by a double-course wall, consisting of three stones in each course. The enclosure walls are primarily made of pieces of gray granite (up to 50 cm long), which protrude upwards of 20 cm above ground level. This structure is not aligned in the cardinal directions. Located on level shelf in a limestone formation, it is in close proximity to an old abandoned pastoral camp.

In the limestone formation, near the funerary structure of Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha, there is a small cave with around one dozen obscured swastikas on its walls. They were drawn using orange-red ochre. Probably all but one of these swastikas face in a counterclockwise direction. Some have been dabbed with butter, possibly in the worship of the local territorial deity (yüllha). There are also two or three conjoined sun and moon (nyida) pictographs on the walls of the cave as well as one or two unrecognizable motifs. Near the mouth of the cave there are a couple old mani plaques. Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha boasts a perennial stream fed by 6000 m tall peaks to the north and a spring. The spring is the residence of a water spirit known as Lutsen ChukmoKlu btsan phyug mo. Local sources say that this female deity came to the locale from the south, on her way to northern India. However, upon breaking a leg at Trugu YarkhaPhru gu dbyar kha, she remained at this location.

Rirung Möndur (Ri rung mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Rirung Möndur
Site number: D-50
Site typology: II.2a, II.2c
Elevation: 4700 m
Administrative location (township): Ombu Tangzang
Administrative location (county): Gegyé
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 4, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing and the probable extraction of stones from the monuments.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS II
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General site characteristics

The four superstructures of Rirung MöndurRi rung mon dur are situated on a shelf set on the east shoulder of RirungRi rung mountain. The vistas to the north and east are particularly wide open. The shelf declines in an eastern direction, forcing the downhill walls of the heaped-stone wall enclosures to be elevated in order to maintain level interiors. The walls of these rounded enclosures consist of stones heaped to a height of 60 cm. The heaped-stone walls are as much as 1 m to 2 m thick, reflecting a great deal of subsidence over the centuries. Stones are strewn around the site while adjoining areas of the same shelf are free of such debris. This probably indicates that these loose stones were once part of the superstructures. The rocky backbone of RirungRi rung, the probable source of stones for the construction of Rirung MöndurRi rung mon dur, is situated west of the site. The structures are made from variable-length (20 cm to 1 m long) stones. These stones are light-colored with a dark grain and have acquired a reddish varnish. There is a small corral on the site which was probably built with stones pilfered from the monuments.

Oral tradition

Rirung MöndurRi rung mon dur is attributed by local sources to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

From south to north, the characteristics of the three superstructures are as follows:

Funerary structure FS1 (19 m long) is kidney shaped and has a level interior. The uphill wall is sunken about 60 cm into the ground and the downhill wall is raised a like amount in order to create a level interior. The interior is free from visible structural elements.
Funerary structure FS2 (6 m long) is located 17 m northwest of FS1. This is an irregularly shaped enclosure with single-course perimeter walls. The stones in the enclosure are up to 90 cm in length and project as much as 35 cm from the surface of the ground.
Funerary structure FS3 (17 m across) is situated 7 m northwest of FS2. This heaped-stone wall enclosure is nearly round. Like FS1, its uphill wall is set prominently into the ground, while its downhill wall is elevated in order to create a level interior. The interior is free from visible structural elements.
Funerary structure FS4 (19 m across) is located 32 m northwest of FS3. This ovoid heaped-stone wall specimen may have been divided into two cells by a heaped-stone wall.

Sergam Möndur (Ser sgam mon dur)

General site characteristics

Sergam MöndurSer sgam mon dur, a contiguous group of double-course funerary enclosures, is located in a side valley about 12 km southwest of TongtsoStong mtsho (this lake is visible from the site). The terrain is level and gravelly. The variable-sized quadrate enclosures of SergamSer sgam are joined together, and encompass an area measuring 48 m (north-south) by 17 m (east-west). The size and prominence of these structures indicates that SergamSer sgam was a relatively important funerary site. The slab walls (40 cm to 60 cm thick), the predominant type at the site, are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. Primarily, an unhewn light brown stone of variable length (30 cm to 80 cm) was used in their construction. Many of these stones host orange climax lichen. The light brown stones were installed in the ground edgewise and project 5 cm to 25 cm above the surface. There are also a few contrasting wall sections made from pieces of gray limestone (10 cm to 25 cm long) that are set flush with the ground surface.

Oral tradition

In this region (GertséSger rtse), sites such as Sergam MöndurSer sgam mon dur are closely associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

The fragmentary nature of the SergamSer sgam superstructures precluded a detailed assessment of their ground plans. Not one enclosure has survived fully intact. The better-preserved, south half of the site consists of six interconnected enclosures in two rows of three each. These six enclosures all share the same central wall. The east portion of the north half of the site appears to have supported three more analogous enclosures. These are now highly fragmentary. The west portion of the north half of SergamSer sgam may have contained a symmetrical array of three enclosures, but virtually all evidence of them has been effaced from the surface.

Luma Drak Möndur (Lu ma brag mon dur)

General site characteristics

Luma Drak MöndurLu ma brag mon dur, a network of funerary superstructures, is located near the south side of Drangné TsoSbrang sne mtsho. The site is found on a wide open, grassy plain that gently declines in the direction of Drangné TsoSbrang sne mtsho, a relatively small salt lake. Now reduced to fragmentary walls, Luma Drak MöndurLu ma brag mon dur covers an area of 14 m by 20 m. The site can be divided into north and south sectors. The walls are made of variable length (primarily 30 cm to 70 cm long, maximum length 90 cm) light-colored calcareous blocks and slabs. These stones are level with the ground surface or project above it a maximum of 25 cm.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The north sector of Luma DrakkarLu ma brag dkar is comprised of a dense agglomeration of dissolving single-course walls that appear to have been part of two rows of small enclosures of various configurations. There were perhaps ten enclosures in a row, each of which measured in the vicinity of 1 m by 1.7 m. The south sector appears to consist of one large double-course enclosure subdivided into two or three cells. The north wall is the most intact feature in this enclosure. It is 12 m long and 90 cm thick.

In the vicinity there appears to be a wall remnant of another funerary superstructure (31° 29.845΄ / 87° 23.395΄ / 4660 m). Other minor structural remains may exist at this site.

Nyenmar (Gnyan dmar)

General site characteristics

NyenmarGnyan dmar is the name of a small village on the east side of sacred Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho. Bounding the village to the northeast is a range with a rock outcrop also called NyenmarGnyan dmar. This is the local territorial deity (yüllha), who is considered a bodyguard (kusung) in the circle of the TagoRta rgo mountain gods. At NyenmarGnyan dmar there are at least seven funerary structures spread out across the sandy plain on the outskirts of the village. This mortuary site is divided by a gully into south and north sectors.

Oral tradition

On the shores of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho, structures such as those found at NyenmarGnyan dmar are considered the tombs of the ancient MönMon. Funerary structure FS5, the largest funerary structure at NyenmarGnyan dmar, is locally known as Tso DeugoGtso rde’u mgo (Chieftain’s Head Hill). It is thought to be the burial mound of an ancient MönMon chieftain.

Site elements

South sector

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8 m by 8 m) is a square tumulus raised 80 cm above the surrounding terrain. There are no coherent wall segments left in this rock and earthen mound. FS1 seems to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. Stones up to 50 cm in length went into its construction.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (14.5 m by 5.5 m minimum) is situated 3 m east of FS1. The fragmentary walls of this double-course enclosure are flush with the ground surface. The width of FS2 is uncertain because many stones have been removed in order to build walls in the settlement of NyenmarGnyan dmar. Stones up to 50 cm in length went into building FS2.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (6 m across) is a highly deteriorated enclosure situated 25 m north of FS2. The remaining wall segments are around 90 cm thick and contain variable length (up to 60 cm long) stones flush with the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (9 m across) is another highly dissolute funerary structure situated 25 m north of FS3.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (18 m by 18 m), the largest funerary structure at NyenmarGnyan dmar, is situated 98 m north of FS4. This square tumulus (bangso) is elevated about 1.7 m above the surrounding plain. Only tiny wall sections are still extant along the flanks of this rock and earthen mound. The random-rubble double-course fragments that have survived are composed of smaller stones. Reportedly, in the 1980s, stones were extracted from FS5 in order to build adjacent houses. Interestingly, several years after being built, these houses were abandoned, probably because of the perceived negative effects associated with using stones from a so-called möndur. Roughly 70 m northwest of FS5 there is a small rocky tumulus (under 50 cm high) on which old mani plaques rest. This may be another funerary structure.

North sector

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (11.5 m by 12.5) is situated on the north side of a gully that cuts through the benches of NyenmarGnyan dmar (53.934΄ / 37.492΄ / 4640 m). Although all four walls of this enclosure are intact, there is no discernable coherence to these structures. The walls are flush with the ground surface and their corners are rounded. Stone piled inside the enclosure were probably removed from the perimeter walls affecting the integrity of FS6.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (6.5 m) is a highly dissolute structure situated immediately north of FS6. FS7 appears to be identical in construction to FS6.

Chöser Möndur (Phyod ser mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Chöser Möndur
Site number: D-55
Site typology: II.2x
Elevation: 4740 m to 4750 m
Administrative location (township): Drowa
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: June 23, 2001
Contemporary usage: Stones have been extracted wholesale from the monument.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A small mani wall.
Maps: UTRS VIII
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General site characteristics

Chöser MöndurPhyod ser mon dur is located on the flanks of a small hill called ChöserPhyod ser, which rises above the marshy Nyawa TsangpoNya ba gtsang po valley bottom. The entire hillside, including the funerary superstructures, has been intensively mined for stones. These stones have been used to construct substantial homes and corrals in the area. On the summit of ChöserPhyod ser there is a small mani wall.

Oral tradition

In this region (NaktsangNag tshang) such sites are often associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1, a small enclosure, has been heavily mined for stones. It was built on the clear, level ground of a saddle. Stones up to 80 cm in length went into the construction of FS2.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (3 m across) is another small enclosure, situated east of FS1, near the hilltop of ChöserPhyod ser. It sits on clear, level ground. The probable double-course perimeter walls (around 50 cm thick) are flush with the ground surface, but only small traces remain. Sheep horns have been placed inside the fragmentary enclosure. In the vicinity there appears to be the traces of another superficial structure.

Funerary Structures FS3 and FS4

Funerary structures FS3 and FS4 are situated 35 m south of FS1 at the south foot of the ChöserPhyod ser hill. They were built on moderately sloping, rocky and gravelly terrain. These structures have been so heavily impacted that they could not be positively identified. Local residents deny their MönMon associations, but their protestations do not seem very credible. It is said that this location was once inhabited by a woman from southern Tibet who built a corral here. FS3 consists of a dispersion that is 6 m across. A slight depression in the ground, encircled by dislodged stones, is all that remains. FS4 (5 m by 4.5 m) is situated 4 m south of FS3. Its downhill wall is elevated 1 m above the slope, while its upslope wall is elevated 50 cm above the slope. The remaining wall traces appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. The middle of FS4 has been excavated to a depth of 1 m, probably in the search for valuable artifacts. Stones remaining in the vicinity of FS3 and FS4 are up to 40 cm in length. Larger stones have been carried off.

Nelé Drak (Ne le brag)

General site characteristics

Nelé DrakNe le brag is named for the Nelé, a species of small eagle or possibly the sparrow hawk. The site is located on open, sandy and grassy ground on the northern edge of the vast Nya TsangpoNya gtsang po basin. It consists of two large interconnected, ovoid enclosures, which appear to be funerary in nature.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The enclosures measure 30 m and 10 m across. These structures are elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the surrounding plain on their north and east sides. The perimeter walls appear to be composed of stones that were heaped up above ground level (type II.2c), but they are not very well developed. The general form of the enclosures is also in keeping with type II.2c structures. The perimeter walls were built primarily from smaller stones, although some stones reach 50 cm in length. On the west side of the large enclosure there is a 13.5 m gap in the perimeter wall. A slight concavity has formed inside the large enclosure.

Nakra Drakseng Mönra (Nag ra brag seng mon ra)

General site characteristics

Nakra Drakseng MönraNag ra brag seng mon ra, the site of two large enclosures, is located at the south foot of the dark-colored NakradrakNag ra brag seng formation. In the heights above the site there is a rampart network stronghold (A-76). The terrain is sandy and moderately slopes down towards the lush Nyawa TsangpoNya ba gtsang po basin. The not well-preserved enclosures of Nakra Drakseng MöndurNag ra brag seng mon dur appear to be funerary superstructures. They are comprised of thin slabs of stone that seem to have been cut from the parent formation. These slabs form both double-course walls and heaped-stone walls. While most stones now lie prostrate on the surface, it is likely that some of those belonging to double-course walls originally were erected upright. It would appear that they collapsed en masse in the unstable sandy substrate. Other double-course walls may have been composed of several vertical courses of slabs laid on top of one another. The two enclosures of Nakra Drakseng MöndurNag ra brag seng mon dur, with their prominent slab walls, must have once cut an imposing sight.

Oral tradition

According to local elders, the structures of Nakra Drakseng MöndurNag ra brag seng mon dur were constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (16 m by 13 m) has three walls fairly well aligned in the cardinal directions, while the north side of the structure is made up of the rock formation itself. The south/downhill wall is elevated upon an earthen embankment around 1.2 m in height. The three well-built, double-course perimeter walls (50 cm thick) are composed primarily of smaller slabs (1 m long maximum) that lie flat on the ground. There are also some small upright slabs in the south wall that project upwards of 50 cm above ground level. These upright stones are pillar-like in aspect. Some portions of the east wall are missing. There is much building debris scattered about, both inside and outside the enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (38 m by 45 m) is situated a couple hundred meters west of funerary structure FS1. This structure appears to consist of heaped-stone and double-course walls that form a sub-rectangular enclosure. Much of the structure is elevated around 1 m above the surrounding terrain. The enclosure gently slopes down towards the east. The perimeter walls are now very fragmentary. Either there was no north wall (the side adjacent to the NakradrakNag ra brag seng formation) or it has been fully obliterated. Within the perimeter walls, near the upper end of the enclosure, there is an inner enclosure (5 m across). This apparently square subsidiary structure is composed of double-course slabs that lie flat on the ground. Its walls are now quite fragmentary. Beside it is another subsidiary enclosure that also appears to have been square in form (2.3 m by 2.3 m). This example exhibits a single-course slab-wall perimeter. The two subsidiary enclosures may have been erected to mark the precise locations of burials.

Beltsa Gyangtrok (Bal tshwa gyang khrog)

General site characteristics

Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog, a group of funerary structures, is located on the right side of the Rukyok TsangpoRu skyog gtsang po valley bottom. The site is situated on level ground spotted with turf, gravel and stones, which rises a little above the flood plain of the river. The northern end of the site is within one-half km of Beltsa Gyangtrok DoringBal tshwa gyang khrog rdo ring (C-82), and these two monuments are likely to be functionally interrelated (insomuch as walled pillars are often found near funerary structures). Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog consists of 17 well-built but highly dissolute rectangular and sub-rectangular funerary superstructures spread out over a transection of one-half km. Most of these enclosures appear to have had single-course perimeter walls, but there is also evidence for double-course walls. These walls contain variable length (20 cm to 70 cm long) blocks and, to a lesser degree, slabs, most of which appear to have been laid flat on the ground. Some stones used in construction may have been dressed. These enclosures appear to have been heavily disturbed sometime in the past. Most of the enclosing walls are severely denuded of stones, and many of those stones that remain on the site are not fixed in their original configurations. Furthermore, larger stone members lying on the surface are of the type regularly employed in the subsurface architecture of Upper Tibetan tombs.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Southeast sector

Funerary structure FS1 (5 m by 8.5 m) is elevated to a maximum height of 50 cm above the plain. Four dislodged stones between 1 m and 1.5 m in length are found within the enclosure. Most of the perimeter wall has been destroyed.
Funerary structure FS2 (3.5 m by 4 m) is a small sub-rectangular single-course enclosure that is level with the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS3 (10.8 m by 7.2 m), a highly dissolute enclosure, is elevated 30 cm to 50 cm above the surrounding plain.
Funerary structure FS4 (3.7 m by 2.8 m) is a relatively well-preserved, single-course seemingly ovoid enclosure, which is nearly flush with the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS5 (5.5 m by 4.3 m) is flush with the ground surface. Within the enclosure are two desultory stone members 1.2 m and 1.3 m in length.
Funerary structure FS6 (5.2 m by 9 m) has more than 50 percent of its single-course perimeter intact (33.060΄ / 57.270΄). This structure is level with the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS7 6.4 m by 9.3 m by 11.4 m) appears to have been an L-shaped enclosure. The west side of this structure is raised 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. A portion of the east wall of the enclosure has maintained its coherency. On the perimeter there is a stone member 1.6 m in length and inside the enclosure there is a large slab (1 m by 1 m). A small wall upon which rest plaques inscribed with the mani mantra was built on top of the enclosure.
Funerary structure FS8 (6.8 m by 11 m) is elevated 30 cm to 70 above the surrounding plain. A portion of its single-course perimeter walls are intact. A large broken stone lies within the enclosure.
Funerary structure FS9 (5.6 m by 3.1 m) has only small portions of its enclosure walls intact. The structure is elevated up to 30 cm above the surrounding plain. Large stones (up to 1 m long) are scattered within the enclosure.
Funerary structure FS10 (7.1 m by 10.4 m) with its single-course perimeter walls is largely intact. There are some upright slabs in the east wall of the enclosure.
Funerary structure FS11 (5.6 m by 9.3 m) is elevated around 50 cm above the surrounding plain. Many parts of the enclosing walls (60 cm thick) are intact, and include segments that are double-course. These walls contain slabs (up to 80 cm long) set in the ground edgewise. Within the enclosure, a 1.8 m long slab of stone lies partially submerged.
Funerary structure FS12 (9 m by 3.5 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen that is level with the ground surface
Funerary structure FS13 (4.8 m by 8.7 m) is elevated 50 cm to 1 m above the surrounding plain. The perimeter walls are partly intact and include one upright slab. FS13 is only 7 m away from the main road.

Northwest sector

Funerary structure FS14 (10.7 m by 8.2 m) is elevated 50 cm to 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. Most parts of the perimeter walls have been destroyed.
Funerary structure FS15 (2.9 m by 4.9 m) is a very small specimen.
Funerary structure FS16 (7.8 m by 9.1 m) is elevated 70 cm to 1.2 m above the surrounding valley floor. Parts of its north and east walls are extant. Cobbles are deposited on top of this structure; these are likely to have been part of the original superstructure.
Funerary structure FS17 (measurements unavailable).

Affiliated sites

In Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog, at the edge of the Rukyok TsangpoRu skyog gtsang po valley, there is a partial enclosure containing four massive upright stones (up to 2 m high) of unknown function and age (29° 32.842΄ N. lat. / 84° 57.252΄ E. long. / 4580 m). The rear wall of this fragmentary enclosure was built against a steep slope and contains three of the very large upright stones. There is no forward wall in this well-built structure. Several large dislodged stones lie within the walls.

Gyamnak Mönkhang (Gyam nag mon khang)

General site characteristics

Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang is an important archaic burial grounds. The site is named for GyamnakGyam nag, a small dark-colored escarpment in the vicinity, at which there is a summer pastoral encampment (yarsa). The terrain gently slopes down towards the northeast and is strewn with rocks, gravel and brush. The view east towards Beltsa GyangtrokBal tshwa gyang khrog (C-82 and D-58) is especially wide open. Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang consists of 19 major funerary structures. These structures, most or all of which were used for burial purposes, are not aligned in the cardinal directions nor could any pattern in their overall distribution be discerned. The tombs are spread out over an area of several hectares. Most of the superstructures are either quadrate constructions elevated significantly above the ground surface or non-descript enclosures level with the ground surface. It appears that these superstructures of variable size were of the superficial enclosure or bangso type, however, most structural evidence on the surface has been severely disturbed. The superstructures contained variable length (20 cm to 80 cm) unhewn light-colored stones, which were embedded in the ground along the perimeter. The subsurface architecture (at least where visible) consists of well-built masonry-lined walls, generally built with large slabs (up to 1 m or more in length). Massive capstones (up to at least 2.1 m long) were placed upon these walls. The floors of the cists are not visible; rather they are obscured by soil and debris. It could not therefore be determined what type of base the burial chambers possessed. Due to the obscuring of the cists by rubble, capstones and the soil overlay, their precise dimensions could not be determined. It appears that many of these cists were relatively long and narrow with wider chambers at each end. In addition to the 19 major structures of Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang, there are several smaller highly fragmentary constructions scattered about. These include the only extant slab-wall fragment left on the surface at the site.

According to local sources, several years ago a road construction crew of perhaps eight men came to Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang in order to extract stones. They smashed the superstructures to reach large stones capping the burial chambers. They removed no less than 30 stones, up to 2 m in length, from the so-called mönkhang. A number of tombs were very seriously damaged in this operation and are now exposed to the full fury of the elements. The stones were transported several kilometers away to the GangchenGangs chen flood plain and used to build culverts along the main road to southwestern Tibet. More stones were pilfered than were needed for this work and now lie unused on the roadside. The opened tombs have been cleared of any contents they might have once held. Inquires as to what was recovered by the road gang did not turn up any hard information. No artifacts, bones or other materials were detected at the site, but only a cursory search was conducted. In addition to the recent case of vandalism, there are tombs with highly eroded subsurface members on the surface, which may well be evidence of an earlier pilferage of the site. The destruction of Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang underlines the urgency of an effective conservation program being instituted in Upper Tibet.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang is the vestiges of an ancient MönMon habitation.

Site elements

Funerary sructure FS1

Funerary sructure FS1 (5.6 m by 3.2 m) consists of an incoherent perimeter level with the ground surface. On top of the structure there is a large dislodged stone slab (1 m²), which is likely to have been part of its subsurface architecture.

Funerary sructure FS2

Funerary sructure FS2 (7.5 m by 7.5 m) is situated 8.4 m west of FS1. FS2 is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. Due to the excavation of the tomb, two in situ capstones are now exposed. These capstones measure at least 1.5 m by 1 m and 1.2 m by 1 m.

Funerary sructure FS3

Funerary sructure FS3 (11.6 m by 16.2 m) is situated 50 m south of FS2 (36.544΄ / 38.360΄). This large structure is elevated 1m above the surrounding terrain on its north side and as much as 2 m on its south side. The superstructure consists of two mounds, the north one of which was partially opened by road workers in order to remove capstones. There are still two in situ capstones (2 m by 60 cm, 2.1 m by 50 cm) suspended over the opened grave chamber. This rectangular cist currently has a maximum depth of 1.4 m. The subsurface walls of the cist were either partially or completely lined in random-work masonry (containing stone slabs that regularly attain 1 m in length). These walls act as the structural support for the capstones. The southeast extremity of the north burial chamber has four more large in situ capstones. These capstones are tightly pressed against one another. One of them is partially exposed while the other three are still covered by soil and small cobbles. The configuration of the four capstones indicates that the entire burial chamber was sealed by a tight-knit series of large stones. The south mound of the FS3 superstructure does not appear to have been recently disturbed.

Funerary sructure FS4

Funerary sructure FS4 (3.8 m by 2.8 m) is situated 2.8 m east of FS3 (36.542΄ / 38.369΄). The poorly preserved superstructure is level with the ground surface.

Funerary sructure FS5

Funerary sructure FS5 (5 m by 3 m) is situated 5.3 m east of FS4 (36.538΄ / 38.369΄). Although the perimeter walls of the superstructure are clearly delineated, their design could not be determined. The superstructure is even with the ground level.

Funerary sructure FS6

Funerary sructure FS6 (9.8 m by 7 m) is situated 9 m east of FS5 (36.531΄ / 38.383΄). Like FS3, FS6 was cloaked in earth and small cobbles. The superstructure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. The entire breadth of the structure was opened in order to remove stones. Only two large capstones remain in place. The walls of the cist are generally made of large slabs, 1 m or more in length. The current maximum depth of the burial chamber is 1.2 m. Although the burial chamber is not entirely visible, it appears to have been long and narrow with a wider extension or compartment on each end.

Funerary sructure FS7

Funerary sructure FS7 is situated 5 m northeast of FS6 and has similar dimensions (36.535΄ / 38.387΄). The superstructure is elevated as much as 1.5 m above the surrounding terrain. The burial chamber has been partially opened and now has a maximum depth of 1.2 m. What appears to have been the largest capstone (2 m long) is still in place. On the northwest end of the cist there are two small compartments (60 cm to 70 cm wide, 80 cm to 1.2 m wide) at right angles to one another.

Funerary sructure FS8

Funerary sructure FS8 (5.5 m by 5.5 m) is situated 12 m northeast of FS7 (36.543΄ / 38.396΄). Its poorly-preserved perimeter wall is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain.

Funerary sructure FS9

Funerary sructure FS9 (4.4 m by 2.6 m) is situated 6.7 m northeast of FS8 (36.549΄ / 38.399΄). Its flush perimeter is well marked with stones.

Funerary sructure FS10

Funerary sructure FS10 (2.5 m across) is situated 9 m east of FS7 (36.535΄ / 38.398΄). This small structure, which is even with the ground surface, has been mostly destroyed.

Funerary sructure FS11

Funerary sructure FS11 (4.4 m by 2.6 m) is situated 10 m east of FS6 (36.530΄ / 38.397΄). The perimeter is still well marked but of an indeterminate construction type.

Funerary sructure FS12

Funerary sructure FS12 (3.3 m by 3.5 m) is situated 11.4 m south of FS11 (36.522΄ / 38.394΄). This poorly preserved enclosure is level with the ground surface.

Funerary sructure FS13

Funerary sructure FS13 (2.3 m by 2.5 m) is situated 8 m east of FS12 (36.522΄ / 38.390΄). This highly dissolute enclosure is even with the ground surface.

Funerary sructure FS14

Funerary sructure FS14 (6.5 m by 9.3 m) is situated 25 m west of FS13 (36.521΄ / 38.367΄). The partly preserved enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain.

Funerary sructure FS15

Funerary sructure FS15, a prominent specimen of indeterminate dimensions, is situated 9 m south of FS14 (36.517΄ / 38.359΄). FS15 is elevated as much as 1.5 m above the adjacent terrain. It was excavated by road workers in two places. On the east end of the opened chamber there is an exposed in situ capstone more than 2 m in length. Three more exposed capstones are suspended above the west end of the burial chamber.

Funerary sructure FS16

Funerary sructure FS16 (3.7 m by 6.4 m) is situated 2.7 m east of FS14 (36.514΄ / 38.373΄ ). A heavily eroded dislodged large capstone (2.1 m long) lies on top of the structure. There are also smaller capstones that have been lying on the surface of FS15 for a considerable amount of time.

Funerary sructure FS17

Funerary sructure FS17 (6.6 m by 7.7 m) is situated 26 m southeast of FS16 (36.503΄ / 38.390΄). This structure is elevated as much as 1.2 m above the surrounding terrain. Excavations have exposed three capstones.

Funerary sructure FS18

Funerary sructure FS18 (2.5 m by 4.6 m) is situated 10.7 m east of FS17 (36.500΄ / 38.402΄). FS18 is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain. Capstones exposed to the elements for a long time lie on the surface.

Funerary sructure FS19

Funerary sructure FS19 (4.3 m by 4 m), the highest specimen at Gyamnak MönkhangGyam nag mon khang, is situated 52 m northeast of FS2 (36.554΄ / 38.329΄). The fragmentary enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. The presence of large eroded stones on the surface, probably from an underlying cist, suggests that FS19, like many other specimens at the site, was desecrated in the distant past.

Nyerma Gyam Möndo (Gnyer ma gyam mon rdo)

General site characteristics

Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo, a site of ambiguous identity, is named for various cuts along its slopes, which are said to resemble the wrinkles on a forehead. The Nyerma GyamGnyer ma gyam ridge overlooks the north side of Gunggyü TsoGung rgyud mtsho. The site consists of a series of mani walls, two of which appear to be modified funerary structures. These six mani walls sit on three dark-colored rock outcrops situated at different elevations. The inscribed plaques are all of considerable age. Although these structures are included among superficial structures (II.2) for the purposes of this catalogue, they may be better classified under type II.3 monuments (cubic tombs). Positive identification, however, is still pending. Indications that the mani walls of Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo, may in some cases, be modified cubic tombs include:

Their persistent attribution among local sources to the ancient MönMon.
The resemblance of two of the structures to mountaintop cubic tombs.
Their location on the top of lofty rock outcrops.

Indeed, there seems to be little cause for building mani walls on ridgelines without compelling circumstances. It may be that they were designed to subdue or recast archaic monuments in a Buddhist light. It must be remembered that the site is within the ambit of the Gangritso SumGangs ri mtsho gsum, a region of exceptional importance to Tibetan Buddhism. This strong Buddhist territorial association may have acted as the motivation for the rebuilding of earlier remains. Cubic mountaintop tombs that were modified into Buddhist mani monuments are encountered at GomkhorSgom ’khor (E-15).

Oral tradition

According to various drokpa of the Gunggyü TsoGung rgyud mtsho region, the remains at Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo were founded by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

The highest elevation mani wall at Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo is the specimen that most resembles a cubic tomb (30° 39.971΄ N. lat. / 82° 12.196΄ E. long. / 5090 m). This structure (1.6 m by 1.6 m by 1.2 m) is built in the fashion of tombs with random-rubble walls composed of thin blocks. Plaques inscribed with the mani mantra have been laid on top of the structure. From this point on the ridge there are long views to the east. On the same outcrop, directly below this structure, there are three other walls with mani plaques: two small round walls and a small quadrate platform. On a lower outcrop there is another mani wall. On the lowest outcrop of the site there is another mani wall that somewhat resembles a cubic tomb (39.776΄ / 12.149΄ / 5010m).

Jiu Möndo (Byi’u mon rdo)

Basic site data

Site name: Jiu Möndo
English equivalent: Little Bird Mön Stones
Site number: D-61
Site typology: II.2a, II.2b
Elevation: 4620 m
Administrative location (township): Barga
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: May 8, 2002
Contemporary usage: The excavation and wholesale extraction of stones from the funerary structures. Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS VI, UTRS X, HAS C4
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General site characteristics

Jiu MöndoByi’u mon rdo is the name given to funerary structures found all around the J iuByi’u locale, the site of an ancient citadel (A-82). The majority of these enclosures and the subsurface graves have been recently dismantled to feed the local appetite for building stones. It is widely reported at J iuByi’u that many of these funerary structures contained human bones, which were indiscriminately discarded. The wholesale destruction of the J iuByi’u funerary monuments, a function of greed and ignorance, is a significant cultural loss. Wrought by the Tibetans themselves, this comes on top of the highly destructive Chinese Cultural Revolution. Only the remains of five so-called möndo still lend themselves to documentation.

Oral tradition

According to residents of J iuByi’u, the tombs of Jiu MöndurByi’u mon dur contain the remains of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated near the northern-most line of chöten at Jiu GönpaByi’u dgon pa (30° 46.031 N. lat. / 81° 21.993΄ E. long.). It is found on sloping ground in the vicinity of where a couple of contemporary residences have come up. FS1 has been totally destroyed. Reportedly, the excavation of this structure turned up charcoal at about 1 m in depth. At 60 cm deep a ceramic vessel (35 cm across) was smashed during the excavation. A large portion of this vessel was still in situ at the time of the survey.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated north of Jiu GönpaByi’u dgon pa on the lower flanks of a hillside, in close proximity to FS1. FS2 has been reduced to a double-course wall fragment 80 cm in length and around 25 cm thick (46.048΄ / 22.003΄). It is composed of variable-length pebbles (2 cm to 7 cm long) embedded into the ground. It is reported that human skeletal remains were discovered in the ground at this location.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (8.5 m by 6 m) is situated in a sandy and grassy plain approximately 1 km north of J iuByi’u (46.322΄ / 22.154΄). It consists of a rectangular single-course enclosure subdivided into at least two cells of unequal size. FS3 is composed of stones up to 85 cm in length. The stones of the enclosing walls protrude a maximum of 20 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6.5 m by 2.7 m) is situated in close proximity to FS3 (46.334΄ / 22.170΄). Adjacent to this enclosure there is a small area of various wall segments. These structures are primarily composed of variable length (20 cm to 40 cm) slabs embedded in the ground edgewise. These slabs are flush with the surface or rise above the ground level to a maximum height of 15 cm.

Funerary Structure FS5

Reportedly, the superstructure of FS5 was dismantled in 2002 (46.491΄ / 22.112΄). There are cavities in the ground where the stones of the enclosing walls were extracted.

Dripra Möndur (Grib ra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur is located on a wide tableland, bordered on one side by a small white mountain known as ShartséShar rtse. The site forms the geographic nexus of the confluence of four valleys. The celebrated holy mountain, Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, is visible from Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur. The terrain at this important funerary site is level and gravelly with some turf and drama brush. Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur consists of no less than 45 square, rectangular and sub-rectangular enclosures. Some of the enclosures appear almost oval in form, but this is most likely due to the deterioration of the perimeter walls and the migration of the constituent stones. A number of enclosures are elevated as much as 50 cm to 60 cm above the surrounding terrain. Aligning walls to the cardinal directions is not a dominant feature of the site. A few enclosures still have coherent wall fragments (60 cm to 85 cm thick). These double-course or multiple-course walls are composed of smaller beige, tan and grayish stones (10 cm to 40 cm long), which are even with the ground level or slightly elevated above it. Due to the disintegration of the superstructures, it could not be determined if other wall types are also represented at Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur. While most enclosures are free of internal structures, certain specimens are completely covered in stones, which may possibly signal another form of design. The monuments of Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur do not appear to have been disturbed in recent times.

Oral tradition

Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur contains structures commonly known as möndur (MönMon tombs) and Mönra (MönMon enclosures). According to one local drokpa, the remains found here are those of SingpaSing pa (invaders from the northwest) fortifications. According to another local account, the structures of Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur were the residences of a band of sinmo (a class of man-eating female spirits) in ancient times.

Site elements

The funerary superstructures of Dripra MöndurGrib ra mon dur have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS1 (6.5 m across) is situated at the northwest end of the site. Three of its walls are somewhat intact.
Funerary structure FS2 is situated 20 m southwest of FS1. The walls of this enclosure are slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. Immediately to the south and east are three smaller and less well-preserved enclosures.
Funerary structure FS3 (9 m by 7 m) is situated 13 m east of FS2. The entire structure is covered in stone residuum.
Funerary structure FS4 (7.2 m by 7.6 m) is situated 6.8 m east of FS3. Much of the perimeter is intact.
Funerary structure FS5 (4.7 m by 5.5 m) is situated 2.5 m south of FS3. FS5 is comprised of two interconnected rectangular cells.
Funerary structure FS6 (4.6 m by 4.6 m) is situated 14 m south of FS2 and 7 m west of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 (21.6 m by 14.3 m) is connected to FS5 by a wall, making the demarcation between both structures ambiguous. FS7 is comprised of several interconnected cells. On its northwest perimeter, wall stones are heaped up to a height of 50 cm. On the south side of FS7 there is a wall running in a southwest direction for 37 m. This wall appears to be in line with Mount TiséTi se. Superstructures west of FS7 are located in the proximity of this wall.
Funerary structure FS8 (7.9 m by 7.5 m) is situated 14 m south of FS2. FS2 now has an ovoid form.
Funerary structure FS9 (5.8 m by 6 m) is situated 5 m southeast of FS8. Immediately to the east of FS9 are the remnants of another enclosure.
Funerary structure FS10 (5.9 m by 6.6 m) is situated 11.5 m southeast of FS9.
Funerary structure FS11 (28 m by 18.8 m) is situated 11.5 m southeast of FS10. This large structure is made up of around seven cells. FS11 is raised as much as 50 cm above the adjoining terrain.
Funerary structure FS12 (6.4 m by 6.1 m) is situated 1.5 m east of the center portion of FS10.
Funerary structure FS13, a highly fragmentary enclosure, is situated 7 m east of the northeast corner of FS11.
Funerary structure FS14 (4.2 m by 5.3 m) is situated 9 m south of FS12.
Funerary structure FS15 (5.9 m by 6 m) is situated 12 m south of FS14.
Funerary structure FS16 (19.8 m by 15.3 m) is situated 12 m south of FS12 (00.363΄ / 04.367΄). FS16 is comprised of three interconnected cells. Its perimeter walls are up to 50 cm in height and may be of the heaped-stone wall type. Immediately southeast of FS16 are wall fragments of another enclosure.
Funerary structure FS17 (3.6 m by 3.6 m) is situated 16.5 m southeast of FS16 (00.353΄ / 04.376΄).
Funerary structure FS18 (6.3 m by 7.2 m) is situated 1.7 m southeast FS17 (00.349΄ / 04.381΄).
Funerary structure FS19 (6.6 m by 6.8 m) is situated 9.5 m southeast of FS18 (00.341΄ / 04.390΄). FS19 is located on the southeast end of the site.
Funerary structure FS20 (4.5 m by 4.6 m) is situated 11 m south of FS16 (00.348΄ / 04.362΄).
Funerary structure FS21 (4.7 m by 5.8 m) is situated 2 m west of FS20 (00.351΄ / 04.356΄). FS21 is located at the edge of a bench that overlooks a small river valley which drains the vicinity.
Funerary structure FS22 (5.8 m by 5 m) is situated 15.7 m southwest of FS5 (00.401΄ / 04.335΄).
Funerary structure FS23 (8 m by 7.8 m) is situated 4 m south of FS22 (00.399΄ / 04.335΄).
Funerary structure FS24 (4.4 m by 3.6 m) is situated 4.5 m southeast of FS22 (00.397΄ / 04.344΄).
Funerary structure FS25 (5.9 m by 5.8 m) is situated 5 m south of FS23 (00.387΄ / 04.338΄).
Funerary structure FS26 (20 m by 20 m) is situated 4.7 m southeast of FS25 and 18.7 m southwest of FS7 (00.379΄ / 04.344΄). FS26 consists of around six interconnected cells.
Funerary structure FS27 (13.7 m by 6.5 m) is situated 5 m southwest of FS26 near the rim of the bench (00.367΄ / 04.334΄). FS27 is comprised of two interconnected cells.

Sechung (Se chung)

General site characteristics

According to the monks of PretapuriPre ta pu ri, two wooden coffins with human remains were discovered near SechungSe chung. These coffins occupied a large recess in an earthen bluff that rises above a wash. This site is situated is a zone of dissected tablelands located between the Kandé ChuDkar ’ded chu and two hills known as Ri LhunpoRi lhun po and SechungSe chung. At the time of the survey, it was discovered that the hole ostensibly containing the coffins had caved in. No structural evidence associated with burials is visible on the surface. The use of wooden coffins seems to point to a different culture and/or period than that associated with the “MönMon” cist burials.

In the last 25 to 35 years, the Ali TangkhaA li thang kha plain, which is bounded by the Kandé ChuDkar ’ded chu, has been brought back into cultivation. Farmers of this locale report that corpses of the “MönMon” have been unearthed during plowing. Ali TangkhaA li thang kha is part of MöntserMon ’tsher (Abandoned MönMon Lands), a region of western Tibet well known for its so-called MönMon legacy.

Dingdum (Sdings zlum)

General site characteristics

The funerary structures of DingdumSdings zlum are located on a couple of inclined benches above the south side of the DungkarDung dkar valley. In between the benches and valley bottom is a zone of farmland. On the opposite side of the DungkarDung dkar valley is the formation of Dzari GoRdza ri sgo, which hosts three famous cave chapels with fine Buddhist frescos. The west bench and adjoining areas of DingdumSdings zlum have many ruined chöten and the ruins of what appears to have been a small chapel (lhakang).197 By contrast, the east bench has no chöten, as this is the location of an archaic cultural horizon cemetery. It may be that the chöten, erected on the adjacent bench, was done so to counteract perceived harmful influences emanating from the burial ground. DingdumSdings zlum contains at least 23 small graves. All specimens are less than 3 m across. They are aggregated in small groups, spread out over a 180 m transection. The bench on which they are located is moderately inclined to the south and strewn with rocks. The site is enclosed by gullies on the west and east sides, and thereafter by ridges.

Only a minority of the funerary structures have coherent wall sections, which in part, can be explained by the fact that some of them were opened on a recent archaeological expedition.198 Many of the simply built quadrate and sub-rectangular enclosures and grave pits appear to possess single-course perimeter walls and those of non-descript construction (50 cm to 75 cm thick). Other superstructures appear to have consisted of the ground surface being entirely covered in stones without any particular pattern discernable. Stones were laid flat and are generally between 20 cm and 60 cm in length. In addition to the layer of stones on the surface, there is a second and sometimes a third layer of stones set below the ground surface. This stonework is crude in character and the grave pits are very shallow (40 cm to 75 cm deep). Although some of the grave pits now have an irregular form, it appears that a majority of them were quadrate (some of which were more or less aligned in the cardinal directions). The small enclosures and minimal subsurface constructions of DingdumSdings zlum contrast with many sites on the JangtangByang thang, which are of a much more elaborate nature. Furthermore, local sources report that only a small amount of human skeletal remains (no complete skeletons) were discovered in the open graves of DingdumSdings zlum. This may possibly indicate that some of these structures had a funerary ritual function rather than a burial function. The small size of the pits indicates that those that functioned as tombs contained flexed, fractional, juvenile, or secondary interments.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Although the tombs of DingdumSdings zlum have been competently studied, in the interests of conservation and further scientific exploration, elements of the site have been documented for this inventory. At the time of the survey, these tombs had the following dimensions, locations and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS1 (2 m by 3 m) is the highest and most southerly specimen at the site. FS1 is situated on the rim of the bench overlooking the east gully. Its ambiguously constructed superstructure is still intact.
Funerary structure FS2 (2 m by 3 m) is situated 2.5 m south of FS1. This excavated specimen has a grave pit measuring 1.5 m by 90 cm by 50 cm (depth).199
Funerary structure FS3 (2 m by 2 m) is situated 54 m south of FS2 (40.052΄ / 49.186΄). FS3 is located on the rim of the bench overlooking the west gully. The excavated grave pit measures 1.2 m by 1.1 m by 30 cm.
Funerary structures FS4, FS5 and FS6 form a line across the breadth of the slope.
Funerary structure FS4 is situated 67 m south of FS3 (40.093΄ / 49.192΄). It consists of a nebulously designed superstructure that appears to have been quadrate in form.
Funerary structure FS5 is situated 2 m northeast of FS4 (40.094΄ / 49.193΄). The dimensions of the superstructure are no longer clear. It appears to have been slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. The excavated grave pit measures 1.3 m by 1.5 m by 60 cm.
Funerary structure FS6 (2.5 m by 2.5 m) is situated 4 m east of FS5 (40.094΄ / 49.197΄). Large stones laid flat overlie the entire tomb.
Funerary structure FS7 is situated 19 m east of FS6 (40.089΄ / 49.211΄). The ambiguously constructed superstructure covers less than 4m².
Funerary structure FS8 is situated 4 m north/down slope of FS7 on the rim overlooking the east gully (40.092΄ / 49.213΄). Very little structural evidence remains on the surface.
Funerary structures FS9, FS10 and FS11 form a line across the breadth of the slope below the FS4–FS6 row.
Funerary structure FS9 (2 m by 1.7 m) is situated 8 m north of FS6 (40.097΄ / 49.200΄). A crudely constructed enclosure is visible on the surface.
Funerary structure FS10 (2.3 m by 1.8 m) is situated 2 m east of FS9 (40.097΄ / 49.203΄). The excavated grave pit measures 1.2 m by 80 cm by 75 cm.
Funerary structure FS11 is situated 2 m east of FS10 (40.095΄ / 49.205΄). Only nebulous structural traces remain on the surface.
Funerary structures FS12 and FS13 are situated at the same elevation.
Funerary structure FS12 is situated 10 m north of FS11 (40.105΄ / 49.203΄). The excavated grave pit measures 1.3 m by 1 m by 50 cm.
Funerary structure FS13 is situated 4 m east of FS12 (40.104΄ / 49.206΄). Only faint structural traces remain on the surface.
Funerary structures FS14 and FS15 are situated at the same elevation.
Funerary structure FS14 (1.8 m by 1.2 m) is situated 9 m south of FS12 (40.112΄ / 49.204΄). The excavated grave pit measures 1.5 m by 90 cm by 40 cm.
Funerary structure FS15 is situated 3.5 m northwest of FS14 (40.113 / 49.203). The excavated grave pit has an irregular form and is shallow.
Funerary structure FS16 is situated 4 m southeast of FS15 (40.116΄ / 49.207΄). Only nebulous structural traces remain on the surface.
Funerary structure FS17 is situated 15 m east of FS16 on the rim of the bench overlooking the east gully (40.124΄ / 49.231΄). Only faint structural vestiges are visible on the surface.
Funerary structure FS18 is situated 8 m west of FS14 (40.124΄ / 49.207΄). The excavated grave pit measures 1.2 m by 1.5 m by 50 cm.
Funerary structure FS19 is situated 45 m north of FS18 (40.151΄ / 49.195΄). The excavated pit measures 1.1 m by 80 cm by 30 cm). A portion of the superstructure is still intact.
Funerary structures FS20, FS21 and FS22 form a row along the slope gradient near the west rim of the bench.
Funerary structure FS20 (2 m by 1.6 m) is situated 9 m west of FS19 near the west rim of the bench (40.147΄ / 49.205΄). Stones laid flat cover the entire surface of the structure.
Funerary structure FS21 is situated 4 m north of FS20 (40.150΄ / 49.202΄). Very little structural evidence remains on the surface.
Funerary structure FS22 is situated 13 m north of FS21 (40.159΄ / 49.200΄). The structural remains on the surface are highly dissolute.
Funerary structure FS23 is situated near the north rim of the bench overlooking the DungkarDung dkar valley (40.168΄ / 49.250΄/ 4240 m). This is the lowest and most northerly of funerary structures at DingdumSdings zlum. The excavated grave pit measures 1.2 m by 80 cm by 40 cm.

Affiliated sites

NyitoNyi tho

Villagers of DungkarDung dkar report that human bones were discovered in a small cave on the flanks of a ridge known as NyitoNyi tho. NyitoNyi tho is situated on the south side of the DungkarDung dkar valley, just west of DingdumSdings zlum. It is believed these remains belonged to fighters of an invading SingpaSing pa (a foreign group from the northwest) army.

Bumtor Chok Möndur (’Bum gtor mchog mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Bumtor Chok Möndur
English equivalent: Excellent Offering Sculptures Shrine Mön Tombs (?)
Site number: D-107
Site typology: II.2b
Elevation: 4530 m and 4560 m
Administrative location (township): Mamik
Administrative location (county): Gertsé
Survey expedition: HTWE
Survey date: June 20, 2004
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS VII, HAS A3
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General site characteristics

Bumtor Chok Möndur’Bum gtor mchog mon dur is located just west of the small freshwater lake known as Bumtso’Bum mtsho and the most important territorial deity (yüllha) mountain of PenchéPhan che, NgadakMnga’ bdag (approximately 5600 m). The site is situated in a wide side valley in plain view of Bumtso’Bum mtsho, NgadakMnga’ bdag and the main TrachapKhra chab valley. Bumtor Chok Möndur’Bum gtor mchog mon dur consists of three widely distributed double-course and multiple-course funerary enclosures.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Bumtor Chok Möndur’Bum gtor mchog mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (4.8 m by 2.7 m) is situated near the base of a distinctive hill with a squarish rock summit, on level, gravelly terrain. FS1 is not aligned in the cardinal directions. It has unusually designed perimeter walls composed of small pieces of white limestone and a brown sedimentary rock (8 cm to 15 cm long), which were set in the ground edgewise. The perimeter walls are of the multiple-course variety and still exhibit quite a bit of structural coherence. Most of the stones in the perimeter walls are even with the ground surface, while some project above it as much as 10 cm. The two shorter walls of the enclosure appear to consist of four parallel rows of stones, while the two long sides have as many as seven rows of parallel stones. The central portions of the two long walls bulge out.

Funerary structures FS2 and FS3 are situated under twin rocky mounts. These two enclosures are mostly built of light-colored limestone.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.4 m by 5.4 m) is a partly intact quadrate enclosure whose perimeter walls are composed of larger uncut stones (up to 90 cm long). Virtually no coherent wall fragments are left. The remaining in situ stones are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.2 m by 3.6 m) is a double-course quadrate enclosure aligned in the cardinal directions. Most of the stones in the outer courses of the perimeter walls have disappeared, while the inner courses are largely intact. Variable-length (20 cm to 75 cm long) stones were used to construct the enclosure walls. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm.

Ser Riri (Ser ris ris)

General site characteristics

Ser RiriSer ris ris is located above the confluence of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po and MiktrinMig sprin valleys. The site enjoys a commanding location above the two river valleys and would have been a prominent geographic feature of ancient settlement at Trashi GangBkra shis sgang. The terrain is sandy and rock-strewn. The site consists of five clusters of heaped-stone wall ovoid enclosures and one isolated specimen situated at two different locations. Each enclosure or cell measures 1.8 m to 5.5 m across. Variable-length (30 cm to 80 cm long) stones are piled up to a maximum height of 50 cm to 1 m. These heaped-stone walls originally may have been somewhat higher. It is possible that each cluster of ovoid cells was surrounded by an outer perimeter wall, but there is insufficient in situ structural evidence from which to make a positive determination. Some of the funerary superstructures at Ser RiriSer ris ris were modified to create shepherd shelters or other types of structures. Some enclosures contain concavities up to 1 m deep. These appear to be signs of excavations carried out well in the past. Due to these disturbances, the clusters of cells at Ser RiriSer ris ris are not very well preserved.

Oral tradition

According to inhabitants of Trashi GangBkra shis sgang village, the structures of Ser RiriSer ris ris are the tombs of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Lower site

The lower site is situated on a shelf that forms below the ridgeback. It is comprised of three clusters of enclosures or cells and one isolated cell in close proximity to one another:

The south cluster (15.5 m by 5 m) appears to consist of four interconnected cells.
Cluster 2 (21.5 m by 16 m) is situated 8 m north of the south cluster. It appears to consist of at least one dozen cells, including a number of small specimens measuring less than 2.5 m across.
Cluster 3 (9 m by 8 m) is situated 4.5 m north of cluster 2. It appears to consist of three contiguous cells. The north cell (8 m by 5 m) is situated 11 m north of cluster 3. It appears to have consisted of just a single cell with a large depression in the center. Among its walls there is an east-west oriented line of seven large stones (50 cm to 80 cm long) embedded in the ground.

Upper site

The upper site is situated 110 m west of the lower site in a fairly level fold of the ridge (29.88΄ / 40.217΄ / 4340 m). The upper site is comprised of two clusters of cells:

The east cluster (21 m by 16 m) consists of several cells, each measuring around 5 m across. Its south side is raised about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. In one of the cells there is a 1 m deep depression.
The west cluster (12 m by 17 m) is situated 24 m west of the east cluster. It consists of a large central cell flanked by two smaller cells around 3 m across. At one time the central cell was excavated. One of the smaller cells is fairly intact while the other one is not.

Affiliated sites

Ganden Tsewang KharDga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar

Directly above the settlement of Trashi GangBkra shis sgang there is a hill called WutséDbu rtse with a prayer flag mast on its summit (32° 30.173΄ N. lat. / 79° 39.913΄ E. long. / 4380 m).200 This is the location of Ganden Tsewang KharDga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar, a ruined multi-roomed residential complex (26 m by 7 m) and a couple of small outlying buildings. All structures have been reduced to their foundations or low-lying wall fragments. The 50 cm thick walls of this installation, which are not buttressed, could only have supported timber roofs.

In all likelihood, the so-called Ganden Tsewang KharDga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar is an archaic cultural facility. Nevertheless, some residents of Trashi GangBkra shis sgang hold that Ganden Tsewang KharDga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar was built by the famous general Ganden TsewangDga’ ldan tshe dbang in his campaign against the LadakLa dwags army (he ousted the LadakpaLa dwags pa from Ngari KorsumMnga’ ris skor gsum in 1680 CE). This oral tradition, however, appears to be apocryphal. As Ganden TsewangDga’ ldan tshe dbang took control of the Trashi GangBkra shis sgang and TsarangRtsa rang citadels in 1680 CE,201 there does not seem to be any strategic reason why he would build a much smaller garrison on the ridgeback above the Trashi GangBkra shis sgang citadel. The construction of such an installation would not have been militarily feasible while the LadakLa dwags army was still in control of the Trashi GangBkra shis sgang citadel and environs, and it would have been redundant after their conquest. The hidden ridge-top location of the site, the highly deteriorated condition of the ruins and their general morphological traits are more in keeping with the archaic cultural strongholds that dot the Gar TsangpoSgar gtsang po and Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valleys (see A-22, A-23, A-41, A-42, A-43, A-44, A-66, A-67, A-124, A-125, A-126). The ancient settlement pattern exhibited in this region is marked by the construction of a stronghold perched above each major agricultural enclave. Trashi GangBkra shis sgang, one of these agrarian pockets, is likely to have experienced the same type of cultural occupation.

Trashi GangBkra shis sgang

Trashi GangBkra shis sgang has extensive farmlands irrigated by the Miktrin TsangpoMig sprin gtsang po. According to a local elder, respected for his knowledge of history, named Rindzin DorjéRig ’dzin rdo rje (born in the Iron Dog Year, circa 1934), the origins of agriculture at Trashi GangBkra shis sgang can be traced back to the ancient MönMon. The monastery of Trashi GangBkra shis sgang was built inside the ruins of a large citadel situated on a small eminence in the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valley. The massive rammed earth walls of the fortress are up to 1.3 m thick. These walls are long and straight, giving rise to a rectangular plan not unlike Moghul fortresses of north India. There are also a few stone and adobe-block walls of the old residential structures still intact. On the west end of the fortress there are F-shaped loopholes and the remains of two round defensive towers set outside the ramparts. The entire citadel appears to have been circumvallated. According to lama KhenrapMkhan rab (born in the Snake Year, circa 1929), a native of NamrupönGnam ru dpon, and the senior-most monk at Trashi GangBkra shis sgang, the monastery was under the authority of the abbot of Sera JéSe ra rje in Lhasa. The first Gelukpa abbot was Ngawang ChokdenNgag dbang mchog ldan, a teacher of the seventh Dalai Lama. Also, according to lama KhenrapMkhan rab, before the time of Ganden TsewangDga’ ldan tshe dbang, Trashi GangBkra shis sgang monastery belonged to the Drukpa Kagyü subsect.202

Keltra Möndur (Skal khra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur is located in the small tributary valley of KeltraSkal khra, which flows south into the RawangRa bang valley. The site is situated on the opposite side of the RawangRa bang valley from Tönkha LungkharMthon kha lung mkhar (A-95). The site surveyed is on the east side of the KeltraSkal khra valley but, reportedly, there are also funerary structures on the west flank of the valley. Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur mainly consists of a series of masonry structures with rectilinear proportions that are deeply set into steep slopes. The forward walls of these structures are fully exposed, the side walls progressively disappear into the ground and the rear walls are totally submerged. The earthen and talus slopes upon which they were built had to be specially excavated. However, the depth and extent of the portion of these structures that lies underground is not at all evident. This design and method of construction contrasts with the mountaintop cubic tombs (II.3), which were totally built above ground. The Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur terraced constructions are mostly made of variable-length (20 cm to 1 m or more in length) brown sandstone slabs laid in what appear to be dry-stone random-rubble courses. In addition to the ravages of time, the advanced degradation of the structures at Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur seems to be the result of looting sometime well in the past.

Oral tradition

According to residents of RawangRa bang, Keltra MöndurSkal khra mon dur is a burial site of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

South sector

The five structures of the south sector are widely distributed along open slopes.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8.5 m by 7.5 m) is situated on a slope just above the valley floo. Although few stones (up to 90 cm long) remain in situ in this fragmentary enclosure, the amount of rubble lying about indicates that this was a robustly built structure. Signs of an old excavation (70 cm deep) are found on the west side of the enclosure. A 60 cm long stone set on the east/uphill side of FS1 boasts an ancient petroglyph of a horseman chasing a wild yak. On the same stone and exhibiting far less repatination, the mani mantra, Om A Hum and Om A Smi Sde WA Hra were inscribed.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 consists of a single forward wall segment (5 m long by up to 90 cm high) built into the slope (07.123΄ / 13.479΄ / 4520 m). No other part of the structure is visible. The stones in the forward wall are primarily 20 cm to 30 cm in length.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 consists of a forward wall 6 m in length and up to 1.6 m in height (07.168΄ / 13.471΄ / 4530 m). Small sections of the side walls extending into the slope are visible. FS1, FS2 and FS3 are located within 100 m of each other.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 consists of a forward wall 3.9 m long and up to 1.4 m in height (07.225΄ / 13.499΄ / 4570 m). As much as 2.3 m lengths of the side walls are visible before they merge into the slope. Originally, the forward wall may have been around 50 cm higher because one of the side walls is elevated well above it. A 1.3 m length of a wall with an exposed 60 cm high face is situated 2.2 m to the south. This was either a companion structure or a structural extension of FS4.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 14 m down slope from FS4. Its forward wall is 4.5 m long and it has a maximum height of 70 cm. About a 1 m length of each of the side walls is visible.

North sector

The 11 structures of the north sector are located on a single narrow slope about 110 m in length with a vertical distance of about 25 m. This slope is sequestered by steep rocky slopes that flank all but its downhill side. Below the single line of terraced structures, the slope widens and gradually merges into the valley floor below. The structures were built in line with one another to create a series of tiers or steps. Unfortunately, these highly unusual funerary monuments are in a very poor state of preservation. It appears that each of the 11 quadrate structures measured are in the neighborhood of 5 m by 5 m with forward walls up to 2 m in height. Taken a whole, this stepped complex must have presented quite a sight when it was sound.

From top to bottom, each of the terraced constructions has the following dimensions and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS6 is the highest structure in the north sector (07.296΄ / 13.495΄ / 4550 m). A forward fragment 3 m long and up to 60 cm high has survived.
Funerary structure FS7 is situated 9.5 m downhill of FS6. A 1.8 m length of its forward wall up to 30 cm in height, has survived.
Funerary structure FS8 is situated 6 m downhill of FS7. Its forward wall is 5.5 m long and up to 40 cm in height. Due to an old excavation, portions of the structure are visible 4 m upslope from the forward wall.
Funerary structure FS9 is situated 5.7 m down slope of FS8. Only a forward wall fragment, 1.2 m in length, even with the ground surface is visible.
Funerary structure FS10 is situated 11 m downhill of FS9. Only tiny traces of the forward wall are intact. A side wall segment, 2.2 m in length, with a maximum height of 30 cm is also visible.
Funerary structure FS11 is situated 5 m downhill of FS10. Its forward wall fragment is 4 m in length and up to 40 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS12 is situated 4.7 m downhill of FS11. Only a vestige of its forward wall (70 cm long by 20 cm high) has persisted. A 1 m long section of a side wall is also visible.
Funerary structure FS13 is situated 4.7 m downhill of FS12. FS13 consists of the remains of an enclosure (5 m by 6.5 m) with a slight depression in the middle.
Funerary structure FS14 is situated 14 m downhill of FS13. The forward wall is 5.6 m long and mostly level with the slope. Faint structural remains are found 1.9 m upslope, which may have been part of side walls.
Funerary structure FS15 is situated 17.5 m downhill of FS14. Only a nebulous 3.5 m long section of its forward wall remains visible. There may have been intervening structures between FS14 and FS15, but this could not be confirmed from what remains on the surface of the slope.
Funerary structure FS16 is situated 11 m downhill of FS15. It is the best preserved and lowest (4525 m) stepped construction in the series. Its forward wall is 4.2 m in length and up to 1 m in height. As much as a 3.8 m length of the side walls is exposed before being completely engulfed by the slope. There may have been intervening structures between FS15 and FS16, but this could not be confirmed with the evidence at hand.
Funerary structure FS17 is situated adjacent to FS16. Its forward wall fragment is 2.5 m in length. The two side walls are visible for upwards of 3.3 m before disappearing into the slope.

Name unknown

General site characteristics

Three or more funerary structures are located in the middle of a valley at a locale called ChushikChu shig (sp.?). The terrain is level, gravelly and sandy and with some turf. On either side of the main valley there are small side valleys, creating a four-way vista. This crossroads placement is liable to have had ritual and conceptual value for the builders of the site. Perhaps this kind of location facilitated the unencumbered release of the consciousness principles (soul and mind) during burial rites. The freeing of the consciousness principles from obstacles, which are often depicted in geographic terms, is a cornerstone of Tibetan archaic funerary practices.203 In the northwest sector of the unnamed site there are two mounds of the bangso type. These structures have been very heavily impacted by human activity. Stones are scattered all around the vicinity in contrast to the surrounding clear ground. This suggests that the stones used to build the funerary structure were transported to their present location from the adjoining mountains.

Just off the road that runs through ChushikChu shig there are three mani walls hosting pre-modern inscribed plaques. Almost certainly they were constructed with stones pilfered from the nearby funerary structures. The erection of the mani walls is likely to be related to the Buddhist ritual subjugation of the old funerary site. The mani walls measure (not including the inscribed plaques) 4.6 m by 1.8 m by 70 cm, 3.4 m by 1.4 m by 90 cm, and 5.2 m by 1.6 m by 1.2 m. These dimensions provide an idea of the cubic volume of stones that was potentially removed from the funerary structures. A blue-gray metamorphic stone was used to build the bangso and mani walls.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (12 m by 14 m) is elevated 1 m to 2 m above the surrounding terrain. This highly eroded funerary mound does not appear to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. A shallow concavity has formed on the surface. A single line of variable-length (30 cm to 80 cm long) stones along the northeast rim of the structure are still in situ. There are also two small fragments of what are now single-course walls on the southwest rim. These various wall segments are primarily made of slabs that appear to have been laid flat. The three mani walls of the site are located 17.5 m northeast of FS1.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (10.5 m by 6.5 m) is situated 18 m southwest of FS1. This structure is elevated 50 cm to 1 m above the surrounding terrain and is covered in loose stones. Small coherent wall fragments have survived on the southeast side of the mound. The slabs of the walls appear to have been laid flat. The three mani walls and FS1 and FS2 form a northwest-southeast oriented line of culturally disparate structures.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 150 m southeast of FS1 and FS2. It has been reduced to faint structural traces flush with the ground surface. Tiny fragments of double-course walls (around 60 cm thick) composed of stones laid flat have survived. The highly obscured vestiges of smaller walls are found 12 m west and northwest of FS3. There also may be structural traces to the north and northeast of FS3. A few meters away from FS3 and associated remains there are two more old mani walls (5.6 m by 2 m by 60 cm and 4.7 m by 1.6 m by 50 cm).204

Name unknown

General site characteristics

This funerary site, whose name could not be determined, is located south of A OngtsoA ’ong mtsho but still in view of the lake. The four funerary superstructures of the site almost straddle the RutokRu thog and GegyéDge rgyas county lines. As with other funerary sites clustered in the same region (see “Valley of the Dead” sites C-91, C-92, C-153, D-46), the terrain is level and sandy, and it is sited near a series of ridges that enclose the west side of the basin. The site is set on the north end of the “Valley of the Dead” basin. It consists of single-course and double-course quadrate enclosures that are in a poor state of preservation. These structures are constructed of uncut pieces of gray granite, primarily 30 cm to 60 cm in length. Stones were both laid flat and embedded in the ground edgewise.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7 m by 5 m) consists of a partially intact single-course rectangular enclosure. This structure is aligned in the cardinal directions. The stones of the perimeter walls are laid flat. The largest stone (1.1 m long) of the structure is no longer in situ.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5 m across) is situated 8 m south of FS1. Only a few stones remain in place in this highly degraded enclosure, several of which are set into the ground edgewise. The most prominent stone of the perimeter walls is 60 cm long and projects 30 cm above the ground surface. Twelve stones, both laid flat and with an upright position, form a separate sub-rectangular enclosure (1.4 m across) as part of the FS2 structure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (4 m across) is situated 2.7 m south of FS2. The remains of this superstructure are highly deteriorated.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6 m by 10 m) is situated several hundred meters south of the other three superstructures of the site (41.027΄ / 48.878΄ / 4490 m). The entire structure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding plain. Small segments of the single course walls of the enclosure have survived. However, there is also a structural extension to this enclosure that consists of an isolated double-course wall (3 m long, 70 thick). This wall segment is composed of stones that protrude a maximum of 30 cm above ground level.

Mandep Nupma (Dmar ldebs nub ma)

General site characteristics

The funerary structures of Mandep NupmaDmar ldebs nub ma are located on the north edge of a large gravelly and sandy plain. MardepDmar ldebs is the name of the long low-lying red ridge that bounds the north side of the plain. The five quadrate funerary superstructures of the site are distributed quite widely over the plain. They are built of uncut brown sandstone blocks. In addition to Mandep NupmaDmar ldebs nub ma, there are funerary structures at Khorchen’Khor chen and Riu GyamchungRi’u gyam chung.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Mandep NupmaDmar ldebs nub ma and affiliated sites are tombs of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (9 m by 9.4 m) consists of a square enclosure that is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. The entire structure is slightly raised above the surrounding plain. Three of its walls are single-course while the west wall is double-course (1 m thick). The variable-length (primarily 30 cm to 60 cm long) stones were laid flat on the ground. There are small wall traces within the perimeter wall, suggesting that this was an intricately designed superstructure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4.7 m by 5.8 m) is situated 13 m north of FS1. FS2 has been reduced to a highly fragmentary enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.4 m by 4.3 m) is situated 75 m west of FS2. The walls of this rectangular enclosure are aligned in the cardinal directions. The walls are composed of variable length stones (primarily 40 cm to 60 cm long), which project a maximum of 20 cm above ground level. Part of the north wall of the enclosure is double-course. Other walls of the enclosure appear to be of the single-course variety.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.8 m by 4.8 m) is situated 70 m west of FS3. Very little remains of this structure. There may be other specimens in the vicinity, but too little remains in place to know for certain.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (6.7 m by 6.7 m) is situated roughly 1 km southwest of the other enclosures. The fragmentary walls of FS5 seem to be aligned in the cardinal directions. The stones of the walls appear to have been laid flat on the ground.

Affiliated sites

Khorchen’Khor chen

On the south edge of the same plain that hosts the funerary structures of Mandep NupmaDmar ldebs nub ma there are two more specimens at a place known as Khorchen’Khor chen (32° 29.889΄ N. lat. / 82° 54.113΄ E. long. / 4450 m). These poorly preserved quadrate enclosures appear to have single-course walls, and measure 7.3 m by 6.4 m and 4.7 m by 5 m. The structures are built of a purplish stone, primarily 20 cm to 60 cm in length. What appears to be another funerary superstructure at Khorchen’Khor chen is located some distance away (29.829΄ / 53.940΄ / 4450 m). In the south wall of this last enclosure there is a single line of in situ stones aligned east-west.

Riu GyamchungRi’u gyam chung

What may be another funerary structure was detected further west at a locale called Riu GyamchungRi’u gyam chung (32° 29.965΄ N. lat. / 82° 52.906΄ E. long. / 4450 m). This square structure is situated on the edge of high ground overlooking the large plain to the east. The site has wide open views in all directions. The structure (2.7 m by 2.9 m) is aligned in the cardinal directions, and is primarily made of smaller purplish stones (10 cm to 40 cm long). Within the partly intact, outer foundation walls there is a pile of rubble 1 m in height. Many other stones are scattered around the vicinity. The design of the wall traces and the amount of stones strewn around the site indicates that the Riu GyamchungRi’u gyam chung monument was constructed with an elaborate superstructure of significant elevation. Rather than a funerary function, it is possible that this structure had alternative ritual functions.

Dramé Dzuk (Gra ma’i rdzugs)

General site characteristics

Dramé DzukGra ma’i rdzugs is located on a broad gently inclined slope interspersed between Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho and the range hemming in the north side of the lake basin. The site exists between two side valleys with perennial sources of water. This general locale therefore is likely to have a long history of settlement. Nowadays, it is used by drokpa on a seasonal basis. The terrain is sandy, gravelly and well drained. Dramé DzukGra ma’i rdzugs consists of no less than five funerary enclosures. As the site is sprawling, it is possible that other specimens were overlooked during the survey. All structures are made of uncut gray granite and metamorphic rocks.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Dramé DzukGra ma’i rdzugs is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8 m by 6 m) consists of a degraded enclosure of indeterminate construction. Stones up to 60 cm in length lie along the rectangular perimeter. Inside the enclosure there is a single-course inner enclosure or cist marker (1.4 m by 1.1 m). This square enclosure is composed of upright stones protruding upwards of 25 cm above the ground surface. This type of structure may mark the actual location of a subsurface tomb.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 14 m west of FS1. The highly deteriorated enclosure measures 18 m north-south. The east wall is entirely absent, thus the width of the structure is ambiguous. Variable-length stones laid flat make up the perimeter walls. These stones are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 25 cm. There is some evidence indicating that the enclosing walls of FS2 were of the double-course variety. A dislodged stone, 1 m in length, lies beside the enclosure. The west/lower wall of the enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the adjacent slope, in order to maintain a level interior.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (14 m by 9 m) is situated 117 m south of FS2. This rectangular enclosure is subdivided into a smaller/west part and a larger/east part. Remnants of double-course walls (60 cm thick) are composed of upright variable-length upright stones, which protrude as much as 40 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6 m by 12 m) is situated 105 m south of FS3. Parts of its double-course walls (55 cm to 70 cm thick) are intact. These walls contain stones up to 60 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface or which project above it as much as 30 cm.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (2.7 m by 1.5 m) is situated 17 m east of FS2. The outer walls of this small, single-course quadrate structure appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. FS5 is partitioned into four, roughly equal, cells. These subdividing walls are now only partially intact.

Tratsang Möndur (Khra tshang mon dur)

General site characteristics

Tratsang MöndurKhra tshang mon dur is located a couple kilometers upstream of the mouth of the TratsangKhra tshang valley. The site is near the north edge of the valley and the ground is level, sandy and gravelly. It consists of two poorly preserved funerary enclosures. A nearby seasonal shepherd’s encampment and its need for stones may have contributed to the demise of Tratsang MöndurKhra tshang mon dur.

Oral tradition

In this region (MegaMe sga) sites such as Tratsang MöndurKhra tshang mon dur are commonly believed to be ancient MönMon tombs.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 has been reduced to small double-course wall fragments (50 cm thick). These walls are composed of stones 20 cm to 30 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface or that are raised above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. FS1 is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain. It appears to have been subdivided into at least three sections.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (approximately 5 m across) is situated 47 m east of FS1. This enclosure is in very poor condition. Stones up to 55 cm in length that project upwards of 25 cm above ground level make up this structure. It appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions and to have been subdivided into various parts.

Nara Möndur (Sna ra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Nara MöndurSna ra mon dur is located east of Kyidbuk DoSkyid sbug do (sp.?), a small lake in the Dawa TsoZla ba mtsho (Moon Lake) basin. The site is situated on the east margin of the Dawa TsoZla ba mtsho basin. Views to the south and east are open, less so in other directions. The terrain is level, well drained, sandy, and studded with many boulders and rocks. There is a drokpa permanent settlement (zhima) in the proximity. There are more than 20 widely distributed funerary structures at Nara MöndurSna ra mon dur. They are well camouflaged among naturally occurring rocks and boulders, which has probably contributed to the site being untouched in recent years. The structures are made of uncut pieces of white granite and a dark gray metamorphic rock. They represent a rich variety of designs and methods of construction. Among the most unusual funerary structures at Nara MöndurSna ra mon dur are those with a pillar erected inside the perimeter walls (Funerary structures FS3 and FS4). The sandy substrate of the site has significantly contributed to the deterioration of the funerary structures. Given the nature of the terrain, some funerary structures may have been overlooked during the survey.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Nara MöndurSna ra mon dur was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7 m across) is a highly degraded tumulus elevated about 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. No coherent wall fragments in this structure have survived.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (10.8 m by 5.6 m) is a sub-rectangular double-course enclosure. The perimeter walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) are composed of stones up to 50 cm in length. Many of these upright stones project as much as 25 cm above ground level. The enclosure is divided into two parts: a smaller east cell and the larger west cell. Inside the west cell, near its west end, there is a single-course inner enclosure or cist marker (60 cm by 1.1 m). The upright stones of this structure prominently protrude from the ground. The largest stone in the inner enclosure is located in the east wall; 50 cm long and rising 30 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.5 m by 5 m) appears to be an ovoid enclosure but there are no coherent in situ wall fragments remaining (16.548΄ / 07.107΄). The entire structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding terrain. The stones along the perimeter reach 50 cm in length. Near the west side of FS3 there is a four-sided gray pillar (45 cm [height] by 70 cm [basal girth]). The relative placement of the pillar mimics those belonging to the enclosed pillar typology (II.2b). The erection of a pillar on such a structure is extremely notable and highly unusual. The functional and temporal features of this design trait have yet to be determined.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6.4 m by 4.4 m) is of the same design and construction as FS3 (16.740΄ / 07.283΄). The entire structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding terrain. No coherent wall segments have survived. Near the west end of FS4 there is an irregularly shaped dark gray pillar (55 cm by 60 cm). Beside this pillar there is what appears to be an uprooted specimen 90 cm in length.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (1.3 m by 1.7 m) is situated 13.7 m northwest of FS4 (16.750΄ / 07.277΄). This small rectangular, single-course enclosure is composed of large stones (up to 65 cm long), which protrude prominently from the ground (up to a height of 25 cm).

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (4.3 m by 4 m) is situated 30 m west of FS5 (16.751΄ / 07.259΄). This highly fragmentary enclosure is slightly elevated above the surrounding ground level. It does not exhibit any coherent wall segments.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (4.7 m by 4.8 m) is in close proximity to FS6 and is the same type of structure (16.763΄ / 07.257΄). FS7 is also in very poor condition.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (24 m by 15 m) belongs to the heaped-stone wall enclosure typology (16.014΄ 07.175΄). The walls of this sub-rectangular structure consist of amorphous swaths of stones up to 2 m in thickness and 50 cm in height. FS8 is subdivided into two cells.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (10 m by 12.4 m) is situated 13 m southeast of FS8 (16.003΄ / 07.192΄). This heaped-stone wall enclosure is of the same design and construction as FS8. In the proximity there appear to be the vestiges of analogous structures.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (5.6 m by 5.7 m) is situated 29 m north of FS8 (16.036΄ / 07.182΄). Small segments of double-course walls of this enclosure are in situ. These walls are 50 cm to 60 cm thick and composed of upright stones that project as much as 35 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (8.2 m by 5.6 m) is a sub-rectangular enclosure with amorphous perimeter walls (16.078΄ / 07.121΄). The stones of the enclosing walls stand upright or are flush with the surface. These stones project as much as 20 cm above the ground surface. In the east wall there are two stones (40 cm and 50 cm long) that are set perpendicular to the wall course, creating a kind of portal (as is found in certain enclosures of the II.1b typology). In the vicinity there are other analogous structures that were not individually surveyed. While these structures appear to be funerary in function, the high level of structural degradation (hastened by the sandy substrate) makes their identification difficult.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 (11.3 m by 7.3 m) is another enclosure with a distinct perimeter but without clearly defined walls (16.065΄ / 07.064΄).

Funerary Structure FS13

Funerary structure FS13 (9.8 m by 15.4 m) is a highly degraded enclosure divided into two cells (16.042΄ / 07.060΄). It is elevated a maximum of 70 cm on its down slope/west side in order to maintain a level interior.

Funerary Structure FS14

Funerary structure FS14 (7 m by 6 m) is an incomplete enclosure similar in design to FS13 (16.035΄ / 07. 058΄).

Funerary Structure FS15

Funerary structure FS15 (5.1 m by 5.7 m) is double-course enclosure (16.031΄ / 07.058΄). A small wall remnant has endured. It is composed of stones up to 60 cm in length that project as much as 40 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS16

Funerary structure FS16 (11.5 m by 10.6 m) is another sub-rectangular enclosure with amorphous walls up to 1 m thick (16.072΄ / 07.056΄).

Funerary Structure FS17

Funerary structure FS17 (4.5 m by 2.2 m) is a slightly elevated sub-rectangular enclosure, which appears to have been generally aligned in the cardinal directions (16.380΄ / 07.089΄). Loose stones are scattered across this highly degraded structure.

Funerary Structure FS18

Funerary structure FS18 consists of 3 double-course slab-wall segments (16.389΄ / 07.102΄). These walls (2.5 m to 3.5 m long) are around 15 cm thick and are composed of upright slabs 10 cm to 25 cm in length. It is not clear what type of funerary structure they comprised.

Funerary Structure FS19

Funerary structure FS19 (4.8 m by 4.8 m) is a relatively intact, double-course enclosure (16.667΄ / 07.096΄). The walls (around 50 cm thick) are composed of upright variable-length (up to 50 cm long) stones, which project as much as 35 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS20

Funerary structure FS20 (3 m across) is a highly deteriorated enclosure (07.279΄ / 16.679΄).

Ronggo Möndur (Rong mgo mon dur)

General site characteristics

Ronggo MöndurRong mgo mon dur is situated in the middle of the broad RonggoRong mgo valley bottom. From the site, the views north (in the direction of the sacred mountain Shel GangchamShel gangs lcam) and south are wide open, while the views east and west are closed in by the ridges bounding the valley. The terrain is sandy and well drained. Ronggo MöndurRong mgo mon dur consists of at least 14 small funerary enclosures spread out over one-half km. These are quadrate structures, many of which appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. Most of these poorly preserved structures appear to have double-course perimeter walls (50 cm to 60 cm thick). These walls are built of variable-length (up to 50 cm long) pieces of light-colored limestone. These stones are both laid flat and embedded in the ground edgewise.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Ronggo MöndurRong mgo mon dur is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Funerary structure FS1 (6 m by 3.5 m) consists of walls (indeterminate type) with stones that project as much as 35 cm above the ground surface. In addition to limestone, the walls of FS1 also contain pieces of a dark gray metamorphic stone.
Funerary structure FS2 (4 m by 2 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen.
Funerary structure FS3 (2.5 m by 2 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen.
Funerary structure FS4: (3.1 m by 3 m) is slightly elevated above the surrounding plain and is covered in loose rocks
Funerary structure FS5 exhibits small fragments of what appear to be single-course perimeter walls. Stones in these walls project a maximum of 20 cm above ground level.
Funerary structure FS6 (4 m across) has been reduced to one small coherent wall fragment along the perimeter. FS6 is located near the link road through the area.
Funerary structure FS7 (2 m across) is a highly fragmentary specimen.
Funerary structure FS8: (2.6 m by 3 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen.
Funerary structure FS9 (3 m by 3.3 m) is covered in stones.
Funerary structure FS10 (3.5 m by 2.4 m) is a better preserved enclosure with double-course perimeter walls. Stones in these walls project a maximum of 20 cm above ground level.
Funerary structure FS11 (3.5 m by 2.5 m) has significant segments of its double-course walls intact. The stones in these walls are flush with the ground surface or slightly project above it.
Funerary structure FS12 (4.7 m by 5 m) has remnants of all four walls intact. These walls appear to be of the single-course variety, but this may be because of a loss of stones. The stones of the walls project a maximum of 15 cm above ground level. FS12 is found at the edge of the motorable track.
Funerary structure FS13 (2.4 m by 3.5 m) is covered in stones. A tiny mound has formed on the west side of the structure.
Funerary structure FS14 (3 m by 2.6 m) has a small double-course wall fragment in place, which exhibits both flat and upright stones.

Karkhuk (Dkar khug)

General site characteristics

KarkhukDkar khug, a large terraced cemetery, is located above the northern edge of the Neri TsongönGnas ri mtsho sngon/Namarché TsoNa mar che mtsho basin in the KarkhukDkar khug locale. The funerary site is situated on the lower sandy flanks of a hill known as Kyanggyuk RiRkyang rgyug ri. The site is in plain view of Neri TsongönGnas ri mtsho sngon (Sacred Mountain Blue Lake) (4520 m to 4600 m), which is situated 10 km to the southeast. KarkhukDkar khug is also in direct view of the burial grounds of GönroDgon ro (D-75) and RonglungRong lung (D-76). The slopes of Kyanggyuk RiRkyang rgyug ri have a southern exposure and a 15° to 30° gradient. Most of the 187 funerary structures documented are built deeply into the hillside. These are rectangular and sub-rectangular structures, most or all of which were built with flat tops, however, many of the tops are now highly eroded and inclined along the axis of the slope. The funerary structures sit at different elevations, often in long rows, creating the effect of terraced slopes. The two longer sides of the funerary structures usually run perpendicular to the axis of the slope. An indeterminate portion of each terraced structure is concealed underground.

Although the south flank of each superstructure is exposed, the east and west walls progressively disappear into the slopes. In a few specimens, only the surface of the north/rear wall is visible, while in many others it is non-existent or completely underground. Erosion, vandalism and geomorphologic changes have all conspired to make it difficult to know how tall the funerary structures actually were at the time of construction. The south/forward flanks of the large funerary structures (60 m² to 117 m²) range in height between 1.5 m to 3 m. In the medium-sized specimens (25 m² to 60 m²), the forward flank is 50 cm to 1.2 m in height. The bulk of the forward flank is comprised of a steep earthen embankment. In some specimens, the forward flank consists of a dry-stone random-rubble masonry wall (30 cm to 1 m in height), which may or may not be shored up by an earthen embankment. In some of the large specimens, the forward flank appears to have been built in three tiers, the lower two of which are made of earth. In small specimens (4 m² to 25 m²) the forward flank ranges from flush with the slope to 50 cm in height. Distinctive single-course walls line the rims of many funerary structures. These consist of two parallel lines of stones (spaced 75 cm to 1.3 m apart) that run along the forward edge and two sides of the structures. On the east and west rims of the funerary structures, these parallel courses of stones were laid at the same elevation. On the forward/south side of the funerary structures, the two parallel stone courses are either set at the same elevation or placed at a vertical distance of 20 cm to 50 cm from one another. In the few specimens where north walls are visible, these are generally inset 20 cm to 30 cm below the upper slope. It seems likely that in many other specimens, the rim of the north wall was once visible, only to be subsequently engulfed by the failure of the slopes. Smaller specimens tend to have less elaborate stonework than their larger counterparts, but they are constructed in the same general manner. None of the funerary structures of KarkhukDkar khug appear to have had superficial structural elements within their outer walls.

Pieces of white granite (dzengkar) primarily 20 cm to 60 cm in length (stones 1 m or more long are occasionally found) went into the construction of the KarkhukDkar khug funerary structures. Most stones are unhewn but there may also be examples that have shaped exterior faces. Very few of the funerary structures are well aligned in the cardinal directions; their aspect being more determined by the exigencies of the local topography. It is not apparent if these structures served exclusively as tombs or if some were employed in other funerary functions as well. It is reported by local sources that when some of the structures were opened during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, they were found to have painted stone walls. KarkhukDkar khug is divided into west and east sectors.

Oral tradition

There is local belief that the structures of KarkhukDkar khug represent the ruins of an ancient Buddhist monastery (some sources say it was established by King LangdarmaGlang dar ma and destroyed by the Jungarjun gar Mongols of the 18th century CE). The funerary identity of the site is acknowledged by the placement of a sky burial (jator) site on the summit of Kyanggyuk RiRkyang rgyug ri. This sky burial site was exclusively used by the Jinggerjing ger (Chinggis Khaan) clan. BartaBar tha elders report that this sky burial site has not been used for at least three generations (since the time of the local chieftain Jingger GyazingJing ger rgya zing).205 Other clans in the region used a sky burial site known as Semo MentangSe mo sman thang located to the west of Kyanggyuk RiRkyang rgyug ri. According to BartaBar tha residents, in the early 1970s many stones were extracted from the structures of KarkhukDkar khug in order to build enclosures used for growing grass. This pilferage is said to have substantially damaged the site. It is also reported that sometime in the 1990s, a group of local residents excavated a particularly large structure at the bottom east edge of the east sector. It is said that those who participated in the dig became ill. This has dissuaded others from conducting similar illicit excavations at KarkhukDkar khug. Local sources report that circa 2000, a Tibetan newspaper team passing through the area issued a cursory report on KarkhukDkar khug. The association of KarkhukDkar khug with the Jinggerjing ger clan could possibly signify that the funerary structures were built by the Mongols (early 13th century CE), or that an earlier burial ground (from the early historic period?) was requisitioned as a means to increase the social prestige of a leading clan in the region.

Site elements

West sector

The west sector slopes are generally less steep than those of the east sector. The west sector terrain is very barren and sandy, indicating that it has suffered the effects of flooding and other geomorphologic changes since the construction of the funerary structures. The high proportion of fragmentary structures in the west sector also indicates that the site has undergone adverse geomorphologic changes. As the west sector slopes are less severe, the forward elevations of the funerary structures tend to be less than in the east sector. Certain structures barely protrude above the ground surface. In some specimens the forward walls have rounded corners.

Let us begin the survey of the west sector with a detailed description of one of the more important funerary structures, FS1. Funerary structure FS1 is a large specimen situated on the western-most edge of the KarkhukDkar khug site (31° 33.750΄ N. lat. / 91° 24.200΄ E. long). Unlike most of its counterparts in the west sector, it is still sited on stable ground. FS1 is one of the only structures at KarkhukDkar khug to face in an eastern rather than southern direction. Its east side probably stood about 2 m above the adjoining slope. The top of the structure now inclines slightly to the west. On the east side of FS1 there are three lines of single-course masonry (each about 3 m in length): one on the rim and two on the flanks. These three lines of stones are spaced about 60 cm from one another. The embankment below these walls may have been shored up with masonry at one time. On the south side of the top of the structure there are three single courses of stones, each separated by about 1.5 m. The side walls are up to 65 cm in height and are comprised of as many as four vertical courses of stones laid flat. Old red stone plaques inscribed with the mani mantra have been placed on FS1. These are supposed to mark the location of what was once a sky burial site.

The other funerary structures of the west sector have the following dimensions, locations and salient characteristics:

Funerary structure FS2 (2.1 m by 1.7 m) is situated on a 10° water damaged slope (33.761΄ / 24.199΄). This highly fragmentary small specimen is mostly level with the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS3 has its forward and side walls partly intact (33.796΄ / 24.190΄). The forward wall is 50 cm high and composed of two vertical courses of stones.
Funerary structure FS4 (3.7 m by 4.4 m) is a highly fragmentary specimen (33.803΄ / 24.196΄).
Funerary structure FS5 (3.2 m by 3.5 m) has a forward flank up to 50 cm in height (33.809΄ / 24.200΄).
Funerary structure FS6 (6.5 m by 3.7 m) exhibits partly intact walls (33.812΄ / 24.189΄).
Funerary structure FS7 (3.2 m long) has a forward flank 60 cm in height and partly intact side walls (33.819΄ / 24.194΄).
Funerary structure FS8 (1.7 m by 2.2 m) has much of its perimeter walls intact (33.820΄ / 24.201΄). Its forward wall is 40 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS9 (9.3 m by 5.5 m) probably consisted of two adjacent structures. The parallel courses of masonry along the rim of the side walls are spaced 1.1 m apart.
Funerary structure FS10 (5.1 m by 4.6 m) has a forward flank comprised of three single courses of stone with a 60 cm vertical difference between them.
Funerary structure FS11 (5.1 m by 3.3 m) has been mostly washed away (33.802΄ / 24.206΄).
Funerary structure FS12 (4 m long) is highly fragmentary (33.815΄ / 24.209΄).
Funerary structure FS13 (7 m by 5 m) has a forward flank up to 90 cm in height, and two single courses of stones set 80 cm apart on the east rim (33.816΄ / 24.214΄).
Funerary structure FS14 (5.3 m long) has partly intact forward and side walls (33.819΄ / 24.217΄).
Funerary structure FS15 (5 m long) has a forward flank 40 cm in height (33.822΄ / 24.211΄).
Funerary structure FS16 (4.5 m by 3 m) (33.824΄ / 24.207΄).
Funerary structure FS17 (6.9 m by 5.5 m) has a forward flank 1 m in height (33.829΄ / 24.203΄). The rear wall is partly intact. The west wall consists of two single courses of stones set 1.3 m apart. FS17 is the highest elevation funerary structure at KarkhukDkar khug.
Funerary structure FS18 (4.2 m long) is highly fragmentary (33.828΄ / 24.211΄).
Funerary structure FS19 (5 m by 2.3 m) has a forward flank, 30 cm in height (33.831΄ / 24.213΄).
Funerary structure FS20 (6.6 m by 5.1 m) is situated in a gully that formed since the structure was built. On the west side of the structure, erosion has exposed a wall segment 90 cm in height. There may have been other specimens in the same gully that have been totally obliterated.
Funerary structure FS21 (4 m by 3.5 m) has forward and west flanks up to 60 cm in height (33.827΄ / 24.230΄).
Funerary structure FS22 (7.4 m by 5.4 m) has a forward flank up to 1.2 m in height (33.830΄ / 24.207΄).
Funerary structure FS23 (3.3 m by 3.3 m) has a bowed forward flank, 50 cm in height (33.831΄ / 24.247΄).
Funerary structure FS24 is highly fragmentary (33.834΄ / 24.250΄).
Funerary structure FS25 (4.1 m long) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (33.829΄ / 24.243΄).
Funerary structure FS26 is highly fragmentary (33.824΄ / 24.245΄).
Funerary structure FS27 (5 m by 5.4 m) has a forward flank up to 80 cm in height (33.822΄ / 24.245΄).
Funerary structure FS28 (3 m by 2.5 m) has all four of its outer walls intact (33.808΄ / 24.245΄). The parallel single-course walls are set 60 cm to 70 cm apart. Stones in these walls protrude a maximum of 40 cm above ground level. FS28 is level with the slope.
Funerary structure FS29 (6.5 m by 3.7 m) has a forward flank up to 70 cm in height (33.820΄ / 24.251΄).
Funerary structure FS30 (6.5 m by 3.7 m) has a forward flank, 70 cm in height (33.821΄ / 24.251΄).
Funerary structure FS31 (6.7 m by 4.7 m) has a forward flank, 90 cm in height (33.824΄ / 24.257΄).
Funerary structure FS32 (6 m by 4.7 m) (33.822΄ / 24.263΄).
Funerary structure FS33 (4.6 m by 4.3 m) has a forward flank at least 70 cm in height (33.826΄ / 24.266΄).
Funerary structure FS34 (7 m by 5.5 m) has a forward wall, 1 m high, consisting of up to 5 vertical courses of large stones (33.817΄ / 24.267΄).
Funerary structure FS35 is highly fragmentary (33.810΄ / 24.271΄).
Funerary structure FS36 is highly fragmentary (33.804΄ / 24.273΄).
Funerary structure FS37 is highly fragmentary (33.805΄ / 24. 274΄).
Funerary structure FS38 is highly fragmentary (33.807΄ / 24.277΄).
Funerary structure FS39 is highly fragmentary (33.812΄ / 24.272΄).
Funerary structure FS40 is highly fragmentary (33.817΄ / 24.271΄).
Funerary structure FS41 is highly fragmentary (33.818΄ / 24.271΄).
Funerary structure FS42 (5 m by 4.4 m) has a forward flank at least 50 cm in height (33.819΄ / 24.277΄).

East sector

The upper portion of the east sector is steeper than the lower portion but the terrain is in better condition. The upper portion of the east sector has a good covering of turf and more intact funerary structures than the lower portion. The lower portion of the east sector has probably suffered waterborne damage. Most of the larger funerary structures of KarkhukDkar khug are located in the east sector.

The funerary structures of the east sector have the following dimensions, locations and salient characteristics:

Funerary structures FS43 to FS52 are located in the upper portion of the east sector.
Funerary structure FS43 (6.9 m by 3.6 m) has a forward wall, 70 cm in height (33.819΄ / 24.288΄).
Funerary structure FS44 (7.4 m by 5.1 m) has single-course parallel walls along the south, east and west rim of the structure (33.822΄ / 24.296΄). The forward flank is a minimum of 70 cm high.
Funerary structure FS45 (7.2 m by 5.3 m) has intact parallel single-course walls along the south, east and west rim of the structure (33.825΄ / 24.299΄).
Funerary structure FS46 is highly fragmentary (33.829΄ / 24.308΄).
Funerary structure FS47 (6 m by 4.2 m) has partially intact, parallel single-course walls along the rim of the structure. The forward wall is 60 cm high.
Funerary structure FS48 (6.4 m by 4.4 m) has a forward flank up to 50 cm in height (33.822΄ / 24.307΄).
Funerary structure FS49 (5.2 m by 3.7 m) has traces of its parallel single course walls on the rim intact (33.821΄ / 24.317΄). One of the stones in these walls protrudes 60 cm above the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS50 (5.7 m by 3.8 m) has a forward wall 50 cm in height (33.829΄ / 24.327΄).
Funerary structure FS51 (7.2 m by 5.4 m) (33.816΄ / 24.331΄).
Funerary structure FS52 (6.6 m by 5 m) (33.824΄ / 24.377΄).
Funerary structures FS53 to FS187 are located in the lower portion of the east sector.
Funerary structure FS54 is highly fragmentary (33.810΄ / 24.308΄).
Funerary structure FS55 is highly fragmentary (33.797΄ / 24.291΄).
Funerary structure FS56 (2.4 m by 1.8 m) has single course walls on all four sides, flush with the slope (33.796΄ / 24.289΄).
Funerary structure FS57 (4.6 m by 4.3 m) has a stone in its east wall 1.6 m in length (33.789΄ / 24.289΄).
Funerary structure FS58 (5.1 m by 2.9 m) (33.791΄ / 24.292΄).
Funerary structure FS59 is highly fragmentary (33.791 / 24.299).
Funerary structure FS60 is highly fragmentary (33.796΄ / 24.297΄).
Funerary structure FS61 is highly fragmentary (33.796΄ / 24.308΄).
Funerary structure FS62 is highly fragmentary (33.803΄ / 24.306΄).
Funerary structure FS63 is highly fragmentary (33.811΄ / 24.306΄).
Funerary structure FS64 (8.5 m long) (33.812΄ / 24.314΄).
Funerary structure FS65 (4.4 m long) (33.804΄ / 24.314΄).
Funerary structure FS66 (9.4 m) may have consisted of three adjacent structures (33.805΄ / 24.316΄).
Funerary structure FS67 (5.6 m by 4 m) (33.798΄ / 24.314΄).
Funerary structure FS68 (5.6 m by 5 m) has parallel single-course walls along the east, west and south rims of the structures.
Funerary structure FS69 is highly fragmentary (33.795΄ / 24.325΄).
Funerary structure FS70 is highly fragmentary (33.797΄ / 24.331΄).
Funerary structure FS71 is highly fragmentary (33.802΄ / 24.327΄).
Funerary structure FS72 is highly fragmentary (33.799΄ / 24.335΄).
Funerary structure FS73 is highly fragmentary (33.793΄ / 24.334΄).
Funerary structure FS74 is highly fragmentary (33.795΄ / 24.341).
Funerary structure FS75 (5 m by 3.6 m) contains large stones up to 1.2 m in length (33.791΄ / 24.345΄).
Funerary structure FS76 (5.1 m by 3.6 m) has a forward flank approximately 80 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS77 is highly fragmentary (33.798΄ / 24.341΄).
Funerary structure FS78 is highly fragmentary (33.800΄ / 24.345΄).
Funerary structure FS79 is highly fragmentary (33.808΄ / 24.331΄).
Funerary structure FS80 is highly fragmentary (33.810΄ / 24.338΄).
Funerary structure FS81 (5m long) (33.810΄ / 24.342΄).
Funerary structure FS82 is highly fragmentary (33.805΄ / 24.346΄).
Funerary structure FS83 is highly fragmentary (33.811΄ / 24.348΄).
Funerary structure FS84 is highly fragmentary (33.810΄ / 24.353΄).
Funerary structure FS85 (2.8 m by 3.2 m) appears to be an ovoid structure. Its forward flank is up to 50 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS86 is highly fragmentary (33.798΄ / 24.361΄).
Funerary structure FS87 is highly fragmentary (33.794΄ / 24.361΄).
Funerary structure FS88 (6.5 m long) (33.796΄ / 24.366΄).
Funerary structure FS89 is highly fragmentary (33.779΄ / 24.365΄).
Funerary structure FS90 is highly fragmentary (33.780΄ / 24.373΄).
Funerary structure FS91 (4.3 m long) has a forward flank around 50 cm in height (33.786΄ / 24.372΄).
Funerary structure FS92 is highly fragmentary (33.789΄ / 24.372΄).
Funerary structure FS93 is highly fragmentary (33.788΄ / 24.375΄).
Funerary structure FS94 (4.8 m long) (33.791΄ / 24.378΄).
Funerary structure FS95 is highly fragmentary (33.797΄ / 24.380΄).
Funerary structure FS96 is highly fragmentary (33.802΄ / 24.372΄).
Funerary structure FS97 is highly fragmentary (33.802΄ / 24.366΄).
Funerary structure FS98 is highly fragmentary (33.803΄ / 24.380΄).
Funerary structure FS99 is highly fragmentary (33.805΄ / 24.384΄).
Funerary structure FS100 is highly fragmentary (33.803΄ / 24.389΄).
Funerary structure FS101 has had many stones recently extracted from it (33.810΄ / 24.379΄).
Funerary structure FS102 has had many stones recently extracted from it (33.819΄ / 24.367΄).
Funerary structure FSD103 (3.6 m long) (33.829΄ / 24.368΄).
Funerary structure FS104 (6.2 m by 4.3 m) (33.829΄ / 24.383΄).
Funerary structure FS105 (5.4 m by 4.4 m) (33.827΄ / 24.382΄).
Funerary structure FS106 (6.6 m long) (33.831΄ / 24.388΄).
Funerary structure FS107 is highly fragmentary (33.838 / 24.392).
Funerary structure FS108 (5.3 m long) (33.830΄ / 24.395΄).
Funerary structure FS109 is highly fragmentary (33.835΄ / 24.402΄).
Funerary structure FS110 (6.4 m by 4.3 m) (33.837΄ / 24.402΄).
Funerary structure FS111 is highly fragmentary (33.840΄ / 24.408΄).
Funerary structure FS112 (5.3 m by 4.3 m) (33.838΄ / 24.410΄).
Funerary structure FS113 (6.6 m long) (33.838΄ / 24.414΄).
Funerary structure FS114 (8.4 m by 5 m) (33.832΄ / 24.408΄).
Funerary structure FS115 (5.9 m by 4 m) (33.838΄ / 24.422΄).
Funerary structure FS116 (6.7 m long) (33.840΄ / 24.418΄).
Funerary structure FS117 is highly fragmentary (33.844΄ / 24.416΄).
Funerary structure FS118 (11.2 m by 7.6 m) has a forward flank, around 2 m in height (33.851΄ / 24.426΄).
Funerary structure FS119 (8 m by 3.8 m) has a forward flank, at least 50 cm in height (33.863΄ / 24.450΄).
Funerary structure FS120 is highly fragmentary (33.861 / 24.459΄).
Funerary structure FS121 (11.5 m by 4.9 m) has a forward flank, around 2 m in height (33.861΄ / 24.468΄)
Funerary structure FS122 (8.1 m by 6 m) has largely collapsed (33.858΄ / 24.487΄).
Funerary structure FS123 (12.9 m by 7 m) has a forward flank around 2 m in height (33.853΄ / 24.477΄).
Funerary structure FS124 (10 m by 5.6 m) has a forward flank around 2 m in height (33.849΄ / 24.465΄).
Funerary structure FS125 is a smaller specimen (33.852΄ / 24.459΄).
Funerary structure FS126 (9 m by 6.3 m) has a forward flank, dominated by a masonry wall 1 m in height (33.847΄ / 24.454΄). On the west of this structure are two single-course lines of stones, spaced 1 m apart.
Funerary structure FS127 (13.3 m by 8.3 m) exhibits parallel single-course walls on its east side (33.846΄ / 24.442΄). Some recent excavation of FS127 seems to have occurred.
Funerary structure FS128 (12 m by 6.3 m) has a forward flank about 1.5 m in height (33.831΄ / 24.430΄). The parallel single courses on the east side of the structure are spaced 1.3 m apart.
Funerary structure FS129 (11.8 m by 7.4 m) has a forward flank of indeterminate height (33.832΄ / 24.440΄).
Funerary structure FS130 (11 m by 7.5 m) has a forward flank of indeterminate height (33.832΄ / 24.450΄).
Funerary structure FS131 is a smaller specimen (33.841΄ / 24.458΄).
Funerary structure FS132 (4.5 m by 3 m) appears to have an ovoid form and a forward flank, 50 cm in height (33.842΄ / 24.461΄).
Funerary structure FS133 (8.7 m by 6.2 m) has parallel single-course walls on the east side set 70 cm apart. Some of its rear wall is intact as well (33.844΄ / 24.475΄).
Funerary structure FS134 is a smaller specimen (33.841΄ / 24.479΄).
Funerary structure FS135 (3.3 m by 3.3 m) is an ovoid structure even with the ground surface (33.847΄ / 24.487΄).
Funerary structure FS136 (3 m by 3.6 m) is an ovoid structure with a forward flank, 50 cm in height (33.845΄ / 24.488΄).
Funerary structure FS137 (11.6 m 8.4 m) has a forward flank of over 1 m in height, dominated by a masonry wall, 80 cm in height (33.848΄ / 24.497΄).
Funerary structure FS138 (14 m by 7.8 m) has its south, east and west walls partly intact (33.851΄ / 24.505΄). The height of the forward flank is not clear.
Funerary structure FS139 (14.3 m by 8.2 m) has parallel single-course walls spaced 1.4 m apart on the west side of the structure (33.838΄ / 24.484΄).
Funerary structure FS140 (8.2 m by 8.4 m) has a partly intact inset rear wall (33.834΄ / 24.472΄).
Funerary structure FS141 (2 m long) (33.837΄ / 24.467΄).
Funerary structure FS142 (4 m long) has a forward flank about 1.2 m in height (33.837΄ / 24.464΄).
Funerary structure FS143 (4.6 m by 4 m) has a forward flank about 1.5 m in height (33.837 / 24.461).
Funerary structure FS144 (9.4 m by 8.2 m) has a forward flank at least 1 m in height and a rear wall (33.829΄ / 24.457΄).
Funerary structure FS145 (9.9 m by 7.8 m) has parallel single courses of stones on the forward/south flank set 1.1 apart and with a 40 cm vertical differential (33.828΄ / 24,472΄ ). There are also parallel single course walls, set 80 cm apart on the east side of the structure and a fragmentary rear/north wall.
Funerary structure FS146 (7.9 m by 5.8 m) (33.823΄ / 24.462΄).
Funerary structure FS147 is highly fragmentary (33.820΄ / 24.457΄).
Funerary structure FS148 (8.5 m by 5.7 m) (33.820΄ / 24.450΄).206
Funerary structure FS149 (7.7 m by 5.4 m) (33.820΄ / 24.441΄).
Funerary structure FS150 is highly fragmentary (33.820΄ / 24.437΄).
Funerary structure FS151 (8.7 m by 6.5 m) (33.819΄ / 24. 430΄).
Funerary structure FS152 (7 m by 4 m) (33.818΄ / 24.422΄).
Funerary structure FS153 (9.8 m by 5.2 m) (33.814΄ / 24.414΄).
Funerary structure FS154 is highly fragmentary (33.809΄ / 24.420΄).
Funerary structure FS155 (6.2 m long) (33.813΄ / 24.397΄).
Funerary structure FS156 appears to have had had stones recently extracted from the structure (33.820΄ / 24.404΄).
Funerary structure FS157 is highly fragmentary (33.808΄ / 24.390΄).
Funerary structure FS158 is highly fragmentary (33.812΄ / 24.390΄).
Funerary structure FS159 (6 m long) (33.801΄ / 24.400΄).
Funerary structure FS160 is highly fragmentary (33.798΄ / 24.393΄).
Funerary structure FS161 is highly fragmentary (33.796΄ / 24.390΄).
Funerary structure FS162 (4 m by 3.5 m) (33.793΄ / 24.388΄).
Funerary structure FS163 (7.5 m long) (33.793΄ / 24.392΄).
Funerary structure FS164 (5.8 m by 4.8 m) (33.785΄ / 24.395΄).
Funerary structure FS165 is highly fragmentary (33.785΄ / 24.399΄).
Funerary structure FS166 (3.2 m long) (33.786΄ / 24.402΄).
Funerary structure FS167 is highly fragmentary (33.788΄ / 24.407΄).
Funerary structure FS168 (4.9 m long) (33.793΄ / 24.401΄).
Funerary structure FS169 (4.2 m by 3 m) (33.797΄ / 24.402΄).
Funerary structure FS170 (6 m long) (33.800΄ / 24.405΄).
Funerary structure FS171 is highly fragmentary (33.794΄ / 24.408΄).
Funerary structure FS172 is highly fragmentary (33.804΄ / 24.410΄).
Funerary structure FS173 (7.9 m long) has had stones recently removed from the structure (33.809΄ / 24.419΄).
Funerary structure FS174 (12 m by 7 m) (33.811΄ / 24.429΄).
Funerary structure FS175 is a smaller specimen (33.812΄ / 24.437΄).
Funerary structure FS176 (15.8 m by 7.3 m) has a forward flank, about 2 m in height (33.793΄ / 24.388΄). The rear wall is partly intact. Stones have been recently extracted from the structure.
Funerary structure FS177 is highly fragmentary (33.805΄ / 24.417΄).
Funerary structure FS178 (8 m long) (33.810΄ / 24.423΄).
Funerary structure FS179 is a larger fragmentary specimen (33.800΄ / 24.434΄).
Funerary structure FS180 has had many stones removed from the structure (33.801΄ / 24.445΄).
Funerary structure FS181 (12.6 m by 8.7 m) has a forward flank, at least 2 m in height (33.800΄ / 24.459΄). Many stones have been removed from the structure.
Funerary structure FS182 is a larger specimen bereft of many stones (33.812΄ / 24.477΄).
Funerary structure FS183 (8.4 m by 5 m) (33.809΄ / 24.474΄).
Funerary structure FS184 is a larger specimen from which many stones have been removed (33.808΄ / 24.483΄).
Funerary structure FS185 (10 m by 6 m) has had many stones extracted from the structure (33.811΄ / 24.495΄).
Funerary structure FS186 (12.5 m long) (33.823΄ / 24.502΄).
Funerary structure FS187 (14 m long) has had many stones extracted from the structure (33.812΄ / 24.519΄). FS187 is situated at the southeast corner of the site. It is the lowest elevation specimen at KarkhukDkar khug.

Gönro (Dgon ro)

Basic site data

Site name: Gönro
English equivalent: Ruined Monastery
Site number: D-75
Site typology: II.2e
Elevation: 4600 m to 4690 m
Administrative location (township): Barta
Administrative location (county): Nakchu
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: September 15 and September 16, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing and rudimentary shepherd shelters.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A few mani plaques.
Maps: UTRS IX
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General site characteristics

GönroDgon ro is a very large funerary site located in the NamarchéNa mar che region of BartaBar tha. It is in view of Neri TsongönGnas ri mtsho sngon/Namarché TsoNa mar che mtsho. The placement of far eastern JangtangByang thang funerary sites like GönroDgon ro in sight of a lake is probably related to the sacred and mythic regenerative qualities of such bodies of water. GönroDgon ro is found on turf-carpeted terrain with an east and southeast aspect, on slopes with a 10° to 20° gradient. The site consists of terraced funerary structures spread out over a large area. In general, the 278 structures documented at this site tend to be smaller and less elaborately constructed than their counterparts at the neighboring site of KarkhukDkar khug (D-74). The lower forward flank elevations of the GönroDgon ro terraced funerary structures can in part be explained by the gentler slope gradients of the site. Nevertheless, given the differences in construction, it seems likely that the more accessible KarkhukDkar khug site represents a higher social status and/or different period funerary complex than GönroDgon ro. In any event, the location of these two large funerary sites in BartaBar tha underscores the importance of this region in ancient times (probably early historic period or vestigial period). This significance may be related to relatively high population densities or perhaps to major military campaigns that took place in BartaBar tha.

Neither the small (6 m² to 30 m²) nor the large (30² m to 90² m) terraced funerary structures of GönroDgon ro exhibit walls with a set design or arrangement (with rare exception); rather, the stones making up the outer walls (primarily 60 cm to 80 cm thick) appear to have been laid randomly. Tan and gray stones (metamorphic?), primarily 10 cm to 40 cm in length, were used in the construction of these structures. The terraced funerary structures are rectangular, sub-rectangular and ovoid in form. Many specimens that have nearly equal transverse and axial dimensions are ovoid in form. In specimens with two longer sides, these usually run perpendicular to the axis of the slope. The forward flanks of many specimens range from flush with the slope to a height of 50 cm. There are also forward flanks, 50 cm to 1 m or more in height, especially among the larger specimens. The rear side of the structures tends to be flush with the uphill slope, but there are also some rear walls raised 20 cm to 1 m above the slope, especially in the largest specimens. Many of the structures are covered in a dense carpet of turf and are devoid of structural elements set inside the outer walls. There is no evidence that GönroDgon ro has been disturbed in recent times. It is reported that a small mani wall is found on the summit above the site. It is also reported that a new sky burial site has been established some distance north of GönroDgon ro. This seems to suggest that the funerary identity of GönroDgon ro is dimly acknowledged by local residents. There are south and north sectors in GönroDgon ro.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, GönroDgon ro represent the remains of a Buddhist monastery.

Site elements

South sector

The funerary structures of the south sector have the following dimensions, locations and salient features:

Funerary structure FS1 (3.5 m by 3.5 m) is the lowest elevation funerary structure at GönroDgon ro (31° 36.137΄ N. lat. / 91° 27.476΄ E. long.).
Funerary structure FS2 (5.6 m by 4 m) (36.135΄ / 27.466΄).
Funerary structure FS3 (2.8 m by 2.8 m) (36.137΄ / 27.456΄).
Funerary structure FS4 (2.4 m by 2.4 m) (36.136΄ / 27.446΄).
Funerary structure FS5 is highly fragmentary (36.141΄ / 27.447΄).
Funerary structure FS6 (3.6 m by 3.3 m) (36.145΄ / 27.456΄).
Funerary structure FS7 (2.8 m by 2.7 m) (36.141΄ / 27.463΄).
Funerary structure FS8 (8.2 m by 4 m) (36.142΄ / 27.470΄).
Funerary structure FS9 (4.4 m by 3.4 m) (36.148΄ / 27.470΄).
Funerary structure FS10 is highly fragmentary (36.150΄ / 27.479΄).
Funerary structure FS11 is a smaller specimen (36.153΄ / 27.481΄).
Funerary structure FS12 (6.4 m by 4.3 m) (36.158΄ / 27.487΄).
Funerary structure FS13 (4 m by 3 m) (36.162΄ / 27.490΄).
Funerary structure FS14 (3.3 m by 2.6 m) (36.171΄ / 27.487΄).
Funerary structure FS15 (5.4 m by 3 m) (36.167΄ / 27.479΄).
Funerary structure FS16 (3.6 m by 2.9 m) (36.162΄ / 27.478΄).
Funerary structure FS17 (5.6 m by 4 m) (36.157΄ / 27.475΄).
Funerary structure FS18 (4.3 m by 4.1 m) (36.164΄ / 27.472΄).
Funerary structure FS19 (3.6 m by 4 m) (36.157΄ / 27.458΄).
Funerary structure FS20 (5.5 long) (36.155΄ / 27.455΄).
Funerary structure FS21 (4.9 m by 3.7 m) (36.161΄ / 27.455΄).
Funerary structure FS22 is highly fragmentary (36.162΄ / 27.448΄).
Funerary structure FS23 is highly fragmentary (36.166΄ / 27.456΄).
Funerary structure FS24 (6 m by 3.4 m) (36.178΄ / 27.464΄).
Funerary structure FS25 (4 m by 4.3 m) (36.178΄ / 27.456΄).
Funerary structure FS26 (6.9 m by 4.6 m) (36.175΄ / 27.453΄).
Funerary structure FS27 is highly fragmentary (36.175΄ / 27.446΄).
Funerary structure FS28 (7.1 m by 3.8 m) (36.168΄ / 27.427΄).
Funerary structure FS29 (7.5. m by 3.8 m) (36.164΄ / 27.421΄).
Funerary structure FS30 is highly fragmentary (36.175΄ / 27.414΄).
Funerary structure FS31 (5.3 m by 4.8 m) (36.184΄ / 27.420΄).
Funerary structure FS32 (5.5 m by 4.2 m) (36.186΄ / 27.413΄).
Funerary structure FS33 (6.5 m by 4.3 m) (36.189΄ / 27.418΄).
Funerary structure FS34 is a smaller specimen (36.183΄ / 27.428΄).
Funerary structure FS35 (4.2 m by 5.4 m) (36.183΄ / 27.432΄).
Funerary structure FS36 (5.7 m by 4.6 m) (36.189΄ / 27.433΄).
Funerary structure FS37 (5.1 m by 4.4 m) (36.199΄ / 27.445΄).
Funerary structure FS38 is highly fragmentary (36.204΄ / 27.449΄).
Funerary structure FS39 (4.7 m by 3.2 m) (36.199΄ / 27.455΄).
Funerary structure FS40 (5.4 m by 4 m) (36.192΄ / 27.456΄).
Funerary structure FS41 is a smaller specimen (36.193΄ / 27.461΄).
Funerary structure FS42 is highly fragmentary (36.184΄ / 27.459΄).
Funerary structure FS43 (4 m by 2.8 m) (36.189΄ / 27.469΄).
Funerary structure FS44 (4.8 m by 3.5 m) (36.192΄ / 27.468΄).
Funerary structure FS45 is highly fragmentary (36.195΄ / 27.471΄).
Funerary structure FS46 is a smaller specimen (36.198΄ / 27.470΄).
Funerary structure FS47 (5.3 m by 4 m) (36.198΄ / 27.428΄).
Funerary structure FS48 (4.3 m by 4.3 m) (36.205΄ / 27.426΄).
Funerary structure FS49 (5.6 m by 4 m) (36.135΄ / 27.466΄).
Funerary structure FS50 is highly fragmentary (36.276΄ / 27.420΄).
Funerary structure FS51 (5.3 m by 3.5 m) (36.201΄ / 27.416΄).
Funerary structure FS52 (5.6 m by 4 m) (36.202΄ / 27.410΄).
Funerary structure FS53 (3.2 m by 3 m) (36.199΄ / 27.408΄).
Funerary structure FS54 (5 m by 4.8 m) (36.199΄ / 27.403΄).
Funerary structure FS55 is highly fragmentary (36.207΄ / 27.404΄).
Funerary structure FS56 (4 m by 3.8 m) (36.205΄ / 27.399΄).
Funerary structure FS57 (3.5 m by 3.5 m) (36.203΄ / 27.396΄).
Funerary structure FS58 (6.6 m by 5 m) (36.207΄ / 27.380΄).
Funerary structure FS59 (3.6 m by 3.2 m) (36.214΄ / 27.375΄).
Funerary structure FS60 (5.2 m by 3.8 m) (36.200΄ / 27.374΄).
Funerary structure FS61 (9.2 m by 3.3 m) (36.195΄ / 27.371΄).
Funerary structure FS62 (3.8 m by 4 m) (36.210΄ / 27.360΄).
Funerary structure FS63 (5 m by 3.6 m) (36.202΄ / 27.359΄).
Funerary structure FS64 is highly fragmentary (36.197΄ / 27.360΄).
Funerary structure FS65 is highly fragmentary (36.192΄ / 27.364΄).
Funerary structure FS66 is a larger specimen (36.195΄ / 27.352΄).
Funerary structure FS67 (4.7 m by 4.2 m) (36.193΄ / 27.345΄).
Funerary structure FS68 (5.6 m by 4 m) (36.135΄ / 27.466΄).
Funerary structure FS69 (6.7 m by 4.7 m) (36.179΄ / 27.350΄).
Funerary structure FS70 (5.3 m by 3.5 m) (36.186΄ / 27.344΄).
Funerary structure FS71 is a smaller specimen (36.179΄ / 27.329΄).
Funerary structure FS72 (8 m by 5.3 m) (36.074΄ / 27.264΄).
Funerary structure FS73 (7.4 m by 5.2 m) (36.069΄ / 27.258΄).
Funerary structure FS74 (6 m by 5.6 m) (36.062΄ / 27.252΄).
Funerary structure FS75 (6.9 m by 5.6 m) (36.081΄ / 27.247΄).
Funerary structure FS76 (6.4 m by 6.4 m) (36.078΄ / 27.222΄).
Funerary structure FS77 (5.4 m by 4.8 m) (36.076΄ / 27.212΄).
Funerary structure FS78 is a smaller specimen (36.079΄ / 27.205΄).
Funerary structure FS79 (4.6 m by 4 m) (36.073΄ / 27.203΄).
Funerary structure FS80 (5.8 m by 4.7 m) (36.074΄ / 27.196΄).
Funerary structure FS81 (7.6 m by 6.4 m) (36.091΄ / 27.192΄).
Funerary structure FS82 (5 m by 5 m) (36.072΄ / 27.157΄).
Funerary structure FS83 (3.5 m by 5.5 m) (36.069΄ / 27.154΄).
Funerary structure FS84 (4.5 m by 4.5 m) (36.063΄ / 27.155΄).
Funerary structure FS85 (3.8 m by 3.5 m) (36.052΄ / 27.154΄).
Funerary structure FS86 is highly fragmentary (36.052΄ / 27.150΄).
Funerary structure FS87 (6.6 m by 4.5 m) (36.064΄ / 27.147΄).
Funerary structure FS88 (6 m by 3.8 m) (36.064΄ / 27.142΄).
Funerary structure FS89 (5 m by 6 m) (36.064΄ / 27.136΄). Thanks to the burrowing of picas, a segment of the forward subsurface wall is visible. It is two vertical courses in height.
Funerary structure FS90 is a smaller specimen (36.071΄ / 27.143΄).
Funerary structure FS91 is a smaller specimen (36.075΄ / 27.144΄).
Funerary structure FS92 (9 m by 3 m) (36.071΄ / 27.118΄).
Funerary structure FS93 (3.3 m by 6 m) (36.069΄ / 27.111΄).
Funerary structure FS94 (6.7 m by 4.5 m) (36.068΄ / 27.104΄).
Funerary structure FS95 (5.5 m by 3.8 m) (36.070΄ / 27.096΄).
Funerary structure FS96 (5 m by 3.2 m) (36.070΄ / 27.090΄).
Funerary structure FS97 (6.4 m by 4 m) (36.071΄ / 27.079΄). This is the highest specimen in the south sector.
Funerary structure FS98 (5 m by 3.5 m) (36.076΄ / 27.085΄).
Funerary structure FS99 is highly fragmentary (36.091΄ / 27.115΄).
Funerary structure FS100 (5.8 m by 3 m) (36.090΄ / 27.138΄).
Funerary structure FS101 (8.2 m by 4.1 m) (36.093΄ / 27.143΄).
Funerary structure FS102 (7 m by 5 m) (36.104΄ / 27.152΄).
Funerary structure FS103 (7 m by 5.2 m) (36.135΄ / 27.466΄). There are a few plaques inscribed with the mani mantra sitting on this structure.
Funerary structure FS104 (5 m by 3.5 m) (36.117΄ / 27.171΄).
Funerary structure FS105 is a smaller specimen (36.119΄ / 27.175΄).
Funerary structure FS106 (5.2 m by 3.3 m) (36.119΄ / 27.183΄).
Funerary structure FS107 is a smaller specimen (36.114΄ / 27.182΄).
Funerary structure FS108 (3.5 m by 3.5 m) (36.113΄ / 27.186΄).
Funerary structure FS109 (3 m by 3 m) (36.115΄ / 27.190΄).
Funerary structure FS110 (6 m by 3.3 m) (36.116΄ / 27.193΄).
Funerary structure FS111 is a larger specimen (36.119΄ / 27.198΄).
Funerary structure FS112 is a smaller specimen (36.123΄ / 27.211΄).
Funerary structure FS113 is a smaller specimen (36.138΄ / 27.220΄).
Funerary structure FS114 is a smaller specimen (36.136΄ / 27.198΄).
Funerary structure FS115 (6 m by 4 m) (36.124΄ / 27.193΄).
Funerary structure FS116 (4.7 m by 4 m) (36.133΄ / 27.187΄).
Funerary structure FS117 is a larger specimen (36.131΄ / 27.186΄).
Funerary structure FS118 is a highly fragmentary specimen (36.144΄ / 27.188΄).
Funerary structure FS119 (6.6 m by 4.2 m) (36.183΄ / 27.219΄).
Funerary structure FS120 (4.7 m by 2.5 m) (36.180΄ / 27.214΄).
Funerary structure FS121 is a smaller specimen (36.177΄ / 27.208΄).
Funerary structure FS122 (4.7 m by 3.4 m) (36.171΄ / 27.211΄).
Funerary structure FS123 (6.8 m by 5.2 m) (36.167΄ / 27.203΄). On its west side of FS123 there is a double-course wall segment (55 cm thick).
Funerary structure FS124 (5.9 long) (36.157΄ / 27.181΄).
Funerary structure FS125 (5.5 m by 3.5 m) (36.152΄ / 27.176΄).
Funerary structure FS126 is a smaller specimen (36.151΄ / 27.172΄).
Funerary structure FS127 (4.5 m by 3.5 m) (36.141΄ / 27.159΄).
Funerary structure FS128 is a smaller specimen (36.142΄ / 27.155΄).
Funerary structure FS129 is a smaller specimen (36.139΄ / 27.154΄).
Funerary structure FS130 (4 m long) (36.151΄ / 27.116΄).
Funerary structure FS131 (3.4 m by 3.4 m) (36.156΄ / 27.122΄).
Funerary structure FS132 (5 m by 5.8 m) (36.161΄ / 27.129΄).
Funerary structure FS133 (7.4 m by 3.6 m) (36.204΄ / 27.144΄). FS133 occupies a high point in the south sector.
Funerary structure FS134 is a smaller specimen (36.209΄ / 27.149΄).
Funerary structure FS135 is a smaller specimen (36.209΄ / 27.155΄).
Funerary structure FS136 (7.2 m by 4 m) (36.215΄ / 27.160΄).
Funerary structure FS137 (8.7 m by 5.4 m) (36.310΄ / 27.178΄).
Funerary structure FS138 (6 m by 4.3 m) (36.307΄ / 27.466΄).
Funerary structure FS139 is a smaller specimen (36.309΄ / 27.188΄).
Funerary structure FS140 (5.7 m by 5 m) (36.306΄ / 27.192΄).
Funerary structure FS141 (4.7 m by 5.5 m) (36.301΄ / 27.193΄).
Funerary structure FS142 (7 m by 5 m) (36.296΄ / 27.193΄).
Funerary structure FS143 is a smaller specimen (36.290΄ / 27.191΄).
Funerary structure FS144 (6.4 m by 4 m) (36.284΄ / 27.186΄).
Funerary structure FS145 is a smaller specimen (36.281΄ / 27.183΄).
Funerary structure FS146 (7 m by 4.2 m) (36.290΄ / 27.202΄).
Funerary structure FS147 (6.8 m by 5.2 m) (36.296΄ / 27.204΄).
Funerary structure FS148 (5.2 m by 4.3 m) (36.300΄ / 27.208΄).
Funerary structure FS149 (8 m by 5.2 m) (36.206΄ / 27.207΄).
Funerary structure FS150 (6.5 m by 4.8 m) (36.312΄ / 27.304΄).
Funerary structure FS151 is a smaller specimen (36.298΄ / 27.226΄).
Funerary structure FS152 (7.2 m by 5.2 m) (36.291΄ / 27.226΄).
Funerary structure FS153 is a smaller specimen (36.286΄ / 27.224΄).
Funerary structure FS154 (6.7 m by 3.5 m) (36.285΄ / 27.228΄).
Funerary structure FS155 (6 m by 4 m) (36.278΄ / 27.233΄).
Funerary structure FS156 (3.5 m by 3.5 m) (36.274΄ / 27.230΄).
Funerary structure FS157 is a smaller specimen (36.258΄ / 27.225΄).
Funerary structure FS158 (5.7 m by 4.2 m) (36.237΄ / 27.222΄).
Funerary structure FS159 is a larger specimen (36.227΄ / 27.215΄).
Funerary structure FS160 is a smaller specimen (36.219΄ / 27.219΄).
Funerary structure FS161 is a smaller specimen (36.227΄ / 27.231΄).
Funerary structure FS162 (3.2 m by 3.2 m) (36.235΄ / 27.231΄).
Funerary structure FS163 (3.5 m by 3.3 m) (36.237΄ / 27.232΄).
Funerary structure FS164 is a smaller specimen (36.240΄ / 27.233΄).
Funerary structure FS165 is a smaller specimen (36.247΄ / 27.234΄).
Funerary structure FS166 (3.5 m by 3.6 m) (36.231΄ / 27.263΄).
Funerary structure FS167 is a smaller specimen (36.203΄ / 27.248΄).
Funerary structure FS168 (4.6 m long) (36.211΄ / 27.275΄).
Funerary structure FS169 (5 m by 4.2 m) (36.193΄ / 27.277΄).
Funerary structure FS170 (6.2 m by 3.6 m) (36.210΄ / 27.294΄).
Funerary structure FS171 (3 m by 3 m) (36.205΄ / 27.293΄).
Funerary structure FS172 (5 m by 3.7 m) (36.172΄ / 27.253΄).
Funerary structure FS173 is a smaller specimen (36.169΄ / 27.252΄).
Funerary structure FS174 (5.6 m by 4.3 m) (36.159΄ / 27.271΄).
Funerary structure FS175 (3.2 m) (36.155΄ / 27.268΄).
Funerary structure FS176 is a smaller specimen (36.149΄ / 27.263΄).
Funerary structure FS177 is a smaller specimen (36.141΄ / 27.269΄).
Funerary structure FS178 (7.4 m by 4.8 m) (36.143΄ / 27.275΄).
Funerary structure FS179 (6.2 m by 3.6 m) (36.150΄ / 27.271΄).
Funerary structure FS180 (4 m by 2.4 m) (36.154΄ / 27.282΄).

North sector

Funerary structure FS181 (3 m by 3 m) (36.305΄ / 27.463΄). This is the lowest specimen in the north sector.
Funerary structure FS182 (5 m by 3 m) (36.312΄ / 27.463΄).
Funerary structure FS183 (3 m by 3.6 m) (36.319΄ / 27.464΄).
Funerary structure FS184 (3.7 m long) (36.324΄ / 27.463΄).
Funerary structure FS185 is a smaller specimen (36.327΄ / 27.466΄).
Funerary structure FS186 (2.7 m by 2.7 m) (36.328΄ / 27.462΄).
Funerary structure FS187 (3 m by 3 m) (36.334΄ / 27.458΄).
Funerary structure FS188 (3.3 m by 3.3 m) (36.343΄ / 27.458΄).
Funerary structure FS189 (2.5 m by 2.5 m) (36.347΄ / 27.458΄).
Funerary structure FS190 (5.4 m by 3.6 m) (36.135΄ / 27.466΄).
Funerary structure FS191 (3.6 m by 3.8 m) (36.349΄ / 27.444΄).
Funerary structure FS192 (2.9 m by 2.9 m) (36.339΄ / 27.441΄).
Funerary structure FS193 is a small specimen (36.228΄ / 27.445΄).
Funerary structure FS194 (3 m by 2.4 m) (36.325΄ / 27.443΄).
Funerary structure FS195 (3.6 m by 3 m) (36.325΄ / 27.449΄).
Funerary structure FS196 (2.4 m by 3 m) (36.329΄ / 27.450΄).
Funerary structure FS197 (3.4 m by 3.8 m) (36.330΄ / 27.458΄).
Funerary structure FS198 is a smaller specimen (36.327΄ / 27.457΄).
Funerary structure FS199 is a smaller specimen (36.322΄ / 27.458΄).
Funerary structure FS200 (5.5 m by 4.3 m) (36.319΄ / 27.455΄).
Funerary structure FS201 (3.8 m by 3.8 m) (36.313΄ / 27.457΄).
Funerary structure FS202 (5.4 m by 3.5 m) (36.313΄ / 27.447΄).
Funerary structure FS203 (4.8 m by 2.8 m) (36.308΄ / 27.446΄).
Funerary structure FS204 (4.3 m by 3 m) (36.304΄ / 27.444΄).
Funerary structure FS205 is a smaller specimen (36.308΄ / 27.441΄).
Funerary structure FS206 (5.6 m by 4 m) (36.310΄ / 27.434΄).
Funerary structure FS207 (3.5. m by 3.5 m) (36.316΄ / 27.435΄).
Funerary structure FS208 (4.5 m by 2.8 m) (36.318΄ / 27.439΄).
Funerary structure FS209 (8.7 m by 3.6 m) (36.295΄ / 27.404΄). FS209 is divided into two cells by a wall that runs parallel to the axis of the slope.
Funerary structure FS210 is a smaller specimen (36.314΄ / 27.406΄).
Funerary structure FS211 (5 m by 4.8 m) (36.320΄ / 27.407΄).
Funerary structure FS212 (5 m by 3.4 m) (36.329΄ / 27.411΄).
Funerary structure FS213 (5.4 m by 3.9 m) (36.340΄ / 27.404΄).
Funerary structure FS214 is a smaller specimen (36.247΄ / 27.401΄).
Funerary structure FS215 (7 m by 4.6 m) (36.351΄ / 27.401΄).
Funerary structure FS216 (3.6 m by 2.8 m) (36.349΄ / 27.396΄).
Funerary structure FS217 (5.3 m by 3.6 m) (36.350΄ / 27.387΄).
Funerary structure FS218 (3.4 m by 3 m) (36.357΄ / 27.394΄).
Funerary structure FS219 (5 m long) (36.371΄ / 27.387΄).
Funerary structure FS220 (5 m by 4.2 m) (36.270΄ / 27.377΄).
Funerary structure FS221 (5.8 m by 4.4 m) (36.381΄ / 27.371΄).
Funerary structure FS222 (5 m by 4.5 m) (36.382΄ / 27.376΄).
Funerary structure FS223 (4.3 m by 4.3 m) (36.387΄ / 27.371΄).
Funerary structure FS224 is a smaller specimen (36.381΄ / 27.362΄).
Funerary structure FS225 (5.3 m by 4 m) (36.391΄ / 27.354΄).
Funerary structure FS226 (4 m by 3.4 m) (36.397΄ / 27.363΄).
Funerary structure FS227 is a smaller specimen (36.402΄ / 27.362΄).
Funerary structure FS228 is a smaller specimen (36.411΄ / 27.349΄).
Funerary structure FS229 (3.5 m by 3.5 m) (36.415΄ / 27.349΄).
Funerary structure FS230 (5.4 m by 4 m) (36.422΄ / 27.347΄).
Funerary structure FS231 (6 m by 4.5 m) (36.428΄ / 27.338΄).
Funerary structure FS232 is a smaller specimen (36.433΄ / 27.335΄).
Funerary structure FS233 (5.8 m by 3.8 m) (36.440΄ / 27.288΄).
Funerary structure FS234 (3.8 m by 3.9 m) (36.436΄ / 27.286΄).
Funerary structure FS235 (3.2 m by 3 m) (36.434΄ / 27.284΄).
Funerary structure FS236 is a smaller specimen (36.431΄ / 27.282΄).
Funerary structure FS237 (5 m by 5 m) (36.430΄ / 27.276΄).
Funerary structure FS238 (4 m by 4.6 m) (36.427΄ / 27.275΄).
Funerary structure FS239 (5 m by 4 m) (36.422΄ / 27.274΄).
Funerary structure FS240 is a smaller specimen (36.418΄ / 27.272΄).
Funerary structure FS241 is a smaller specimen (36.418΄ / 27.268΄).
Funerary structure FS242 is a larger specimen (36.447΄ / 27.278΄).
Funerary structure FS243 (5.8 m by 4.5 m) (36.450΄ / 27.284΄).
Funerary structure FS244 (2.9 m by 2.6 m) (36.466΄ / 27.283΄).
Funerary structure FS245 (6 m by 4 m) (36.473΄ / 27.280΄).
Funerary structure FS246 (5.6 m by 4.6 m) (36.478΄ / 27.272΄).
Funerary structure FS247 (2.8 m by 2.8 m) (36.482΄ / 27.267΄). FS247 is the most northerly specimen at GönroDgon ro.
Funerary structure FS248 (6 m by 4 m) (36.458΄ / 27.269΄). A small shepherd’s shelter (droklhé) has been constructed on top of FS248.
Funerary structure FS249 (6 m by 4.8 m) (36.456΄ / 27.259΄).
Funerary structure FS250 (4.8 m long) (36.452΄ / 27.260΄).
Funerary structure FS251 (5.8 m by 5 m) (36.447΄ / 27.241΄). Three vertical courses of masonry lie exposed in the forward wall of this specimen.
Funerary structure FS252 (3 m by 3 m) (36.433΄ / 27.196΄). FS252 has a slight concavity in the top portion of the structure caused either by subsidence or looting carried out long ago.
Funerary structures FS253, FS254 and FS255 are situated at the highest point of GönroDgon ro.
Funerary structure FS253 (7 m by 5.3 m) (36.412΄ / 27.157΄). FS253 has a slight concavity in the top portion of the structure caused either by subsidence or looting carried out long ago.
Funerary structure FS254 (7 m by 5.3 m) (36.408΄ / 27.157΄).
Funerary structure FS255 (8 m by 5.7 m) (36.400΄ / 27.158΄).
Funerary structure FS256 is a small specimen (36.371΄ / 27.252΄).
Funerary structure FS257 (10.8 m by 8 m) (36.375΄ / 27.263΄). The rear/upslope wall of this specimen is elevated about 1 m, and the forward flank is elevated about 1.7 m above the downhill slope. As a result, FS257 has the appearance of a bangso.
Funerary structure FS258 (9.4 m by 8 m) (36.382΄ / 27.261΄).
Funerary structure FS259 (8.6 m by 8 m) (36.386΄ / 27.292΄). The uphill side of FS258 is elevated about 80 cm and the downhill side about 1.5 m.
Funerary structure FS260 (10.5 m by 8.5 m) (36.135΄ / 27.466΄). FS260 is elevated about 30 cm on the uphill side.
Funerary structure FS261 is a larger specimen (36.358΄ / 27.282΄).
Funerary structure FS262 (10.4 m by 8 m) (36.327΄ / 27.307΄). FS262 is somewhat elevated on its uphill flank. On top of this structure there is a concavity with a small shepherd’s shelter.
Funerary structure FS263 (8.5 m by 6 m) (36.343΄ / 27.320΄).
Funerary structure FS264 (4.2 m by 3.3 m) (36.306΄ / 27.343΄).
Funerary structure FS265 (5 m by 3.5 m) (36.317΄ / 27.379΄).
Funerary structure FS266 is a smaller specimen (36.223΄ / 27.351΄).
Funerary structure FS267 is a smaller specimen (36.325΄ / 27.358΄).
Funerary structure FS268 (4.6 m by 4.3 m) (36.331΄ / 27.362΄).
Funerary structure FS269 (7.4 m by 4.6 m) (36.330΄ / 27.371΄).
Funerary structure FS270 (5.8 m by 4 m) (36.325΄ / 27.366΄).
Funerary structure FS271 (5.4 m by 4 m) (36.320΄ / 27.364΄).
Funerary structure FS272 (2.6 m by 2.4 m) (36.320΄ / 27.358΄).
Funerary structure FS273 (2.8 m by 2.8 m) (36.316΄ / 27.362΄).
Funerary structure FS274 (5 m by 3.5 m) (36.311΄ / 27.358΄).
Funerary structure FS275 (3.6 m by 3.6 m) (36.312΄ / 27.371΄).
Funerary structure FS276 (6 m by 4 m) (36.307΄ / 27.374΄).
Funerary structure FS277 (3.8 m by 3.6 m) (36.312΄ / 27.377΄).
Funerary structure FS278 (3 m by 3 m) (36.316΄ / 27.380΄).

Ronglung (Rong lung)

General site characteristics

The single funerary mound of RonglungRong lung is located in an amphitheatre high up in the RonglungRong lung valley. The site is in view of Neri TsongönGnas ri mtsho sngon/Namarché TsoNa mar che mtsho. The terrain is moderately sloping and blanketed in alpine turf. The rectangular mound of RonglungRong lung is oriented in the cardinal directions and measures 15 m (east-west) by 12.4 m (north-south). Its large size, isolated aspect and lofty position suggest that it featured in the interment/burial rites of a very high status individual or individuals. This structure exhibits the morphological features of both the bangso and terraced funerary constructions. The latter constitutes a very common type of funerary structure in the far eastern JangtangByang thang. RonglungRong lung is turf-covered and does not appear to have been disturbed in a long time.

Oral tradition

Some local sources mistakenly claim that RonglungRong lung is the ruin of an ancient Buddhist monastery.

Site elements

The south/forward/downhill side of RonglungRong lung is elevated about 1.5 m, its west side is elevated about 1.2 m, its east side is elevated as much as 2 m, and on its north/uphill side it only rises about 30 cm above the slope. The height of the east side of the structure can be partly accounted for by a depression in the adjacent terrain. The fragmentary, double-course (60 cm thick) north rim wall is 30 cm in height and is composed of three vertical courses of stones. On the other flanks of the structure there are many stones but without any discernable pattern. On the north and west portions of the top of the mound there are wall traces, which appear to divide the structure into smaller units. Variable length (primarily 20 cm to 50 cm long) uncut, blue and tan metamorphic stones were used in construction of RonglungRong lung. There are also some pieces of red sandstone at the site.

Gyeltsen Tönpo (Rgyal mtshan mthon po)

Basic site data

Site name: Gyeltsen Tönpo
English equivalent: Victory Banner Heights
Site number: D-77
Site typology: II.2e
Elevation: 4670 m to 4710 m
Administrative location (township): Desar
Administrative location (county): Amdo
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: September 17, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Fragments of red sandstone mani plaques.
Maps: UTRS IX
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General site characteristics

The terraced funerary structures of Gyeltsen TönpoRgyal mtshan mthon po are located on the east flanks of a mountain of the same name. To the east, DungtsoMdung mtsho ([A Tak LumoA stag klu mo] Spear Lake) and the sacred mountains NamraNam ra and kyungkaSkyung ka are within view.207 These prominent topographical features seem likely to have had religious significance to the builders of the mortuary site. The terrain is mostly turf-blanketed and consists of broad slopes with around a 15° gradient. Just above the site, the slopes of Gyeltsen TönpoRgyal mtshan mthon po become much steeper. The 64 funerary structures documented begin 200 m vertical above DungtsoMdung mtsho and tend to form long meandering rows that run transverse to the axis of the slope. It is reported that, in the early 1970s, large quantities of stones were removed from the funerary structures in order to build a large collective corral, situated about 300 m south of the site. This pilferage caused a huge amount of damage to Gyeltsen TönpoRgyal mtshan mthon po, complicating a morphological assessment of the funerary structures.

The terraced structures of Gyeltsen TönpoRgyal mtshan mthon po (4 m² to 85 m²) have rectangular and sub-rectangular forms, and were built with flat tops. The stones found along the edges and tops of the majority of these constructions have no obvious design or arrangement; rather, they appear to be incoherent masonry aggregations. Some specimens, however, have walls along the rim of the structure and there are indications that certain of these are of the double-course variety. Where coherent walls exist, they often are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. Most rear/uphill perimeter walls of the terraced structures have been obliterated. Yet, in other specimens, stonework is visible on all four sides of the rim. As a general rule, the two sides of the structures with longer dimensions are oriented perpendicular to the axis of the slope. The forward flanks generally face east and are mostly elevated 20 cm to 70 cm above the downhill slope. Variable-length (primarily 20 cm to 60 cm long), tan and bluish (volcanic?) unshaped stones were used to build the structures. Pieces of milky quartz and red sandstone are also strewn around the site. Originally, these pretty red and white rocks may have formed superficial or decorative embellishments to the funerary structures.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Gyeltsen TönpoRgyal mtshan mthon po represents the ruins of a Buddhist nunnery.

Site elements

The funerary structures of Gyeltsen TönpoRgyal mtshan mthon po have the following dimensions, locations and salient features:

Funerary structure FS1 (7.3 m by 5.3 m). FS1 has been reduced to a rocky tumulus, about 20 cm in height. It is the lowest specimen at Gyeltsen TönpoRgyal mtshan mthon po.
Funerary structure FS2 is highly fragmentary.
Funerary structure FS3 is highly fragmentary.
Funerary structure FS4 is highly fragmentary.
Funerary structure FS5 is highly fragmentary.
Funerary structure FS6 is highly fragmentary. There are probably other specimens immediately to the south of FS6, but they are so degraded as to be virtually indistinguishable from the surrounding terrain.
Funerary structure FS7 is highly fragmentary (37.321΄ / 04.822΄).
Funerary structure FS8 is highly fragmentary (37.327΄ / 04.827΄). There also appear to be two adjacent but extremely degraded specimens.
Funerary structure FS9 (4.7 m long) (37.330΄ / 04.834΄).
Funerary structure FS10 (5.6 m long) (37.333΄ / 04.836΄).
Funerary structure FS11 (3.5 m by 3.3 m) (37.345΄ / 04.837΄).
Funerary structure FS12 is highly fragmentary (37.329΄ / 04.855΄).
Funerary structure FS13 (5 m by 3.8 m) (37.357΄ / 04.827΄).
Funerary structure FS14 (4 m long) (37.356΄ / 04.818΄).
Funerary structure FS15 (7.8 m) (37.356΄ / 04.808΄). The forward flank of this specimen has a height of 1.5 m.
Funerary structure FS16 (7.7 m by 5 m) (37.365΄ / 04.807΄). The forward flank of this specimen has a height of 1.5 m.
Funerary structure FS17 (6.3 m by 5.3 m) (37.341΄ / 04.789΄). The rear wall of FS17 is inset 20 cm into the slope. This is the highest specimen at Gyeltsen TönpoRgyal mtshan mthon po.
Funerary structure FS18 (5 m by 3 m) (37.320΄ / 04.777΄).
Funerary structure FS19 (3 m by 3 m) (37.315΄ / 04.780΄).
Funerary structure FS20 is highly fragmentary (37.257΄ / 04.774΄).
Funerary structure FS21 (5.3 m by 5.3 m) (37.257΄ / 04.784΄). Fragments of double-course walls (80 cm thick) are intact around the rim of this structure.
Funerary structure FS22 is highly fragmentary (37.284΄ / 04.783΄).
Funerary structure FS23 is a larger specimen with part of all four walls of its rim intact (37.387΄ / 04.805΄).
Funerary structure FS24 (10.3 m by 8.3 m) (37.373΄ / 04.816΄). The rear wall of this specimen is elevated 30 cm.
Funerary structure FS25 (5.4 m by 4 m) (37.387΄ / 04.842΄).
Funerary structure FS26 (5.7 m long) (37.383΄ / 04.843΄). A small shepherd’s shelter (droklhé) was built on this structure.
Funerary structure FS27 (6 m by 5.6 m) (37.381΄ / 04.850΄).
Funerary structure FS28 (2 m by 2.2 m) (37.383΄ / 04.858΄).
Funerary structure FS29 (3.3 m by 3.3 m) (37.377΄ / 04.856΄).
Funerary structure FS30 is highly fragmentary (37.375΄ / 04.854΄).
Funerary structure FS31 (5.6 m by 4.3 m) (37.369΄ / 04.851΄).
Funerary structure FS32 is highly fragmentary (37.365΄ / 04.848΄).
Funerary structure FS33 (3.9 m by 3.2 m) (37.360΄ / 04.836΄).
Funerary structure FS34 (2.7 m long) (37.349΄ / 04.845΄).
Funerary structure FS35 (3.2 m) (37.349΄ / 04.849΄).
Funerary structure FS36 is highly fragmentary (37.346΄ / 04.844΄).
Funerary structure FS37 (4.4 m by 4.4 m) (37.344΄ / 04.855΄).
Funerary structure FS38 is highly fragmentary (37.339΄ / 04.844΄).
Funerary structure FS39 is highly fragmentary (37.366΄ / 04.844΄).
Funerary structure FS40 is highly fragmentary (3.5 m by 3.4 m) (37.337΄ / 04.851΄).
Funerary structure FS41 (4.8 m by 4 m) (37.343΄ / 04.852΄).
Funerary structure FS42 (7 m by 3 m) (37.351΄ / 04.855΄).
Funerary structure FS43 is highly fragmentary (37.354΄ / 04.855΄).
Funerary structure FS44 is highly fragmentary (37.355΄ / 04.848΄).
Funerary structure FS45 (3.6 m long) (37.358΄ / 04.857΄).
Funerary structure FS46 (4.9 m by 3.6 m) (37.361΄ / 04.859΄).
Funerary structure FS47 (4 m long) (37.367΄ / 04.861΄).
Funerary structure FS48 is highly fragmentary (37.370΄ / 04.862΄).
Funerary structure FS49 (4.2 m by 4.1 m) (37.372΄ / 04.863΄).
Funerary structure FS50 is highly fragmentary (37.377΄ / 04.860΄).
Funerary structure FS51 (4.4 m long) (37.379΄ / 04.862΄).
Funerary structure FS52 is highly fragmentary (37.382΄ / 04.863΄).
Funerary structure FS53 is highly fragmentary (37.373΄ / 04.872΄).
Funerary structure FS54 (2.2 m by 2.2 m) (37.371΄ / 04.871΄).
Funerary structure FS55 is highly fragmentary (37.369΄ / 04.870΄).
Funerary structure FS56 (4 m long) (37.367΄ / 04.870΄).
Funerary structure FS57 is highly fragmentary (37.366΄ / 04.869΄).
Funerary structure FS58 is highly fragmentary (37.364΄ / 04.868΄).
Funerary structure FS59 is highly fragmentary (37.362΄ / 04.866΄).
Funerary structure FS60 (3.3 m long) (37.359΄ / 04.865΄).
Funerary structure FS61 is highly fragmentary (37.352΄ / 04.864΄).
Funerary structure FS62 (6.4 m by 4.2 m) (37.349΄ / 04.859΄).
Funerary structure FS63 (3.3 m long) (37.348΄ / 04.858΄).
Funerary structure FS64 (3.7 m long) (37.344΄ / 04.858΄).

Darchen (Dar chen)

General site characteristics

DarchenDar chen is located in a small eponymous valley with the mountain called darchokDar lcog (Flag Mast) at its head. The DarchenDar chen valley is a northwestern effluent of DungtsoMdung mtsho. In the vicinity of the site is Shari NamdzongSha ri gnam rdzong, a mountain associated with the non-Buddhist king Dü LutsenBdud klu btsan of the Ling GesarGling ge sar epic. The four terraced funerary structures of the site form a line 59 m in length, which is situated on a turf-carpeted 10° slope. These structures have a southeast aspect and are found about 20 m above the DarchenDar chen valley floor. They appear to be terraced funerary structures of the type that is widespread in the far eastern JangtangByang thang, but they appear to have been simply built with little protrusion above the surrounding terrain. The superstructures are highly fragmentary; none of them have integral wall segments. Variable-length (primarily 20 cm to 60 cm long) uncut gray metamorphic rocks were used in construction. The funerary monuments of DarchenDar chen do not appear to have been tampered with recently.

Oral tradition

A few local sources claim that DarchenDar chen represents the remains of a fortress. Another oral tradition holds that DarchenDar chen was built by the Turco-Mongolian SokpoSog po.

Site elements

The funerary structures of DarchenDar chen have the following dimensions, locations and salient features:

Funerary structure FS1 (4.8 m by 4 m) has only portions of its south wall and west wall intact. FS1 is elevated about 20 cm above the surrounding slope.
Funerary structure FS2 (9 m by 6 m) has parts of its two side walls and forward wall intact, and is elevated about 20 cm above the surrounding slope. A small shepherd’s shelter (droklhé) was built on top of FS2.
Funerary structure FS3 (5.6 m by 5.3 m) has parts of its four walls intact.
Funerary structure FS4 (5.6 m by 4 m) has parts of its four walls intact.

Marrong (Dmar rong)

General site characteristics

MarrongDmar rong is located on the west side of BültsoBul mtsho. It is in view of the sacred mountains, NamraNam ra and kyungkaSkyung ka. The six terraced funerary structures of the site form two rows spread out laterally over a broad, turf-covered slope with around a 15° gradient. There are three terraced funerary structures in each row. These consist of quadrate structures built in the manner common in the far eastern JangtangByang thang (flat top, high forward flank, flush or inset rear flank. etc.). With few exceptions, integral wall segments have not persisted at MarrongDmar rong. The superstructures are constructed of variable-length (20 cm to 90 cm) stones. The exterior faces of a few of these stones may have been cut flat. MarrongDmar rong does not appear to have been disturbed in recent times.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, MarrongDmar rong consists of ancient remains.

Site elements

East group

The three east group structures form a row 28 m long. These structures are not aligned in the cardinal directions. They are made of a white calcareous rock and a grayish volcanic (?) rock. All three funerary structures of the east group are overgrown with nettles.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (4.2 m by 4 m) has parts of its four walls intact. The forward flank is elevated to a height of around 1.2 m above the downhill slope. The rear wall is either even with the uphill slope or set below it as much as 20 cm.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.1 m by 4.2 m) has a forward flank elevated about 1.2 m above the downhill slope. Small portions of coherently built side walls are extant. These double-course walls (70 cm thick) consist of three layers of stones and attain a height of 30 cm.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5.6 m by 4.4 m) has a forward flank 1.5 m in height and a rear wall flush with the slope. The double-course side wall (around 70 cm thick) fragments are composed of four layers of stones and reach 35 cm in height.

West group

The west group of funerary structures is situated 17.5 m west of the east group. These structures are mostly made of a different type of rock (igneous?).

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5.2 m by 4.3 m) has small portions of all four walls intact. The forward flank has a height of about 1.5 m.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (6.2 m by 5.3 m) has parts of all four walls intact. The forward flank has a height of about 1.5 m, while the rear wall is set 20 cm below the slope. One double-course side wall segment is approximately 1 m thick.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (7.3 m by 4.7 m) appears to be aligned in the cardinal directions. Despite changes to the slope having damaged the upper portion of the structure, its lower part is the best preserved structure at MarrongDmar rong. The corner where the south and west walls are joined is intact, showing that FS6 was a neatly built quadrate structure. This corner is made up of three vertical courses of masonry and has a height of 30 cm. Small fragments of blue and red slate are found on the structure, which possibly may have been part of its subsurface architecture.

Rachen (Ra chen)

General site characteristics

RachenRa chen is located between two small mountains, LaroGla ro (Musk Deer Carcass?) and KhenbukMkhan sbug (Artemisia Nook). The site is situated on sandy and turf-blanketed slopes with fairly gentle gradients. There are many granite outcrops dotting these slopes. The terraced funerary structures of RachenRa chen have rectangular, ovoid and trapezoidal forms. They tend to be grouped in meandering rows, each of which is set at the same elevation. Most of these funerary structures are small and simply built with little evidence of coherent wall segments. The rim and forward flank of each structure are lined with stones with no apparent order or arrangement, save for a vertical stacking of stones in a few instances. In those structures with two longer walls, these are usually oriented perpendicular to the axis of the slope. The forward flanks of the terraced funerary structures are flush with the downhill slope or elevated above it to a height of 20 cm to 1 m (larger specimens). The rear walls, where they exist, are usually flush with the uphill slope. These structures are free from structural elements located inside the outer walls. The terraced funerary structures are mostly constructed of variable-length (10 cm to 60 cm long) uncut pieces of white granite. RachenRa chen is the most westerly example of the eastern JangtangByang thang variant of terraced funerary structures documented to date. The site does not appear to have been disturbed in recent times. RachenRa chen is divided into three sectors: southeast (28 funerary structures), northeast (21 funerary structures) and northwest (23 funerary structures).

Oral tradition

According to local sources, RachenRa chen represents the remains of an ancient fortress.

Site elements

Southeast sector

The terraced funerary structures of the southeast sector have the following dimensions, locations and salient characteristics:

Funerary structure FS1 (7.1 m by 3.3 m) has a forward flank, 30 cm in height (31° 27.436΄ / 89° 55.432΄). Parts of all four walls are intact.
Funerary structure FS2 (3 m by 2.2 m) has a forward flank, 20 cm in height (27.432΄ / 55.416΄). Only fragments of three walls have survived.
Funerary structure FS3 (6.4 m long) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height composed of four vertical courses of stones laid flat (27.420΄ / 55.404΄). The side walls are partially intact.
Funerary structure FS4 (6.3 m by 5 m) has a forward flank, 80 cm in height, which includes a segment composed of six vertical courses of stones 60 cm in height (27.417΄ / 55.406΄).
Funerary structure FS5 is a small specimen (27.414΄ / 55.411΄).
Funerary structures FS6 to FS10 form an interconnected row of structures with a forward flank, around 30 cm in height and an obliterated rear wall.
Funerary structure FS6 (3.2 m long) has a forward flank, 20 cm in height, which includes two vertical courses of masonry (27.408΄ / 55.413΄).
Funerary structure FS7 is highly fragmentary (27.406΄ / 55.415΄).
Funerary structure FS8 (3.7 m by 2.8 m) (27.405΄ / 55.416΄).
Funerary structure FS9 (2.8 m long) (27.403΄ / 55.416΄).
Funerary structure FS10 (3.7 m) (27.401΄ / 55.419΄).
Funerary structure FS11 (3.6 m by 2.8 m) has a forward flank, 40 cm in height (27.396΄ / 55.414΄).
Funerary structure FS12 is highly fragmentary (27.394΄ / 55.414΄).
Funerary structure FS13 (7.2 m by 5.8 m) has a forward flank, 1 m in height, and a slightly elevated rear wall (27.436΄ / 55.432΄). A turf-covered depression on top of the structure may be evidence of an excavation carried out in the past.
Funerary structure FS14 (5.9 m by 5.9 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.381΄ / 55.405΄).
Funerary structure FS15 (3.4 m by 3.3 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.377΄ / 55.405΄).
Funerary structure FS16 (3.3 m by 2.8 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.375΄ / 55.405΄).
Funerary structure FS17 (7.2 m by 4.3 m) has a forward flank, 80 cm in height, which includes three vertical courses of masonry, 50 cm in height (27.436΄ / 55.432΄).
Funerary structure FS18 (3 m by 2.8 m) (27.412΄ / 55.403΄).
Funerary structure FS19 is highly fragmentary (27.438΄ / 55.393΄).
Funerary structure FS20 (4.2 m by 2 m) has a forward flank, almost flush with the slope (27.433΄ / 55.391΄).
Funerary structure FS21 is highly fragmentary with a forward flank, flush with the slope (27.436΄ / 55.432΄). It may be comprised of two interconnected specimens.
Funerary structure FS22 is a small specimen with a forward flank almost flush with the slope (27.463΄ / 55.381΄).
Funerary structure FS23 is highly fragmentary with a forward flank flush with the slope (27.467΄ / 55.378΄).
Funerary structure FS24 (4.7 m) has a forward flank, 40 cm in height (27.466΄ / 55.375΄).
Funerary structure FS25 is highly fragmentary with a forward flank almost flush with the slope (27.436΄ / 55.432΄).
Funerary structure FS26 (5.7 m) has a forward flank, 40 cm in height (27.473΄ / 55.377΄).
Funerary structure FS27 has a forward flank, 40 cm in height (27.436΄ / 55.432΄). Part of its rear wall is intact.
Funerary structure FS28 (4.7 m by 3 m) has a forward flank, 40 cm in height (27.459΄ / 55.365΄).

Northeast sector

The terraced funerary structures of the southeast sector have the following dimensions, locations and salient characteristics:

Funerary structure FS29 (6.5 m by 6 m) has partly intact walls and a concavity on top (27.396΄ / 55.337΄).
Funerary structure FS30 (5.5 m by 4.2 m) has parts of all four walls intact (27.381΄ / 55.405΄). The rear wall is slightly elevated above the slope.
Funerary structure FS31 (4.8 m by 3.2 m) has a pronounced trapezoidal form (27.499΄ / 55.342΄).
Funerary structure FS32 (6.4 m by 4.2 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.503΄ / 55.340΄). The rear wall is slightly elevated above the slope.
Funerary structure FS33 (4.8 m by 4.4 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.507΄ / 55.340΄). Part of the rear wall is intact.
Funerary structure FS34 (4.6 m by 3.7 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.512΄ / 55.341΄).
Funerary structure FS35 (3.4 m long) has a forward flank, 40 cm in height (27.517΄ / 55.341΄).
Funerary structure FS36 (2.3 m long) has a forward flank, 30 cm in height (27.519΄ / 55.339΄).
Funerary structure FS37 (4 m by 2.5 m) has a forward flank, 30 cm in height (27.522΄ / 55.339΄).
Funerary structure FS38 is highly fragmentary (27.520΄ / 55.339΄).
Funerary structure FS39 is highly fragmentary and flush with the slope (27.531΄ / 55.312΄).
Funerary structure FS40 (3.1 m by 3 m) has a forward flank, 40 cm in height (27.529΄ / 55.311΄).
Funerary structure FS41 (3.4 m by 2.8 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.514΄ / 55.282΄).
Funerary structure FS42 (4.3 m by 3.2 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.512΄ / 55.278΄).
Funerary structure FS43 (5.2 m by 4 m) has a forward flank, 70 cm in height (27.511΄ / 55.274΄). Part of the rear wall has survived.
Funerary structure FS44 (5.8 m by 4.6 m) has parts of all four walls intact (27.506΄ / 55.270΄).
Funerary structure FS45 (3.4 m by 3.2 m) has a forward flank almost flush with the slope (27.502΄ / 55.269΄).
Funerary structure FS46 (4.2 m by 3.8 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.495΄ / 55.257΄). Parts of all four walls are intact.
Funerary structure FS47 (3.7 m by 2.6 m) has a forward flank, 30 cm in height (27.531΄ / 55.242΄).
Funerary structure FS48 (4.3 m by 4 m) has a forward flank, 60 cm in height (27.528΄ / 55.241΄).
Funerary structure FS49 (4.3 m by 4.1 m) has a forward flank, 50 cm in height (27.527΄ / 55.240΄). The rear wall is elevated 30 cm above the slope.

Northwest sector

The 23 terraced funerary structures of the northwest sector are aggregated on denuded slopes. These specimens have the same general dimensions and morphological traits as those in the other two sectors of RachenRa chen. Due to time constraints, the northwest sector was not more closely surveyed.

Migön Chönyi (Mi mgon chos nyid)

General site characteristics

Migön ChönyiMi mgon chos nyid is situated on the lower flanks of an eponymous hill, just above a herder’s village. The east-facing slopes are generally grassy and have a moderate slope gradient. The small terraced funerary structures (20 m² to 60 m²) of the site appear to have sub-rectangular and ovoid forms, while the large specimens (60 m² to 120 m²) are rectangular. These structures are built in the same fashion as other examples of the typology (II.2e) in the far eastern JangtangByang thang. The forward/downhill sides of the structures are prominently elevated above the slope, while rear walls are generally flush with the slope. The two long walls of these flat-topped structures are oriented perpendicular to the axis of the slope. Stones without any discernable pattern or arrangement line the forward flank and sides of each structure. In some specimens there are also clearly delineated rear walls. Most, if not all of the terraced structures of Migön ChönyiMi mgon chos nyid, are free from structural elements situated inside the outer walls. Variable-length (20 cm to 60 cm long) grayish volcanic (?) rocks were used in construction.

Oral tradition

According to villagers of Migön ChönyiMi mgon chos nyid, the south sector of the site was a Buddhist nunnery and the north sector, a Buddhist monastery, both of which were destroyed by the Jungarjun gar Mongols (18th century CE). The NamruGnam ru cultural luminary, Lozang TenpaBlo bzang bstan pa (see fn. 188), is under the impression that Migön ChönyiMi mgon chos nyid was an ancient BönBon residential site destroyed by the Jungarjun gar.

Site elements

Migön ChönyiMi mgon chos nyid is divided into south (14 funerary structures) and north (32 funerary structures) sectors, which are separated from one another by a gravelly slope, approximately 150 m in width. The south sector structures are primarily arrayed in a single row situated at the same elevation. The structures of the north sector are aggregated into several groups at varying elevations. Most of the larger structures are found in the north sector. The forward flanks of the large specimens are elevated as much as 1.5 m above the downhill slope, while the forward flanks of the smaller specimens are elevated up to a height of 1 m. The rear walls are flush with the uphill slope or slightly elevated above it in certain specimens. The largest specimen at Migön ChönyiMi mgon chos nyid (13 m by 9.2 m) has a slight depression in the middle of its top. Perhaps this represents traces of an old excavation. In recent times, Migön ChönyiMi mgon chos nyid does not appear to have been disturbed.

Gokri (Sgog ri)

General site characteristics

The terraced funerary structures of GokriSgog ri are situated just above the base of an eponymous hill. The site has an eastern aspect, overlooking a vast plain that terminates near the sacred mountain, kyungkaSkyung ka. The terrain is generally grassy and with a slope gradient of around 10°. GokriSgog ri is situated only about 2 km east of Migön ChönyiMi mgon chos nyid (D-81), and shares the same topographic and morphological traits as this site. As such, these two sites are culturally and chronologically closely related. There are 19 terraced funerary structures at GokriSgog ri, which form a long row along the base of the hill. These consist mostly of larger rectangular specimens (50 m² to 100 m²). The terraced funerary structures of GokriSgog ri are built in the same fashion as other examples of the typology (II.2e) in the far eastern JangtangByang thang. The forward/downhill sides of the structures are elevated as much as 2 m above the lower slope, while rear walls are generally flush with the slope. The two long walls of these flat-topped structures are oriented perpendicular to the axis of the slope. With few exceptions, stones without any discernable pattern or arrangement line the forward flank and the two sides of each structure. However, the deliberate stacking of stones is also encountered. In quite a few larger specimens there are rear wall traces flush with the uphill slope or slightly elevated above it. Most, if not all, of the structures are free from structural elements situated inside the outer walls. Variable-length (20 cm to 60 cm long), grayish volcanic (?) rocks were used in construction.

Some of the terraced funerary structures have depressions on top, giving the impression that they were excavated at one time. It is also possible, however, that these concavities were formed through subsidence and/or erosion. Fortunately, the monuments of GokriSgog ri do not appear to have been disturbed recently. The largest terraced funerary structure of GokriSgog ri is designated funerary structure FS9 (12 m by 8.5 m). The upper portion of its forward flank consists of four vertical courses of stones forming a wall, 50 cm in height.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Serlung (Gser lung)

General site characteristics

SerlungGser lung is located in a wide open plain south of the Mepa TsangpoSmad pa gtsang po. The terrain is level, sandy and with some turf. There is just one rectangular, double-course funerary enclosure at SerlungGser lung. Measuring 6.4 m by 5.3 m, this structure is not aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter walls are incomplete, but small coherent fragments are still extant. Some wall traces of indeterminate thickness are composed of blocky chunks of white limestone up to 45 cm in length. Other wall fragments consist of small (around 10 cm long) rounded pieces of limestone laid in parallel courses around 20 cm thick. The entire structure is flush with the ground surface. SerlungGser lung is one of the most easterly examples of a funerary enclosure with double-course superficial walls surveyed to date. This monument typology is found west across the JangtangByang thang all the way to far western Tibet. This pattern of distribution (from YakpaG.yag pa and NaktsangNag tshang in the east and to GugéGu ge and RutokRu thog in the west) supports other archaeological evidence indicating that this vast region formed an integral paleocultural entity in antiquity.208 Such ethnic, linguistic and/or religious uniformity is also supported by persistent and pervasive legends over the same territorial bounds, attributing the funerary enclosures to the ancient MönMon tribe.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, SerlungGser lung is an ancient MönMon site.

Tsemda (Rtse mda’)

General site characteristics

TsemdaRtse mda’ is located on a spur that widens to form a tableland, which sits on a mountain of the same name. Directly south and 150 m below the site is the sacred freshwater lake, Mukyu TsoSmu skyu mtsho/Mokyu TsoRmo khyu mtsho (Bevy of Grandmothers Lake). To the east is the NgorangSngo rang valley and to the west is a mountain known as GonyisMgo gnyis (Two Heads). The view north is cut off by the TsemdaRtse mda’ mountain. The terrain is turf-covered, sandy and gently sloping. There are three or four funerary enclosures at TsemdaRtse mda’ that are probably best classified under the heaped-stone wall typology. They variously exhibit irregular forms, tops inset below the upper slope, gentle slope gradients, and traces of piled stones walls; traits associated with heaped-stone wall enclosures.

The funerary structures of TsemdaRtse mda’ also have morphological qualities associated with the terraced tombs of the far eastern JangtangByang thang (elevated forward flanks, flat tops and low elevation amorphous walls). The terraced tombs, however, appear to have had a weaker influence on the design and construction of TsemdaRtse mda’ than the heaped-stone wall enclosures. Nonetheless, only subsurface investigations can definitively chart the typological affinities of the TsemdaRtse mda’ funerary structures. The perimeter walls (around 70 cm thick) are generally in a very poor state of preservation, and have been reduced to only 10 cm to 20 cm height. Although the surface of the structures now inclines in conformity with the slope gradient, it is likely that they were once completely level. These funerary structures were built of variable-length (10 cm to 60 cm long) pieces of red volcanic rock. Heaped-stone wall enclosures are widespread to the west all the way across the JangtangByang thang. Such structures are closely associated with the ancient MönMon in the oral tradition of the region. There are no signs that TsemdaRtse mda’ has been recently disturbed.

Oral tradition

The structures of TsemdaRtse mda’ are locally referred to as möndo ra (Stone Enclosures of the MönMon). These are supposed to be ancient MönMon habitations that were built when the level of Mukyu TsoSmu skyu mtsho was much higher.

Site elements

The structures of TsemdaRtse mda’ have the following dimensions, locations and salient features:

Funerary structure FS1 (7.3 m by 5 m) is missing an east wall and is now U-shaped.
Funerary structure FS2 is situated 1.6 m north of FS1. It consists of a single sinuous wall fragment 11.5 m in length. If this wall was originally part of an enclosure, as seems likely, all other traces of it have disappeared.
Funerary structure FS3 (9 m by 10.6 m) is an ovoid enclosure with an elevated forward flank situated 5.5 m east of FS2. It is the only complete enclosure at TsemdaRtse mda’.
Funerary structure FS4 (5 m across) is situated 9 m northeast of FS3. The upper part of its perimeter wall is missing. The forward flank of FS4 is prominently elevated above the downhill slope.

Trachen (Bkra chen)

General site characteristics

The TrachenBkra chen funerary site is located in an eponymous valley, an effluent of the Mukyu TsoSmu skyu mtsho/Mokyu TsoRmo khyu mtsho that flows from the north. The TrachenBkra chen valley is closely hemmed in on all sides by ridges. The terrain is level, sandy and turf-cloaked. The seven funerary enclosures of TrachenBkra chen are aggregated into two groups: south sector (three specimens) and north sector (four specimens). Except for funerary structure FS3, these enclosures are in a very poor state of preservation. The in situ evidence suggests that most of these superstructures consisted of double-course perimeter walls. At least one heaped-stone wall enclosure may also be represented. There are no signs of recent looting at TrachenBkra chen.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of the third and fourth residential units (drongtso) of MepaSmad pa, the structures of TrachenBkra chen are either the foundations of houses or tent sites (nangra) built by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Lower sector

The south sector site sits at the foot of the ridge bounding the south side of the TrachenBkra chen valley. Uncut gray metamorphic stones, primarily 10 cm to 50 cm in length, went into the construction of the three funerary structures of the lower sector.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, but this enclosure is missing significant wall sections. The perimeter wall is around 1 m thick, but exhibits no coherent segments. The entire structure is even with the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4.3 m by 3.6 m) is situated 28 m east of FS1. Its overall form and wall composition are no longer clear. In the perimeter walls are several upright stones, 30 cm to 45 cm in length, with some protrusion from the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (12 m by 11.6 m) is situated 42 m east of FS2. It is a quadrate structure that is generally aligned in the cardinal directions. The relatively intact perimeter primarily consists of double-course slab walls (70 cm to 1.2 m thick), which contain stones 15 cm to 85 cm long and 4 cm to 10 cm thick. These slabs are even with the ground surface or elevated above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. There are also some blocky stones in certain parts of the double-course perimeter walls. The area inside the perimeter is level and devoid of structural elements. The size and careful construction of funerary structure FS3 shows that it was the premier funerary structure at TrachenBkra chen.

Upper sector

The upper sector is found on the north edge of the TrachenBkra chen valley on gently inclined ground. The four funerary enclosures of the upper sector are primarily composed of smaller gray stones (10 cm to 30 cm long).

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5.7 m by 6 m) is a four-sided enclosure exhibiting no coherent wall fragments (04.02΄ / 15.55΄ / 4850 m).

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (14.4 m across) is situated 35 m northeast of FS4. This structure appears to be a heaped-stone wall enclosure. Most parts of its perimeter walls are now flush with the ground level. The downhill wall of FS4 is missing.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (4.6 m across) is situated 30 m east of FS4. This incomplete enclosure has no extant coherent wall segments, but its overall morphological profile suggests that it was of the double-course variety. The entire structure is level with the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (4.2 m across) is situated 7 m south of FS6. This incomplete perimeter has no coherent wall segments, but the form of construction suggests that it was of a double-course composition. FS7 is flush with the ground surface.

Sangkhar (Bsang mkhar)

General site characteristics

SangkharBsang mkhar is located in the proximity of Sangkhar LaBsang mkhar la, a saddle on the north side of a valley that runs into the east side of Gomang TsoSgo mang mtsho.209 The Sangkhar LaBsang mkhar la forms a more direct route along the valley to and from Gomang TsoSgo mang mtsho. The seven funerary enclosures of SangkharBsang mkhar are quite widely dispersed across a gently sloping grassy flat, in an east-west line. Although they do not appear to have been tampered with in recent times, these structures have suffered much degradation. They appear to have had both crudely built, double-course perimeter walls and those without any particular design or arrangement. All of these structures are built of uncut pieces of white granite of variable length.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8.8 m by 8.5 m) is a somewhat irregularly shaped enclosure with highly degraded perimeter walls. These walls (60 cm to 1 m thick) are of indeterminate design and construction. Variable length pieces of granite (15 cm to 85 cm) went into the construction of FS1. The stones of the enclosure are generally flush with the surface or project above it to a height of 15 cm. There is one large stone in the east side of the enclosure that protrudes 40 cm from the ground surface. FS1 is partially subdivided into two cells by the traces of a wall.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4.5 m by 5 m) is an ovoid enclosure built on a sandy slope with around a 10° gradient. The perimeter walls are composed of stones 15 cm to 85 cm in length with no set order.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (8.9 m by 6.5 m) is situated 22 m southwest of FS2. This ovoid enclosure is missing the east wall. Its perimeter walls do not exhibit a coherent design or arrangement. These walls are composed of stones (15 cm to 65 cm long) that are flush with the surface or which project above it to a maximum height of 40 cm.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 46 m southwest of FS3. Only a small downhill/south portion of this enclosure has survived. The extant portion includes a wall of indeterminate construction 13 m in length.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 127 m west of FS4. This fragmentary quadrate enclosure includes a double-course wall (60 cm thick) segment, 4 m in length. This wall is composed of stones up to 80 cm in length flush with the ground surface or elevated above it to a maximum height of 30 cm.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (13 m by 17 m) is situated 30 m west of FS5. This large rectangular enclosure was built in three tiers, each of which is partially demarcated by walls. There is an approximately 3 m vertical difference between the high and low ends of FS6. The entire structure is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding slopes. Small double-course wall (around 60 cm thick) fragments are still in situ. Other wall sections may possibly have only consisted of heaped stones. The perimeter walls of FS6 are comprised of stones 20 cm to 80 cm in length.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (7.5 m by 4 m) is situated 40 m west of FS6. This ovoid enclosure is not entirely complete. The perimeter walls do not exhibit a coherent form and were constructed with many larger stones, which protrude as much as 40 cm above the ground surface.

Sholopuk (Sho lo phug)

General site characteristics

The three funerary structures of SholopukSho lo phug are located just below the cave of SholopukSho lo phug (J-13). The site faces east onto Zileng TsoZi leng mtsho/Serling TsoGser gling mtsho and has commanding views of the east half of this lake. The terrain is comprised of a rocky limestone slope with around a 10° gradient. SholopukSho lo phug consists of three rocky tumuli, which appear to be funerary in nature. For one thing, their lofty and isolated location is characteristic of many Upper Tibetan funerary sites. These three conical mounds (1.2 m to 1.5 in height) form a north-south row that runs perpendicular to the axis of the slope. The amount of loose stones lying on each monument indicates that they had fairly high elevation superstructures. These appear to represent prominently elevated enclosures or small bangso. They are composed of variable-length chunks of light-colored limestone. An old cairn erected on a boulder is found in close proximity to SholopukSho lo phug.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

The three tumuli have the following dimensions and salient characteristics:

The south tumulus measures 5.6 m across. On its west/uphill side exists the only coherent wall fragment at the site. This random-rubble masonry fragment has a height of 40 cm. The design of the cross-section of this wall segment is not clear due to its obscuration by rubble.

The central tumulus (4 m across) is situated 9 m north of the south tumulus.

The north tumulus (6 m across) is situated 4 m north of the central tumulus.

Dringak (Grib ’gag)

Basic site data

Site name: Dringak
English equivalent: Contamination Stoppage
Site number: D-89
Site typology: II.2b
Elevation: 4770 m
Administrative location (township): A Zur
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: October 7, 2002
Contemporary usage: Heavy pastoral use.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: mani walls and tsa tsa khang.
Maps: UTRS III
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General site characteristics

DringakGrib ’gag is located in the mouth of a valley that overlooks the BebuktsoBes sbug mtsho basin, which is to the south. The site is also in the shadow of a red mountain called Marpo DamchokDmar po dam phyog. This locale is part of a region traditionally known as Dangchung TömaDang chung stod ma. The six funerary structures of DringakGrib ’gag are situated on both benches that flank a stream. The obdurate terrain is level, sandy and gravelly. The presence of a house on each side of the stream, as well as mani walls and tsa tsa khang indicate that the site has been heavily disturbed. The fragmentary structures mostly consist of double-course enclosures with walls that are flush with the surface or which slightly project above it. Due to their disintegration, the precise shape of the enclosures is no longer clear. Several types of uncut, variable-length blocky rocks and a few slabs (20 cm to 50 cm long) went into the construction of the enclosures.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, DringakGrib ’gag has ancient MönMon associations.

Site elements

West bench

Funerary structure FS1 (5 m by 5.4 m) has been reduced to remnants of double-course walls that are around 70 cm thick. Stones project a maximum of 30 cm above the ground surface.
Funerary structure FS2 (7 m across) has had most stones extracted from the superstructure. Only small coherent wall fragments have survived.
Funerary structure FS3 (4.3 m by 3.9 m) has both blocks and slabs in its highly fragmentary walls.
Funerary structure FS4 has been reduced to small bits of what appear to be single-course walls.

Both funerary structures FS2 and FS4 were built in close proximity to a now ruined shrine, a modern shrine and a tsa tsa khang. These Buddhist features owe their existence to the extraction of stones from the funerary enclosures. There are small traces of other funerary structures in the vicinity, but their extent and configuration could not be determined.

East bench

The east bench is slightly lower in elevation than the west bench.

Funerary structure FS5 (2.5 m by 2.2 m) is completely sheathed in embedded stones and appears to represent an alternative type of funerary structure (17.102΄ / 33.454΄).
Funerary structure FS6 (5.8 m across) has the remains of double-course perimeter walls around 75 cm thick (17.097΄ / 33.462΄).

Affiliated sites

ChakdeuLcags rde’u

On the opposite or northeast side of the Marpo DamchokDmar po dam phyog mountain, there are reported to be the vestiges of other funerary superstructures. This site is called ChakdeuLcags rde’u (Iron Hill). It is said that in 2001, a youth discovered human skeletal remains washed out of a gully at ChakdeuLcags rde’u.

Darlung Gyangro (Dar lung gyang ro)

General site characteristics

Darlung GyangroDar lung gyang ro is located in the wide mouth of DarlungDar lung valley, known upstream as Chaksgo DraklungLcags sgo brag lung (Iron Door Rock Formation Valley) (see B-120). To the north, PandramPhags ’gram (sp.?), the southern branch of Tso NgonmoMtsho sngon mo, can be seen from afar. The views to the east and west are also open. The terrain is level, sandy and gravelly. Darlung GyangroDar lung gyang ro consists of six double-course quadrate funerary enclosures and one quadrate tumulus (bangso). These structures tend to be large and robust, as would befit an important burial ground. The skillfully built walls of the enclosures and tumulus are generally composed of uncut pieces of light-colored limestone (30 cm to 60 cm long), which are flush with the ground surface or elevated above it to a maximum height of 20 cm to 30 cm. Most of these walls are 60 cm to 70 cm in thickness. The limestone for the construction of Darlung GyangroDar lung gyang ro is most likely to have come from Chaksgo DraklungLcags sgo brag lung.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Darlung GyangroDar lung gyang ro are the ruins of an ancient düBdud (a type of demonic or semi-divine figure) habitation. This oral tradition underscores the non-Buddhist identity of the site.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8 m by 8 m) is missing the southeast side of its perimeter. The walls of this double-course enclosure are around 70 cm thick and contain stones that project a maximum of 30 cm above the ground surface. There may have been a small structural element centered inside the enclosing walls (a cist marker?), but the evidence is inconclusive.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2.6 m across) is a highly fragmentary small enclosure (26.348΄ / 38.859΄).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (10 m by 11.6 m) has walls (80 cm to 1 m thick) that are aligned in the cardinal directions (26.345΄ / 38.827΄). These heavily built walls are composed of stones flush with the surface or which are raised above it to a height of 20 cm. The enclosure is partly divided into two cells by a partition wall. On the east side of this structure there is an appended rectangular enclosure (6.7 m by 4.3 m).

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (11.3 m by 8.5 m) has been reduced to small coherent wall fragments (26.400΄ / 38.838΄). The entire structure is elevated 30 cm to 70 cm above the surrounding plain.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (15 m by 13.5 m) is a quadrate funerary mound elevated about 2 m above the surrounding terrain (26.449΄ / 38.837΄). It is aligned in the cardinal directions. Double-course wall (50 cm to 60 cm thick) fragments have survived near the rim of the structure. The entire mound is covered in rocks and gravel and vegetation is growing on top of it. Immediately south of the mound there appear to be structural traces flush with the ground surface. Adjacent to the mound, on its north side, there are three walls forming an enclosure, which are also aligned in the cardinal directions. This enclosure measures 12.7 m (north-south) by 6 m (east-west). This ancillary structure is elevated around 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. On the east side of the mound there are corrals, which were almost certainly built with stones pilfered from the mound. On top of the flat mound, near the southeast corner, a hole was excavated to a depth of around 80 cm. The rim of this hole was lined with stones extracted during the excavation to create a small pen (probably used to shelter lambs or kids at one time). The structural evidence is inconclusive but it is possible that enclosures or other types of structures once flanked all four sides of the FS5 mound in some type of symmetrical array. The size, height and centralized location of FS5 suggests that it was the highest status burial monument and/or main funerary ritual structure at Darlung GyangroDar lung gyang ro.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 is aligned in the cardinal directions and measure 13 m (north-south) by 9 m (east-west) (26.477΄ / 38.847΄). This enclosure has been reduced to a few coherent double-course wall fragments. The entire structure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 11.4 m (north-south) by 10 m (east-west) (26.508΄ / 38.886΄). A few double-course wall segments remain in this enclosure. A large limestone boulder was transported to the site. It now rests on the south side of the enclosure. There are more minor structural traces in the vicinity of FS7.

Naser Tang (Gna’ gser thang)

General site characteristics

Naser TangGna’ gser thang is located on an eponymous small but lofty plateau, which is sandwiched between the deep valleys of PulingSpu gling and TigyamurTi rgya mur. The undulating plateau is sandy and covered in turf and drama scrub. High mountains on three sides (including the Great Central Himalaya) constrain the view in these directions. The southern vista, in the direction of PulingSpu gling, is somewhat more open. Naser TangGna’ gser thang consists of two large rectangular enclosures with predominantly heaped-stone wall perimeters. These walls are made of variable-length (10 cm to 40 cm long) uncut pieces of gray limestone and tan crystalline sandstone. This ostensible funerary site is one of the few mortuary sites surveyed in the badlands of GugéGu ge. Many GugéGu ge funerary sites are likely to have been covered by sedimentary deposits that dominate the geology of this region. Other burials may be concealed in inaccessible caves. In any case, Naser TangGna’ gser thang is the only example of heaped-stone wall enclosures found in GugéGu ge to date. In addition to the structures themselves, the lofty aspect and physical conditions of the site resemble those of the JangtangByang thang. These affinities are likely to betoken cultural links between these two geographic regions and physiographic provinces.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

West enclosure

The west enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 13 m (north-south) by 29 m (east-west). Its walls are around 2 m in thickness and are generally elevated 40 cm to 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. These walls are mostly composed of sparsely distributed heaps of stones. There are also a few hints of coherent wall fragments. The west enclosure has been seriously damaged by the extraction of stones. This extraction is probably related to the recent construction of the link road that traverses Naser TangGna’ gser thang. The enclosure is comprised of one large open space. Inside the enclosure there are four depressions up to 1 m deep. These depressions appear to be the remains of excavations. These excavations must have taken place long ago because they are dotted with drama, a slow growing woody shrub.

East enclosure

The east enclosure is situated only 3 m east of the west enclosure. It is of the same design and construction as the west enclosure. The main portion of the east enclosure is also aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 8 m (north-south) by 15 m (east-west). Connected to the south side of this structure there is a less well preserved analogous enclosure (9 m by 10 m) of unclear form. There are three drama-studded depressions in this portion of the enclosure; the probable signs of excavations carried out long ago.

Tsokgi Möndur (Btsog gi mon dur)

General site characteristics

Tsokgi MöndurBtsog gi mon dur is located in the NyenlungGnyan lung Valley. The site is divided into three zones: lower sector, central sector and upper sector. All three sectors are located near the western edge of the valley and have an eastern aspect. The funerary structures of Tsokgi MöndurBtsog gi mon dur are made of uncut pieces of variable-length brown sandstone (up to 70 cm long). They consist of superficial enclosures of various types and structures with well developed, high elevation double-course walls. Mostly slabs of brown sandstone were used in construction. The size and complexity of the Tsokgi MöndurBtsog gi mon dur structures indicate that this was an important funerary complex.

Like other funerary sites in RecoRe co (D-92, D-93, D-94, D-95, D-96, E-28), in addition to possibly housing deceased members of the local population, Tsokgi MöndurBtsog gi mon dur may have catered to the needs of dignitaries connected to the archaic residential sites in and around the central RutokRu thog location of DzongriRdzong ri (A-16, A-17, A-90, A-91, A-92, A-93, A-108), located further east. No concentrations of funerary structures have been surveyed in the vicinity of these residential sites (although two were spied near the side of the road, one near RutokRu thog and one in ChulungChu lung). NyenlungGnyan lung contains large swaths of defunct agricultural lands, as do nearby valleys. This suggests that RecoRe co is likely to have had a greater population in the past, as compared to that of its contemporary pastoral one. Reportedly, the current (2003) population of RecoRe co is 220 souls. The extreme desiccation of the region must have been a prime factor in the transition from agriculture to pastoralism in RecoRe co. Another interesting feature of RecoRe co is that no summit strongholds of any kind were detected in the region. In nearby DerokSde rog, KhülpaKhul pa and RawangRa bang most agricultural valleys were guarded over by an ancient hilltop installation. The absence of castles in RecoRe co occurs despite the fact that the local branch valleys of NyenlungGnyan lung, DzauDza’u, Omlung’Om lung, and RamaRa ma 211 once supported agriculture. Perhaps this region was specially singled out for elite burial activities (although two non-summit residential sites were also detected in RecoRe co: B-43, B-44). Another puzzling matter is that not one ancient pillar site was detected in RecoRe co, a region rich in funerary structures.

Oral tradition

According to residents of RecoRe co, Tsokgi MöndurBtsog gi mon dur was an ancient MönMon burial center.

Site elements

Lower sector

The south sector is situated on a fairly steep rocky slope bounding the edge of the enclosing west ridge. It is located just up from the mouth of the valley. The terrain is marked by a series of natural stone furrows and berms, which act to camouflage the presence of the funerary structures. One wonders if this was part of a deliberate effort on the part of the builders to conceal the site. The high degree of integration of the structures with the parent topography may have involved religious considerations as well. Given the nature of the terrain, it is quite possible that funerary structures of the lower sector may have been overlooked during the survey. The walls of the lower sector structures are aligned to the slope (axial and transverse directions), not in the compass points.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 7 m) is the largest and highest structure of the lower sector. It was built on a rocky prominence adding to its overall elevation. FS4 is a substantially built quadrate masonry structure that was of significant height. The partly intact forward wall of FS4 has a maximum height of 90 cm and has as many as 6 vertical courses of masonry still in situ. Stones up to 1 m in length went into the construction of the forward wall. Parts of the west/rear and north walls are also extant. These walls are 50 cm to 90 cm in height. In the middle of the top of FS4 there is an excavation around 2 m across, which is now partly filled with stone rubble. This eroded excavation appears to be evidence for grave robbing carried out in the distance past.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (3 m by 3 m) is situated 6 m downhill of FS4. This is a minor superficial structure. By virtue of their proximity to one another and their unequal size and height, FS10 may have been subsidiary to FS4. These two structures could have been ritually linked through integral funerary rites and/or burials (such as a husband and wife).

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 55 m west/uphill of FS4. It is now just a mound of stones 5 m across and 1.5 m in height.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (6 m by 3.8 m) is situated 110 m northwest of FS5. FS6 was also a well-built quadrate structure that was elevated above the slope on all sides. The forward wall of this structure is up to 50 cm in height, and is made up of five vertical slabs. The exposed grave chamber or reliquary (approximately 2 m by 2 m) is visible in the middle of the structure. This chamber is now only 30 cm deep. Although its original depth is unclear, FS6 does not appear to have extended too much below ground level. Three vertical courses of slabs lining the sides of the chamber are visible.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (2 m by 2.3 m) is situated 4.3 m downhill of FS6. This small quadrate structure ranges from level with the adjoining ground to 70 cm in height.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (3 m by 3.5 m) is situated 70 m northeast of and about 15 m lower than FS7. This stone structure now has a heaped appearance and is about 1.5 m in height. Whatever coherent wall fragments are still extant are obscured by rubble. FS8 appears to have been gutted, which is consistent with looting.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 is situated 10 m downhill of FS8. This minor superficial structure appears to have been a subsidiary element of FS8.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (2.4 m by 2.5 m) is situated 80 m north of FS4. Small coherent wall segments up to 40 cm have endured in FS11.

Central sector

The central sector is found on a moderately sloping sandy terrain at the base of the enclosing ridge. It is about 1 km up the NyenlungGnyan lung Valley from the lower sector.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8.5 m by 5.5 m) is the most northerly tomb in the central sector. No coherent wall segments have survived in this highly dissolute structure, just a scattering of stones. FS1 appears to have been a low elevation enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4 m by 3.5 m) is situated 5 m southwest of FS1 at the same elevation. It is also in very poor condition and there are no integral walls remaining on the surface. FS2 also appears to have been an enclosure with a minimal superstructure and little height.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 118 m southwest of FS2. This large, fairly intact enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 21 m (north-south) by 12 m (east-west). The remaining structural evidence indicates that perimeter walls of FS3 were of the double-course type and not just a jumble of stones. In order to create a level interior, the rear wall is set around 1.5 m below the uphill slope and the forward wall is elevated about 1 m above the downhill slope. The interior of FS3 is now gently sloping, presumably because of the forces of erosion and geomorphologic changes. The perimeter walls of the enclosure range from flush with the ground surface to portions that are elevated above it as much as 60 cm. In the middle part of the interior, beginning 3.7 m from the north wall of the enclosure, there is a stone structure 3.3 m across. Due to much deterioration, the design of this structure is no longer discernable. It probably marks the location of a subsurface grave. Also in the middle portion of FS3, beginning 6 m from the south wall, there is what appears to be a quadrate structure (3 m by 2.6 m). This structure also probably marks the location of a subterranean tomb. On the southwest corner of the FS3 enclosure, stones are heaped up to a height of about 1 m.

Upper sector

The upper sector is found farther up the NyenlungGnyan lung Valley. This site is located in the valley bottom near the base of the west ridge. It is also situated just above a bifurcation in the NyenlungGnyan lung Valley. The terrain is level and sandy.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 appears to be aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures an estimated 25 m by 11 m (29.241΄ / 03.066΄ / 4340 m). This large, but poorly preserved, enclosure has lost almost all structural coherence. It is built of a gray stone and the entire structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding plain. A single line of slabs that extends for 9 m along the western portion of the south wall is the only intact structure. These slabs are 50 cm to 70 cm in length and lie flat (perhaps originally they were erected upright). Stones up to 1 m in length lie about other portions of the enclosure perimeter. Inside the enclosure there are upright stones here and there that protrude 10 cm to 30 cm above the ground surface.

A double-course wall of small cobbles (5 cm to 10 cm long) is situated 14 m southeast of the FS12 enclosure. This wall forms an arc, 2 m in length, and appears to be the vestige of a more elaborate structure. A little closer to the south side of FS12 there are three tiny structures made up of slabs. Two of these structures consist of three upright slabs that form three sides of a rectangle. The fourth side of the structures is open. The two side wall slabs (40 cm to 55 cm) are somewhat shorter and flush with the sandy surface. The other side contains a longer slab (50 cm and 65 cm) that protrudes 15 cm or 20 cm above the surface. The third analogous structure has been reduced to just one slab, 60 cm long with a protrusion of 15 cm above ground level. These three trilithic structures form a row and are spaced about 3.5 m from one another. They must have been used in funerary rites, the character of which is not apparent.

Gyamgya (Gyam rgya)

General site characteristics

GyamgyaGyam rgya is located just off of the road that runs through the main RecoRe co valley. The site is situated at the foot of the ridge that encloses the south side of the valley. The terrain is rocky and moderately sloping. GyamgyaGyam rgya consists of three funerary structures that are primarily constructed of a gray igneous rock.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8 m by 7.5 m) is an enclosure so degraded that its identity is called into question.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4 m by 4 m) is a square terraced structure situated 21 m southeast of FS1 at the same elevation. Its walls are aligned to the slope gradient and not the cardinal directions. The forward wall of FS2 is 1 m in height and built in two tiers. The lower portion of the forward wall is set 60 cm outwards from the upper portion. The more substantial lower portion consists of a single course of large stones (50 cm to 80 cm long) and is around 40 cm in height. The rear wall is flush with the slope; the demarcation between them is now rather ambiguous. Goat and sheep horns have been placed on top of FS2.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 6.7 m southeast of FS2 at the same elevation. It appears to consist of a square base (5 m by 5.4 m), which is now heavily obscured by rubble. Upon this base sits an upper structure (2.9 m by 3 m) whose central portion is elevated an additional 70 cm. The rear wall of FS3 is flush with the slope. It appears that FS3 was a tiered structure; possibly it had non-funerary ceremonial identity.

Dorjé Dzong (Rdo rje rdzong)

General site characteristics

Dorjé DzongRdo rje rdzong is located in an eponymous northern tributary valley of RecoRe co. The site is found on a bench on the east/left side of the valley, several kilometers up from the main RecoRe co valley. The funerary structures are in close proximity to a ravine in which runoff from seasonal rains flows. The foot of the enclosing east ridge forms the backdrop of the site. The well-drained terrain is level and sandy. Dorjé DzongRdo rje rdzong consists of elaborately built funerary structures, which exhibit unique design and construction traits. The various structures of Dorjé DzongRdo rje rdzong are made of uncut blocks of light-colored granite.

Oral tradition

Dorjé DzongRdo rje rdzong is named for the funerary structures found in the valley, which are thought to be the ruins of an ancient fortress. These remains are considered potentially hazardous (ka nyenpo).

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (2 m by 3.6 m) is a small structure whose surface is covered in stones up to 1 m in length. These stones protrude a maximum of 50 cm above ground level. No pattern to the placement of the stones could be discerned.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 11 m west of FS1. It now appears to have an L-shaped form, but this is probably due to the disintegration of the structure. Originally, it is likely to have had a quadrate form. The two arms of FS3 are 2.4 m and 1.6 m in length and around 80 cm in width. This structure is elevated 20 cm to 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. In close proximity to FS2 there are the faint remains of another small funerary structure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (11m by 8 m) is situated 40 m north/up valley of FS2. This well-built double-course quadrate enclosure is made up of large stones (up to 1.2 m long), which prominently protrude (as much as 50 cm) above the ground surface. The robust perimeter walls are 80 cm to 1 m thick. The east wall of the enclosure is mostly flush with the ground level, while the other three walls are up to 50 cm in height due to the projection of stones embedded in the ground as well as the stacking of stones on top of one another.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4, a uniquely designed structure, is situated 40 m north/up valley of FS3. FS4 consists of a line of seven large interconnected quadrate cells (they are not well aligned in the cardinal directions). The overall dimensions of FS4 are 74 m (north-south) by 7 m to 8.5 m (east to west). At 10 m, the seventh or most northerly cell (C1) is wider than the other six. The walls of these cells exhibit three major forms of construction: single-course, superficial double-course and double-course walls composed of as many as five vertical layers of stones (random-rubble texture). Some single-course walls are so heavily built as to be cyclopean in appearance. The single-course walls are one or more stones tall. There is no apparent pattern to the stacking of stones in the single-course walls.

From north to south, the seven cells of FS4 have the following characteristics:

Cell C1 consists mainly of well-built double-course walls with stones set about 90 cm apart. These stones project as much as 60 cm from the surface. C1 is partly subdivided by an east-west running wall.
Cell C2 is mostly made up of embedded stones (up to 1.2 m long) that protrude upwards of 60 cm above the ground surface. The intact segments of the north wall consist of stones stacked on top of one another in neatly laid vertical courses.
Cell C3 has an incoherent perimeter. A boulder 3 m in length is incorporated into it. The stones of the cells project as much as 80 cm above ground level.
Cell C4 has an ambiguous demarcation due to there being three intervening walls between it and C3. These walls are fragmentary and of an irregular design. The middle intervening wall is double-course and 1.2 m in thickness. There are naturally occurring boulders interspersed between the three walls that demarcate C3 and C4. The walls of C4 are double-course and more than one vertical layer of stones in height.
Cell C5 has perimeter walls that are in poor condition. This cell is bisected into east and west sections by the remains of a partition wall.
Cell C6 has double-course stacked perimeter walls but these are no longer in a very integral state.
Cell C7 is largely intact. A large boulder sits in the wall dividing C6 and C7. In some places the perimeter wall consists of a single line of boulders embedded into the ground. Much of the perimeter, however, is made up of double-course walls (50 cm to 1 m in thickness) consisting of more than one layer of stones. These elevated wall sections are up to 70 cm in height and are composed of as many as five vertical courses of variable-length (up to 1 m long) stones.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (7.7 m long) is situated 100 m northwest of FS4. FS5 occupies the northern end of the site and is the farthest from the foot of the enclosing ridge. The perimeter walls of this enclosure are only partially intact. On what appears to be the east side of FS5 there are multiple courses of brown sandstone slabs (around 20 cm long) embedded into the ground edgewise. These courses of slabs cover an area of 2 m by 1.2 m and are oriented in two different directions.

Tsakam (Tshwa skam)

General site characteristics

TsakamTshwa skam is one of three funerary sites (D-94, D-95, D-96) located in the RamaRa ma valley system. It is situated on the right/east side of the valley, not far upstream of its confluence with the main RecoRe co valley. The terrain is moderately sloping, open and sandy. The single funerary structure of TsakamTshwa skam is primarily made of a hard gray rock. A small portion of what are referred to as “MönMon” fields is still under cultivation higher up in the RamaRa ma valley (see D-96). Interspersed between the still used barley fields are many defunct parcels. The remains of retaining walls (Zhingra) around these abandoned fields clearly identify them as once having been assigned to agricultural usage. TsakamTshwa skam consists of just one gray granite funerary monument.

Oral tradition

In RecoRe co, structures such as that found at TsakamTshwa skam are generally attributed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (14 m by 8.7 m) is oriented to the angle of the slope, not in the cardinal directions. This poorly preserved rectangular enclosure still possesses small bits of integral walls. On its west side, the forward wall is elevated 1 m above the slope. The north side of the perimeter is elevated about 50 cm above the slope, while the east and south sides are mostly flush with the surface. The partly intact double-course perimeter walls contain variable-length (up to 70 cm long) stones. The area inside the enclosure is free of interior structural elements. On the north side of the perimeter there is a coherent wall section composed of three or four vertical courses of stones. This evidence indicates that FS1 had a superstructure of significant height. A small shepherd’s shelter was built on the southeast corner of the perimeter. Other stones are piled near the southwest corner of the structure. These structures must have been built with stones extracted from the enclosure.

There is an area of double-course cobble wall fragments (2.5 m in length) situated 3.5 m south of the enclosure. As only around 30 cobbles are still fixed in the ground, the design and configuration of these walls could not be determined.

Affiliated sites

PowaSpo ba

In the main RecoRe co valley at a location called PowaSpo ba (Stud Yak) there is a single funerary enclosure (33° 23.276΄ N. lat. / 79° 14.768΄ / 4380 m). Parts of its double-course granite perimeter walls (60 cm to 70 cm thick) are intact. These walls are mostly level with the ground surface.

Trandra Möndur (Khra ’dra mon dur)

General site characteristics

Trandra MöndurKhra ’dra mon dur is located in an eponymous valley, the left tributary of the RamaRa ma valley. The site is situated on the left side of the valley not far upstream from where it joins with the right fork of the RamaRa ma valley. Trandra MöndurKhra ’dra mon dur is one of three funerary sites in the RamaRa ma valley (see D-94 and D-96). On a sandy bench, there are four funerary enclosures of two or three different constructions. They were built of uncut variable-length pieces of a blue-gray rock and a harder speckled gray rock.

Oral tradition

In RecoRe co, structures such as those found at TrandraKhra ’dra are generally attributed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (2.2 m by 3 m) appears to have had a superstructure consisting of high upright slab outer walls inside of which is stone paving. FS1 constitutes a distinctively designed funerary structure. Its surface is completely covered in stones embedded in the ground. The upright stones of the single-course rectangular perimeter walls project as much as 30 cm to 40 cm above the ground surface. The four walls of FS1 are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. The entire structure is elevated around 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. A cairn was recently raised on one corner of FS1.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (3.6 m by 2.6 m) is situated 2.3 m down valley of FS1. The single-course perimeter walls are in poor condition. The enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and is elevated about 80 cm above the surrounding terrain. Embedded stones completely cover the area within the perimeter walls. FS2 is likely to be of the same design as FS1.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.6 m by 3.4 m) is situated further down valley near the foot of a rocky spur. This structure is in very poor condition.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (14 m by 6.5 m) is situated 6.5 m north of FS3. This enclosure is not aligned in the cardinal directions and is level with the ground surface. It is divided into three east-west cells. The west cell has been partly destroyed. The central and east cells are largely intact but do not have coherent walls. Approximately 100 m farther down valley are other enclosures of uncertain typology. These merge with the terraces of defunct agricultural fields.

Drak Nakpo (Brag nag po)

General site characteristics

Drak NakpoBrag nag po is located just above the east/right side of the RamaRa ma valley on a series of sandy benches. Drak NakpoBrag nag po is one of three funerary sites in the RamaRa ma valley (see D-94 and D-95). It boasts substantial funerary structures, at least three of which are of the terraced typology. These appear to have been rectangular structures with high forward walls and rear walls more or less level with the uphill slope. Burial chambers or reliquaries in several specimens have been exposed through looting. These all have sandy bottoms and were probably not much more than 1 m in depth. The funerary structures of Drak NakpoBrag nag po are made of uncut variable-length chunks of white limestone, which have turned brown over time. Below the funerary site in the RamaRa ma valley bottom are extensive arable lands, the majority of which lie abandoned. These fields are associated with the ancient MönMon. The extreme aridity of the climate seriously limits the amount of water available for irrigation of the barley crop in RamaRa ma.

Oral tradition

In RecoRe co, structures such as those found at Drak NakpoBrag nag po are generally attributed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (13 m by 11 m) is situated on a sandy bench approximately 25 m above the valley floor. The forward side of this formidable terraced structure is elevated 2 m above the slope. The upper wall is mostly flush with the surface. Unfortunately, no coherent wall fragments have survived, at least in part because of looting. In the top of FS1 there is a depression 1 m deep, the remains of an old excavation. On the southeast side of the structure there is another depression (1.5 m across, 50 cm deep) that appears to reveal part of a burial chamber or reliquary. On the southwest side of the structure, a small shepherd’s shelter (droklhé) was built (it is no longer used). In close proximity to FS1 there may be the faint remains of a smaller funerary structure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (9 m by 5.5 m) is situated on a higher bench 38 m southeast of FS1. Only tiny integral wall segments are still intact. The forward wall is elevated about 1 m above the slope, while the rear wall is level with or slightly elevated above the adjoining slope. FS2 contains two opened burial chambers, now measuring 1.7 m by 2.8 m by 80 cm (deep) and 1.6 m by 1.8 m by 1 m. Due to much deformation, the original shape and size of these chambers is no longer clear. The chambers are filled with sand and must have been somewhat deeper than they now appear.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (6 m by 7 m) is situated on a higher bench 80 m east of FS2. This specimen is perched about 40 m vertical above the valley floor. FS3 has been heavily impacted by looters. The forward side of the structure is elevated about 1 m above the adjacent terrain, while the rear wall is generally flush with the slope. On the south side of the structure there is an integral outer wall fragment (up to 50 cm in height), which is composed of four vertical courses of stones. Two or three burial chambers or reliquaries have been exposed. The west chamber measures 2 m by 1.8 m by 80 cm. On the east side of the structure there appear to be twin chambers (3 m by 1.4 m by 40 cm). The original depth of these chambers is not clear.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 11 m) is situated 19 m east of FS3 on the same bench. This superficial structure consists of two cells with shallow depressions in each. Although there are small bits of coherent walls remaining, FS4 is generally in poor condition.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (7.5 m by 7 m) is situated on its own small bench 27 m northwest of FS3 at lower elevation. Due to extreme degradation the original size and configuration of FS5 are ambiguous. The entire structure has been excavated to a depth of about 1 m. The stones removed from the structure have been piled up on the north corner of the rear wall. Below this heap of stones there is a small coherent wall fragment, consisting of several vertical courses of masonry.

Omlung (’Om lung)

General site characteristics

Omlung’Om lung is a series of funerary sites located in a valley of the same name. The funerary structures of Omlung’Om lung are situated on sandy benches on both sides of the valley. They are built of uncut light-colored variable-length pieces (up to 80 cm long) of granite. Reportedly, there are at least three more funerary structures on the left side of the Omlung’Om lung valley (situated roughly 3 km down valley of funerary structure FS5), which were not surveyed. Some barley cultivation is still carried out in Omlung’Om lung but not to the same extent as in RamaRa ma (D-96).

There are other funerary structures scattered around the main and side valleys of RecoRe co, which were not surveyed due to time limitations. The concentration of archaic funerary sites in RecoRe co is extremely noteworthy. This density of funerary sites, however, does not positively correlate to archaic residential monuments in the region. This suggests that RecoRe co region was largely devoted to funerary functions. The funerary usage of RecoRe co may have catered to the needs of areas in RutokRu thog with well developed archaic residential installations.

Oral tradition

In RecoRe co, structures such as those found at Omlung’Om lung are generally attributed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 5 m (north-south) by 29 m (east-west) (33° 21.388΄ N. lat. / 79° 10.103΄ / 4480 m). FS1 is located on the right/east side of the valley. This rectangular structure is elevated around 70 cm above the surrounding, sloping sandy terrain. The entire structure is covered in large stones embedded in the surface. Some loose stones are scattered on top of this platform-like structure as well. There are no coherent wall segments extant. Right in the middle of FS1, a stone pen (5.5 m across) composed of the same type of rocks was erected. The walls of this pen are about 1.5 m in height. It is filled with sand up to 60 cm from the top of its walls. The function of this pen is enigmatic. It appears to be a subsequent modification to FS1, as it is built in a rudimentary manner and could not have survived intact for too long.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (3 m by 2.1 m) is situated 2.2 m north of FS1. This structure is elevated a maximum of 60 cm above ground level and is completely sheathed in pieces of granite.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (8 m by 6 m) is situated about 1 km downstream of FS2, on the right side of the valley (21.627΄ / 10.116΄ / 4470 m). FS3 was also built on sandy sloping ground. This is a fragmentary enclosure whose downhill wall is raised about 1 m above the adjacent terrain. The opposite wall is flush with the slope and contains stones that protrude upwards of 30 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (2 m by 1.7 m) is situated 13 m south or up valley from FS3. The perimeter walls of this small enclosure no longer exhibit any coherence. Loose stones are piled inside the enclosure. The entire structure is elevated around 50 cm above the surrounding terrain.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is located on the left/west side of the Omlung’Om lung valley (22.789΄ / 10.239΄ / 4450 m). It was built on a bench rising approximately 25 m above the valley floor. This highly dissolute structure is medium-sized. FS5 ranges from level with the ground surface to being elevated above it to a height of 1 m. On the east side of the structure there are tiny coherent wall fragments.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (5.4 m by 5.7 m) is situated on the right side of the mouth of the Omlung’Om lung valley (24.277΄ / 11.908΄ / 4420 m). It sits on a bench that is situated about 40 m above the valley floor. FS6 is a substantially built structure that is generally aligned in the cardinal direction. The entire structure is prominently elevated above the surrounding terrain. The forward wall (up to 70 cm high) is composed of two to four vertical courses of granite masonry. Stones in the base of FS6 are up to 1.4 m in length. On top of the structure there is a small hollow, the remains of an excavation in all probability. There may be two smaller funerary structures in close proximity of FS6, but their structural signatures are no longer legible. Also, 5.8 m southeast of FS6, three upright slabs form a rectangular structure whose fourth side is open. The shorter slabs of the two side walls are 60 cm and 70 cm in length and are slightly elevated above the ground surface. The slab of the long side of the structure is 1 m in length and projects 20 cm above the surface. This trilithic structure must have had specialized funerary ritual functions. FS6 is in plain view of the settlement of RecoRe co. It is reported that various funerary structures in the vicinity were dismantled during the construction of the homogenous modern settlement. Fortunately FS6 was too inaccessible to be destroyed in this fashion.

Affiliated sites

In the main RecoRe co valley, between the link road and the foot of the enclosing ridge, there are the remains of a single-course granite enclosure (33° 23.588΄ N. lat. / 79° 13.294΄ E. long. / 4380 m). The perimeter walls of this rectangular structure (6 m by 4 m) contain large pieces of granite (up to 1.2 m long), which protrude as much as 45 cm above ground level.

Also near the main road, east of the NgakkhangNgag khang (sp.?) valley, there is another granite funerary structure (23.277΄ / 14.769΄ / 4380 m). This quadrate enclosure (6.5 m by 5.5 m) has double-course perimeter walls around 70 cm in thickness. Generally, stones 40 cm to 60 cm in length went into the construction of these walls. There is a small sub-rectangular enclosure inside the outer walls of the structure, near its southwest side.

Gyangro Nadong (Gyang ro sna gdong)

General site characteristics

Gyangro NadongGyang ro sna gdong is located on the slopes of the narrow RidéRi sde valley, south of NagoNa mgo (an area of around 50 drokpa households). The RidéRi sde valley is totally uninhabited. Gyangro NadongGyang ro sna gdong has an eastern aspect and wide views to the northeast in the direction of Neri BültsoNe ri bul mtsho. There are no less than 140 terraced funerary structures that are arrayed on a turf-carpeted, moderately steep slope, beginning 60 m above the RidéRi sde valley floor. According to local information, at least some of these funerary structures were used for burial purposes.

The terraced funerary structures of Gyangro NadongGyang ro sna gdong are small to medium-sized examples of the II.2e typology. They range in size between 9 m² and 122 m², with most specimens under 40 m². They were built from a bluish metamorphic rock of variable length (10 cm to 50 cm long). The use of smaller stones predominates in the structures. Some of the stones used in construction may have been roughly shaped. Most of these structures are roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. In general, the two longer sides of each structure are aligned perpendicular to the axis of the slope (north-south). The rear walls of the terraced structures are usually level with the slope or set slightly below it (to a depth of around 20 cm). Presumably, some rear walls, depressed below the angle of the slope, have been evened out due to erosive forces. The forward flanks of the structures are usually elevated 30 cm to 1 m above the downhill slope. Some specimens have rather crudely built, random-rubble forward walls consisting of several vertical courses of masonry (20 cm to 70 cm high). The walls on the rim of the terraced structures were crudely built and mostly of the double-course variety. These walls do not exhibit much structural coherence. In some specimens, each side of the rim of the structure is lined with such walls. Terraced tombs like those of Gyangro NadongGyang ro sna gdong are found in the far eastern JangtangByang thang between BartaBar tha in the east and the Jakar TsangpoJa dkar gtsang po of NamruGnam ru in the west. The funerary structures of Gyangro NadongGyang ro sna gdong do not appear to have been recently disturbed.

Oral tradition

Local sources commonly believe that Gyangro NadongGyang ro sna gdong is the ruins of a Buddhist monastery destroyed by the 18th century CE Jungarjun gar. At some point in history, the funerary identity of the site receded from the collective memory and was replaced with this apocryphal tale. The fear of archaic cultural burial sites must have played a role in the recasting of Gyangro NadongGyang ro sna gdong’s identity. This reconfiguration of the cultural significance of the site, however, is not complete. Certain drokpa elders report that square burial chambers were found inside some of the terraced structures, and that the interred corpses were adorned with patterned agates and coral. The locations of tombs that were opened are no longer clear. The use of funerary structure FS2 as a sky burial site also indicates that the funerary function of the site was never fully forgotten.

Site elements

The dimensions, locations and characteristics of the Gyangro NadongGyang ro sna gdong terraced structures are as follows:

Funerary structure FS1 (8.3 m by 5.5 m) is the lowest specimen at the site.
Funerary structure FS2 (4.6 m by 3.6 m) has part of its masonry forward wall up to 50 cm high intact. Some mani stones and old knives are found on this structure. FS2 is used as a local sky burial site.
Funerary structure FS3 (7 m by 5 m).
Funerary structure FS4 (6.7 m by 4. 3 m) has a forward wall fragment.
Funerary structure FS4a (8 m by 5.3 m).
Funerary structure FS5 (4 m by 3.8 m) has a small forward wall segment.
Funerary structure FS6 (4.6 m by 3.6 m) has forward wall fragments up to 30 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS7 (7 m by 6.7 m).
Funerary structure FS8 (6.7 m by 4.9 m).
Funerary structure FS9 (5.3 m by 4.7 m).
Funerary structure FS10 (4.2 m by 3.8 m).
Funerary structure FS11 (5.1 m by 4.3 m) has small forward wall fragments.
Funerary structure FS12 (4.5 m by 4.5 m).
Funerary structure FS13 (6.6 m by 4.9 m).
Funerary structure FS14 (9 m by 6.9 m) has small forward wall fragments up to 30 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS15 (7.7 m by 5 m).
Funerary structure FS16 (5.4 m by 3.9 m).
Funerary structure FS17 (6.8 m by 4.5 m).
Funerary structure FS18 (7.4 m by 6 m).
Funerary structure FS19 (7.5 m by 4 m).
Funerary structure FS20 (4.9 m by 3.3 m).
Funerary structure FS21 (7.6 m by 4.3 m) has a small forward wall fragment.
Funerary structure FS22 (3.6 m by 3.6 m).
Funerary structure FS23 (6.4 m by 4.6 m).
Funerary structure FS24 (5.5 m by 4.2 m).
Funerary structure FS25 (6.4 m by 4.9 m).
Funerary structure FS26 (6.7 m by 5.6 m) has a portion of its rear wall inset below the uphill slope.
Funerary structure FS27 (6 m by 5.1 m).
Funerary structure FS28 (4.2 m by 3.8 m).
Funerary structure FS29 (3.8 m by 4.2 m).
Funerary structure FS30 (5.7 m by 4.5 m).
Funerary structure FS31 (6.6 m by 5.2 m).
Funerary structure FS32 (5.4 m by 4 m).
Funerary structure FS33 (6.3 m by 5.2 m) has a small forward wall fragment and a small part of the rear wall inset below the upper slope intact. There is a gully between FS32 and FS33.
Funerary structure FS34 (5 m by 4.5 m).
Funerary structure FS35 (4.2 m by 4 m).
Funerary structure FS36 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS37 (8.4 m by 5.9 m).
Funerary structure FS38 (8.5 m by 6 m).
Funerary structure FS39 (4.3 m by 3.5 m).
Funerary structure FS40 (7.4 m by 5.2 m).
Funerary structure FS41 (7.3 m by 5.4 m).
Funerary structure FS42 (6.1 m by 4.6 m).
Funerary structure FS43 (9.2 m by 5.5 m).
Funerary structure FS44 (7.8 m by 6 m).
Funerary structure FS45 (4.8 m by 3.3 m).
Funerary structure FS46 (5.6 m by 4.8 m).
Funerary structure FS47 (7.2 m by 5.7 m).
Funerary structure FS48 (7.3 m by 6.1 m) has an intact rear wall segment, 1 m long. There are some old stone plaques inscribed with the mani mantra lying between FS47 and FS48.
Funerary structure FS49 (6.1 m by 6.1 m) has most of its rear wall inset 20 cm below the upper slope.
Funerary structure FS50 (5.2 m by 4.8 m).
Funerary structure FS51 (5.1 m by 4.2 m).
Funerary structure FS52 (12.1 m by 7.6 m) has a forward wall elevated about 1.5 m above the downhill slope.
Funerary structure FS53 (11.6 m by 7.7 m). FS52 and FS53 are situated near the upper end of the site.
Funerary structure FS54 (7.6 m by 5.1 m).
Funerary structure FS55 (7.1 m by 5.2 m).
Funerary structure FS56 (5.3 m by 4.2 m).
Funerary structure FS57 (4.8 m by 3.9 m).
Funerary structure FS58 (4.7 m by 3.7 m).
Funerary structure FS59 (9.1 m by 5.2 m).
Funerary structure FS60 (7.2 m by 4.9 m).
Funerary structure FS61 (6.9 m by 6.2 m).
Funerary structure FS62 (7.2 m by 4.6 m).
Funerary structure FS63 (7.2 m by 4.9 m).
Funerary structure FS64 (6.7 m by 4.5 m).
Funerary structure FS65 (4.8 m by 3.8 m).
Funerary structure FS66 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS67 (4.2 m by 3.5 m).
Funerary structure FS68 (5.3 m by 4.4 m) has a forward wall segment, about 30 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS69 (6.9 m by 4.9 m).
Funerary structure FS70 (4.7 m by 3 m).
Funerary structure FS71 (size unclear) has a small forward wall fragment, around 30 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS72 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS73 (8.8 m across).
Funerary structure FS74 (size unclear). There are probably other highly deteriorated specimens in the vicinity of FS74.
Funerary structure FS75 (7.6 m by 3.9 m).
Funerary structure FS76 (7.1 m by 5.2 m).
Funerary structure FS77 (4.3 m by 3.1 m).
Funerary structure FS78 (4.3 m across).
Funerary structure FS79 (5.7 m by 4.5 m).
Funerary structure FS80 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS81 (5.3 m by 2.6 m).
Funerary structure FS82 (3.3 m by 2.6 m). There are possibly other specimens north of FS82.
Funerary structure FS83 (size data unavailable).
Funerary structure FS84 (size unclear) has a coherent wall fragment, 20 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS85 (data unavailable).
Funerary structure FS86 (data unavailable).
Funerary structure FS87 (4.3 m by 3.2 m).
Funerary structure FS88 (4.6 m by 3.6 m) has a forward wall, 40 cm to 70 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS89 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS90 to FS97 form a single row that extends north of the rest of the cemetery.
Funerary structure FS90 (4.8 m by 3.2 m) has a forward wall fragment.
Funerary structure FS91 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS92 (4.1 m by 3.9 m).
Funerary structure FS93 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS94 (5 m by 3.1 m) has a small forward wall fragment.
Funerary structure FS95 (5.1 m by 2.8 m).
Funerary structure FS96 (2.8 m across).
Funerary structure FS97 (6.1 m across) is the most northerly specimen at the site.
Funerary structure FS98 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS99 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS100 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS101 (6.4 m by 4 m).
Funerary structure FS102 (6.1 m by 4.4 m).
Funerary structure FS103 (unclear size).
Funerary structure FS104 (size unclear) has a forward wall fragment raised just above ground level.
Funerary structure FS105 (4.4 m across) has a forward wall fragment raised just above ground level.
Funerary structure FS106 (6 m across).
Funerary structure FS107 (5.9 m by 3.6 m).
Funerary structure FS108 (6.5 m by 4.3 m).
Funerary structure FS109 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS110 (4.2 m across).
Funerary structure FS111 (4.8 m across).
Funerary structure FS112 (4.5 m across).
Funerary structure FS113 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS114 (3.7 m across).
Funerary structure FS115 (5.1 m by 3.8 m).
Funerary structure FS116 (5 m across).
Funerary structure FS117 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS118 (4.8 m by 3.3 m).
Funerary structure FS119 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS120 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS121 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS122 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS123 (4 m by 3.3 m).
Funerary structure FS124 (size unclear) has a small forward wall fragment.
Funerary structure FS125 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS126 (5.4 m by 3.9 m).
Funerary structure FS127 (4.6 m across).
Funerary structure FS128 (5.2 m by 3.8 m).
Funerary structure FS129 (4.8 m by 4.3 m).
Funerary structure FS130 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS131 (4.6 m by 3.6 m) has a forward wall fragment, 20 cm to 30 cm in height. A small gully cuts across the top of FS131.
Funerary structure FS132 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS133 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS134 (5 m across) has a forward wall fragment, up to 30 cm in height.
Funerary structure FS135 (6.2 m by 4.7 m).
Funerary structure FS136 (5 m across).
Funerary structure FS137 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS138 (5.1 m by 4.7 m).
Funerary structure FS139 (size unclear).
Funerary structure FS140 (6.3 m across) is the highest specimen at the site.

Zhunmé Do (Zhun ma’i mdo)

General site characteristics

Zhunmé DoZhun ma’i mdo is located on an east-facing slope in a narrow valley of the same name. The site enjoys broad views to the north and east. Neri BültsoNe ri bul mtsho is visible 15 km to the east. The seven terraced funerary structures of the site sit on a turf-blanketed, moderately inclined slope. These structures are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. Funerary structures FS2 to FS6 are devoid of stone walls and there is little stone detritus remaining on them. It would appear, therefore, that external stone walls were only minimally used at Zhunmé DoZhun ma’i mdo. The funerary structures of the site are prominently elevated above the adjoining terrain, giving some of them the appearance of bangso (II.2d). The two longer sides of these rectangular structures are oriented perpendicular to the axis of the slope, as is common in this monument typology. Evidence from analogous sites in the region (D-74, D-97) indicates that at least some of the terraced structures of Zhunmé DoZhun ma’i mdo had a burial function. These are likely to be the final resting places of a local social elite.

Oral tradition

According to local lore, the ruins of Zhunmé DoZhun ma’i mdo are those of a Buddhist nunnery destroyed by the 18th century CE Jungarjun gar.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (8.6 m by 5.6 m) is the lowest elevation specimen at the site. Fragments of all four of its stone walls are still intact. These wall traces contain stones 10 cm to 30 cm in length. The walls do not appear to have been finely constructed.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (10.5 m by 9.5 m) has a forward flank raised 2 m above the downhill slope. The rear flank is elevated about 1 m above the uphill slope. There is a slight depression on top of this structure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5.9 m by 5.9 m) has a forward flank elevated about 1.5 m above the slope, while the rear flank is flush with the slope.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6.7 m by 5.3 m) has a forward flank elevated about 1.5 m above the downhill slope, while its rear flank is slightly elevated above the uphill slope.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (9.7 m by 6.9 m) has a forward flank elevated about 1.5 m above the downhill slope, while its rear flank is slightly elevated above the uphill slope.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (11.1 m by 7.6 m) a forward flank elevated about 1.5 m above the downhill slope, while its rear flank is slightly elevated above the uphill slope.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (17.1 m by 11 m) is the largest and highest elevation funerary structure at the site. These distinctive characteristics may possibly mean that FS7 was used to inter the highest status member/members buried at Zhunmé DoZhun ma’i mdo. FS7 is one of the largest terraced tombs surveyed to date. The top was excavated to a depth of at least 1 m. This excavation occurred long ago as evidenced by the growth of vegetation and the obdurate quality of its surface. It would appear that this conspicuous funerary structure fell prey to looters. The forward flank of FS7 is elevated about 3 m above the downhill slope and the rear flank is elevated about 1.5 m above the uphill slope. Wall segments have persisted on the forward/east and rear/west rim of the structure. There are a few old plaques inscribed with the mani mantra on top of FS7.

Deuruk (Rde’u rug)

Basic site data

Site name: Deuruk
English equivalent: Hills Side By Side
Site number: D-99
Site typology: II.2d, II.2e
Elevation: 4330 m to 4400 m
Administrative location (township): Damzhung
Administrative location (county): Damzhung
Survey expedition: HTWE
Survey date: May 3 and May 4, 2004
Contemporary usage: Light grazing, extraction of stones and pilferage.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS IX
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General site characteristics

The great funerary mounds (bangso) of DeurukRde’u rug are located outside the village of TredoKhre mdo. The site is situated on the northern edge of the Dam’Dam basin, near the foot of the Nyenchen TanglhaGnyan chen thang lha range. The terrain is loamy and studded in drama brush. The site enjoys wide views to the south, east and west. DeurukRde’u rug is divided into a lower sector (Funerary structures FS13 to FS29) and an upper sector (Funerary structures FS1 to FS12). The lower sector (4330 m to 4340 m) is found on the edge of the Dam’Dam basin on gently sloping, slightly elevated ground. It is mainly comprised of quadrate mounds equally elevated on all sides. These tumuli, at least superficially, resemble those found all throughout central and southern Tibet. The upper sector (4350 m to 4360 m) is found on a steeply inclined slope directly above the lower sector. The upper sector mostly contains quadrate terraced structures that exhibit large differences between the heights of the forward and rear flanks. The terracing of the upper sector tombs is primarily the result of the steep gradient of the site. These stepped structures appear to be closely allied to the mounds of the lower sector, in terms of function and age. There is an elevation continuum at the site indicating that the two basic structural forms of DeurukRde’u rug are closely interrelated. The siting of the tombs and the way in which they have eroded over time also suggests that they form an integral cultural facility.

The funerary structures of DeurukRde’u rug are generally aligned in the cardinal directions. This alignment, however, is not always discernable because of the extreme erosion and deliberate destruction of the mounds. Some structures are so degraded as to resemble hillocks covered in drama brush and other vegetation. Funerary structure FS1 is the only specimen at the site to still have exterior masonry wall fragments. These walls are aligned in the compass points. The tombs of DeurukRde’u rug taper inwards towards the top, a design feature that increases their stability. The large size of the funerary structures (64 m² to 148 m²) indicates that this was a burial ground for a powerful, high status social group. The existence of DeurukRde’u rug and other significant funerary sites in Damzhung’Dam gzhung (D-4, D-100, D-101, D-102, D-103) shows that this region once had an important political and economic stature.

DeurukRde’u rug has been hard hit by illegal excavations and pilferage. In the Chinese Cultural Revolution, extensive excavations of the tumuli took place, leading to the loss of much of the archaeological value of the site. Even in recent years excavations have continued. Reportedly, in March of 2004, a group of Chinese, unknown to local residents, carried out excavations. Modern penetrations reveal that the interior of the mounds contain significant quantities of stones. Local residents agree that the mounds enshrine human bones and that valuable artifacts have been discovered in them. It is said that patterned agates, coral and silver objects have been recovered. For the most part, these artifacts make their way onto the arts and antiquities market. In addition to the excavations of the modern period, the existence of hardened depressions covered in drama brush indicates that looting also took place at Deuruk well in the past. Conservation measures are desperately needed to protect what remains of the Deuruk archaeological site.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, DeurukRde’u rug is a site of ancient burial mounds.

Site elements

Upper sector

The funerary structures of the upper sector tend to have longer east-west dimensions, the sides of the structures that run perpendicular to the axis of the slope. This is a common feature of terraced structures throughout the far eastern JangtangByang thang. These structures are referred to as tombs in this survey, even though it is possible that certain examples fulfilled non-sepulchral funerary functions.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (34 m [east-west] by 32 m [north-south]) is the most easterly tomb at DeurukRde’u rug (30° 34.155΄ N. lat. / 91° 09.751΄ E. long.). The uphill/north side of FS1 has a height of 1 m to 1.5 m, while the forward/south side is elevated perhaps 7 m above the downhill slope. The actual height of the forward flank of FS1 is difficult to ascertain because of the high level of erosion. Like other specimens at the site, the base of this terraced funerary structure imperceptibly blends into the slope. There is some structural evidence to suggest that the top 3 m or 4 m of the forward flank of FS1 was a vertical expanse (if so, it must have been sheathed in stonework). On the west rim of the tomb there is a partly intact masonry wall (13 m long), 25 cm in height. Likewise, the 25 m long south rim has a now discontinuous masonry wall. These walls are composed of uncut stones, 10 cm to 25 cm in length. They appear to have formed a bead around the top of the tomb employed to help insure its structural integrity. Due to their highly fragmentary state, the extent and design of these verge walls is no longer clear. There is an old depression on the top of FS1 that is about 2 m deep. Just below FS1 there are what appear to be three highly degraded funerary structures of smaller proportions. They are beyond visually based positive identification.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (10 m by 10 m) is situated directly below FS1. It is elevated about 1.5 m on its uphill side and perhaps 5 m on its downhill side.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (9 m by 10 m) is situated directly below FS1. It has a rear flank that is flush with the slope. The height of the forward flank could not be determined.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (14.4 m by 12 m) is situated on the same prow as FS2 and FS3. FS4 is so highly eroded that it is barely recognizable.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (23 m by 22 m) is situated a little higher than FS1. The rear flank is flush with the slope, while the forward flank is elevated, perhaps 7 m above the downhill slope. There is a depression 1.5 m deep in the top of the structure.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (13 m by 9 m) is situated west of FS5 at the same elevation. FS6 is so degraded as to be almost beyond recognition. Its uphill side is level with the slope. To the west of FS6, the slopes are highly dissected and do not appear to host funerary structures.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (11 m by 9 m) is situated below FS6. Its rear side is elevated about 1 m above the uphill slope. There is a concavity in the middle of the top of the structure.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (12.5 m by 10 m) has a rear flank that is elevated about 2 m above the slope. The top 3 m of the forward flank appear to have constituted a vertical expanse.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (14 m by 11 m) is situated below FS8 (34.120° / 09.677΄). FS9 is so eroded as to make its identity questionable.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (37 m by 20 m) is situated at an elevation intermediate to that of FS8 and FS9, as well as farther west of them. The north/rear flank of the structure is elevated 1.5 m to 4 m above the adjoining terrain. There is a vertical expanse, 4 m in height, at the top of the forward flank. Below this vertical area, the sloping forward flank may have continued for another 6 m vertical. On the flattish top of FS10 an L-shaped trench, 3 m in length, was recently dug. This neatly executed excavation, the work of a sophisticated group, is 3 m deep. This does not appear to be an example of the desultory digging of DeurukRde’u rug structure by local people. Between FS9 and FS10 there is an excavation in the ground surface that reveals many subsurface stones.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (12 m by 11 m) is the most westerly of the north sector tombs. Very little of this structure is still extant. There appear to be the faint vestiges of masonry walls on the top of FS11.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 (9 m by 8 m) is situated at the same elevation as FS10 and FS11.

Lower sector

The funerary structures of the lower sector often have longer east-west side, thus most of them share the same alignment as those of the upper sector. These structures are referred to as tombs in this survey, even though it is possible that certain examples fulfilled non-burial funerary functions.

Funerary Structure FS13

Funerary structure FS13 (30 m by 28 m) is the most westerly tomb of the main lower sector aggregation. FS13 is 2 m to 4 m in height.

Funerary Structure FS14

Funerary structure FS14 (29 by 25 m) is situated directly below FS12. It has an elevation of 4 m to 6 m above the surrounding terrain.

Funerary Structure FS15

Funerary structure FS15 (18 m by 18 m) is slightly elevated on its rear/north flank and 3 m to 4 m high on its forward flank. There is an earthen platform 6 m west of FS15. This quadrate platform measures 17 m (east-west) by 20 m (north-south) and is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain. This platform is probably a funerary structure of some kind.

Funerary Structure FS16

Funerary structure FS16 (27 m by 22 m) is elevated 4 m to 5 m above the surrounding terrain. Just north of it, on clear level ground, there is a discontinuous single line of stones. This manmade feature is probably a funerary element of the site.

Funerary Structure FS17

Funerary structure FS17 (8 m by 8 m) is a relatively small structure with a height of around 1 m.

Funerary Structure FS18

Funerary structure FS18 (15 m by 11 m) is a relatively isolated mound at the edge of the Dam’Dam basin. It is the most westerly tomb at DeurukRde’u rug. This structure is around 3 m in height and much of it has been lost to excavation.

Funerary Structure FS19

Funerary structure FS19 (15 m by 10 m) is situated near FS17. It has a height of 2 m to 2.5 m.

Funerary Structure FS20

Funerary structure FS20 (12.5 m by 13.5 m) has had a trench and tunnel, 5 m in length, cut into its south flank. In close proximity to FS17, FS19 and FS20, there is another quadrate earthen platform (15 m by 15 m) that is elevated about 1 m above the surrounding terrain.

Funerary Structure FS21

Funerary structure FS21 (18 m by 13 m) is 3 m to 4 in height.

Funerary Structure FS22

Funerary structure FS22 (23 m by 25 m) has a 1.5 m to 2 m deep concavity in the top, which appears to be the remains of an old excavation.

Funerary Structure FS23

Funerary structure FS23 (15 m by 12 m) is 2.5 m to 3 m in height. Minor excavations of its east flank have recently taken place. In the holes thus created there are small clay figurines (Tsatsa) of two varieties: conical chöten and plaques with the Buddhist deity TsepakméTshe dpag med. The semi-circular lotus base of this latter style Tsatsa and the form of the deity probably dates the mold from which it was made to circa 1000 CE to 1250 CE. The worn and discolored Tsatsa are clearly old. They may have been deposited inside FS23 to neutralize harmful influences thought to emanate from the tomb.

Funerary Structure FS24

Funerary structure FS24 (39 m by 38 m) is the largest mount at DeurukRde’u rug. It is 5 m to 6 m in height, and has an undulating brush-covered top.

Funerary Structure FS25

Funerary structure FS25 (16 m by 18 m) is 2 m to 3.5 m in height.

Funerary Structure FS26

Funerary structure FS26 (size unclear) is a highly eroded specimen, 1 m to 2.5 m in height.

Funerary Structure FS27

Funerary structure FS27 (12 m by 13 m) is 2 m to 5 m in height. Much excavation of its south flank has occurred. A large excavation of the ground surface is found between FS26 and FS27. The spacing of the proximate bangso suggests that a mound once stood here as well. It appears that under the pretext of gathering stones and earth for use in village construction projects, mounds such as FS27 are dismantled in the search for valuable artifacts.

Funerary Structure FS28

Funerary structure FS28 (19 m by 12 m) is around 4 m in height. Small excavations have been made in various parts of the structure.

Funerary Structure FS29

Funerary structure FS29 (29 m by 19 m) is around 4 m in height. It has a rear flank flush with the slope and a forward flank elevated about 4 m above the downhill slope.

Nya (Nya)

General site characteristics

NyaNya is located on an esplanade that rises above the swampy Dam’Dam basin. The site is situated near the southwest end of the esplanade, which is bounded by the NyachuNya chu. Rising above the opposite side of the NyachuNya chu is KyelungSkye lung and LungsumLung gsum (D-4) and KyangtangRkyang thang (B-86). The NyaNya esplanade extends more than 2 km northeast all the way to Lagen DoLa rgan mdo. Being located at the foot of the Nyenchen TanglhaGnyan chen thang lha range, NyaNya has open views to the south, east and west. NyaNya consists of quadrate funerary mounds (bangso) of the type found at the nearby DeurukRde’u rug site (D-99). The typological coherence between the funerary mounds of these two sites suggests that at least some of those standing at NyaNya had a burial function as well. NyaNya also has four extensive zones of superficial stone walls (totaling 4830 m²). These walls may possibly be the remains of clustered residential structures. Sedentary settlement appears to have been part of the region’s archaic cultural horizon, as sites of other superficial dispersions indicate (see B-84, B-85 and B-86). The ruins of palaces and fortresses with significant standing walls, which belong to the archaic cultural horizon, have not been discovered in the Damzhung’Dam gzhung region. If the NyaNya walls are indeed habitational in character, their proximity to funerary structures is not congruent with the JangtangByang thang and TöStod where funerary sites generally lie sequestered from residential sites.

There are also extensive terraces in the vicinity of the funerary mounds with the roots of retaining walls that are still in situ. These may have once supported agricultural parcels. The oral tradition of Damzhung’Dam gzhung holds that agriculture was extensively practiced in the region in early times. In the modern period, the inhabitants are again experimenting with barley and black pea cultivation with mixed results. Most of what is grown is fit only for livestock forage. A fragment of a plaque inscribed with the mani mantra is found at nya. It probably came from a shrine wall located below the site in the bottomland.

The area between Bakha AraSba kha a ra (in the plain below KyangtangRkyang thang) and TredoKhre mdo, a settlement hub in modern Damzhung’Dam gzhung, also appears to have been a nucleus of early settlement in the region. This area has a number of perennial streams and excellent southern exposure. The modern habitations are all situated in the bottom of the Dam’Dam basin, while the major archaeological remains are on the slopes, shelves and esplanades at the base of the Nyenchen TanglhaGnyan chen thang lha range. These relative settlement patterns are echoed across Upper Tibet, whereby ancient habitations are located above their later historic and modern counterparts.

Oral tradition

The superficial stone walls of NyaNya are locally called Lhamo Drukmö KhangLha mo ’brug mo’i khang, and are supposed to have been the residence of the epic heroine Lhamo DrukmoLha mo 'brug mo. This residential complex is thought to have been destroyed by the 18th century CE Jungarjun gar. The Jungarjun gar destruction of ancient monuments is a common theme in the oral traditions of Dam’Dam and the far eastern JangtangByang thang, and is liable to be apocryphal in this case. The residential attribution of the site, however, may well be founded in historical fact. A mountain above NyaNya is called Jungar LatséJun gar la btsas. According to Sokpo NamséSog po rnam sras (born Earth Dragon Year, circa 1928),212 this mountain was the site of a Jungarjun gar surveillance post (sokhang).

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (17.5 m by 15 m) is situated on the southwest rim of the lower shelf of the esplanade. This conspicuous location adds to the physical prominence of the structure in the local landscape. This seems to suggest that such funerary structures were a celebrated part of the architectural heritage of the times in which they were built, not hidden or out of the way monuments. FS1 does not appear to have been oriented in the cardinal directions; rather, its position takes full advantage of the local topographic conditions. FS1 is 3 m high on its uphill/northwest flank and no less than 5 m high on its downhill/southeast flank. The mound is covered in turf and drama brush. There are also stones embedded in its surface but no coherent wall segments are discernable.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (17 m by 20 m) is also situated near the rim of the lower shelf of the esplanade (32.537΄ / 07. 090΄ / 4330 m). FS2 has an uphill height of around 3 m and a downhill height of perhaps 5 m. The forward or downhill height in all the mounds of NyaNya is difficult to visually appraise because of the way in which they blend into the adjacent groundcover. Some excavation of the top of the structure has taken place. FS2 is covered in brush and turf. North of FS2 there is a rocky dispersion (30 m by 18 m), the remains of manmade structures of unknown identity.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated on the southwest edge of the upper shelf of the esplanade and overlooks FS1 and FS2 (32.611΄ / 07.026΄ / 4350 m). FS3 is another large mound that is elevated around 3 m on its uphill flank and approximately 4 m on its downhill flank. The top of FS3 is relatively level and there are no visible signs that the structure was ever disturbed. FS3 is covered in brush and turf and has some stones embedded in its surface.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated on the south rim of the upper shelf of the esplanade overlooking the NyachuNya chu (32.616΄ / 07.999΄ / 4350 m). Near the top of this small conical tumulus (around 2 m high) many stones are embedded on all sides of the structure. These stones cover a square area measuring 3.5 m by 3.5 m. The variable-length (up to 50 cm long) red sandstone and other types of rocks represented no longer form an integral structure. Nevertheless, it appears that these stones once constituted a significant masonry structure. FS4, given its distinctive morphological characteristics, may have served an alternative ritual function to that of the bigger mounds.

Residential Structure RS5

Residential structure RS5 is a dispersion of superficial stone walls and tumuli situated near the south rim of the esplanade (32.667΄ / 06.941΄ / 4350 m). The main dispersion of RS5 covers an area of 39 m by 26 m. Part of this zone consists of around one dozen building foundations or cells partially obscured by ground cover. It is not clear if these quadrate structures are the footings of buildings or the superstructures of funerary enclosures. The double-course and multi-course walls of the structures are well built and around 50 cm in thickness. They are composed of uncut pieces of red sandstone and other types of rocks. A large wall segment (6 m long) formed one side of two rooms or cells. It consists of lines of two or three stones laid abreast of one another. These stones slightly protrude from the ground. Another coherent wall fragment on the west side of RS5 is 80 cm thick and composed of three or more stones laid abreast. On the northeast side of the main RS5 dispersion there is a zone of tumuli around 2 m in height, which covers an area of 8 m by 8 m. Immediately north of the main RS5 dispersion there is another zone of superficial walls (20 m by 13 m). On the north end of this north dispersion there is a double-course east-west wall segment, 13 m in length and 30 cm thickness.

Residential Structure RS6

Residential structure RS6, another large rocky dispersion (47 m by 45 m), is situated near the west end of the esplanade (32.713΄ / 06.929΄ / 4360 m). RS6 occupies sloping ground and appears to consist of what are either building foundations or funerary structures. On the west end of the RS6 dispersion there is a wall segment (9 m long, 60 cm high) that is built into the slope. It is made up of several vertical courses of masonry. This wall type seems in keeping with residential architectural traces. There are also smaller such wall fragments in RS5. These random-rubble walls are composed of stones 10 cm to 50 cm in length. There are more minor structural remains that peer out of the surface of the upper shelf of the esplanade that are not a part of RS5 or RS6.

Residential Structure RS7

Residential structure RS7 is an L-shaped structure whose two arms measure 23 m by 10 m and 48 m by 14 m (32.718΄ / 06.866΄ / 4380 m). RS7 is situated on the prow of an adjoining hill and directly overlooks the NyachuNya chu gorge. This large structure is subdivided into around 12 rooms or cells. In some places the walls attain 80 cm in thickness and are composed of three stones laid abreast of one another. Although there are no freestanding walls, the morphological presentation of RS7 appears to be in keeping with residential architectural remains.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8, a funerary mound, is situated on a fairly steep slope above the upper shelf of the esplanade (32.765΄ / 07.036΄ / 4370 m). This is another large bangso that is not aligned in the cardinal directions. FS8 has a height of around 1.5 m to 2 m on its uphill flank and a height of perhaps 4 m on its downhill flank. The top is undulating, rocky and covered in turf. Cuts of around 70 cm in depth reveal a rocky interior.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (20 m by 20 m) is another funerary mound with a highly eroded top. The upslope flank of FS9 is around 3 m in height and its down slope flank is around 5 m high. The top of the structure has been cleaved into two parts by the agency of water and possibly by human activity as well. Immediately upslope of FS9 there is a wall composed of smaller stones set 1.1 m to 1.4 apart in parallel courses. These stones are embedded into the ground surface. The wall is oriented perpendicular (northwest-southeast) to the uphill wall of the funerary mound. This superficial structure is somewhat sinuous and inclined.

Nedé (Gnas sde)

General site characteristics

NedéGnas sde is located on a ridge, rising up on the east side of the TrechuKhre chu. On the ridgeline there are at least five small terraced tombs with a southern aspect. These structures exhibit the same design and construction characteristics as the smaller terraced funerary structures of the far eastern JangtangByang thang. This, in itself, suggests that there were close cultural links between these regions. The terraced structures of NedéGnas sde are probably all tombs, as demonstrated by the recent excavation of funerary structure FS4 by local residents.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, NedéGnas sde is an ancient burial ground.

Site elements

Funerary structures FS1 to FS4 form a single line of structures on the edge of the hillside (4400 m). They are all situated at the same elevation. The uphill flanks of these structures are flush with the slope while their downhill flanks are elevated around 1 m above the slope.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7 m by 4.5 m) has a top fully bounded by masonry that exhibits no particular design pattern.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5.5 m by 7 m) also has a verge lined in masonry of no particular design. The stones appear to have been laid in a haphazard fashion.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.6 m by 4) has a verge partially lined with stones (34,483΄ / 10.154΄).

Funerary Structure FS4

In recent years, funerary structure FS4 has been excavated to a depth of 1 m by local residents in their quest for valuable artifacts and building materials (stones are used to build corrals and other structures.). This excavation penetrated to the bottom of the structure. The stones were hauled away by truck as evidenced by deep tire tracks that still scar the hillside. It is reported that human bones and ceramic shards were found inside FS4. No traces of these objects remain visible at the site. Many stones (up to 80 cm long) were left in a pile beside where FS4 once stood. It appears from local testimonies, that the subsurface architecture of FS4 consisted of a stone-lined burial chamber. This rock laden structure contrasts with the adjoining slopes, which are free of stones.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated approximately 5 m below the FS1 to FS4 line of tombs. Only some of the stones forming its verge are still in situ. FS5 is level with the uphill slope and elevated about 1 m above the downhill slope. It is quite possible that there is another terraced funerary structure next to FS5 but it has been totally engulfed by drama brush.

There is another possible funerary mound on the same ridgeline, but it is too degraded to positively identify through visual means (34.334΄ / 10.246΄ / 4370 m).

Genmo Deumbur (Rgan mo rde’u ’bur)

General site characteristics

Genmo DeumburRgan mo rde’u ’bur is located on the west side of the Khangmar ChuKhang dmar chu, in between the new monastic complex and the old Mani LhakhangMa ṇi lha khang of Khangmar GönpaKhang dmar dgon pa. The site has commanding views of the expansive Dam’Dam basin. The two bangso of this site are situated about 20 m higher in elevation than the monastic facilities. These funerary mounds are the same type as those found at KyelungSkye lung and LungsumLung gsum (D-4) DeurukRde’u rug (D-99), NyaNya (D-100), and Chumik Do LatséChu mig mdo la btsas (D-103). The turf- and drama- covered structures of Genmo DeumburRgan mo rde’u ’bur have not been disturbed in recent years.

Oral tradition

For the inmates of KhangmarKhang dmar monastery, the identity of Genmo Deumbur is a matter of speculation.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated in a small amphitheatre about one-half km upstream of where the Khangmar ChuKhang dmar chu debouches into the Dam’Dam basin (30° 35.604΄ N. lat. / 91° 13.459΄ E. long.). FS1 appears to be aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 27 m (north-south) by 17 m (east-west). Its uphill flank is elevated around 2.5 m and its downhill flank rises around 4.5 m above the slope.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (7 m by 7 m) is a much smaller funerary structure constructed on a fairly steep slope. The uphill flank of FS1 is elevated about 1 m above the slope while its downhill flank is elevated about 2.5 m above the adjoining terrain. It is possible that other small funerary structures are found in the vicinity but they have become too integrated in the naturally rolling terrain to positively identify using visual means.

Chumik Do Latsé (Chu mig mdo la btsas)

General site characteristics

Chumik Do LatséChu mig mdo la btsas is located on the north edge of the Dam’Dam basin. This is another site of quadrate funerary mounds of the kind commonly found in the area (see D-4, D-99, D-100, D-102). These structures have a southern aspect. In recent years, three of the six bangso of Chumik Do LatséChu mig mdo la btsas have been destroyed by looters. It is rumored that a ceramic pot containing patterned agates was discovered on the site and sold in LhasaLha sa. This find appears to have unleashed a digging frenzy on the part of local residents. The result of this illicit activity is the loss of much of the scientific value of Chumik Do LatséChu mig mdo la btsas. In relatively heavily populated and accessible Damzhung’Dam gzhung grave robbing is a growing problem. Thus far, little or nothing has been done by local or provincial authorities to curb this problem, putting at extreme risk what remains of the region’s archaeological heritage.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Chumik Do LatséChu mig mdo la btsas is an ancient burial ground.

Site elements

Upper sector

Funerary structures FS1 to FS4 are situated on drama-studded, steep slopes 30 m to 50 m above the edge of the Dam’Dam basin. These structures have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS1 has been completely eliminated through excavation. This excavation measures 4 m by 4 m and is 1 m deep on its uphill side. The stones removed from the dig were cast down the slope, indicating that the excavation of FS1 was solely a matter of grave robbing.
Funerary structure FS2 (6 m by 7 m) has a rear/north flank 1.5 m in height and a downhill/north flank 2 m or more in height. This highly eroded mound has drama brush growing on it.
Funerary structure FS3 (4.5 m by 5.5 m) has an uphill height of about 1 m and a downhill height of around 2 m (34.703΄ / 12.458΄ / 4360 m). This structure is highly eroded and has lost much of its original shape. Drama brush grows on FS3.
Funerary structure FS4 (4 m by 4 m) has been nearly leveled by looters.

Lower sector

Funerary structures FS5 and FS6 are situated at the base of the slope.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 has been nearly removed by looters. It is only through local information that one would know of its existence, as so little in situ structural evidence remains. The destruction of this funerary mound required the removal of many cubic meters of earth and rock. In an outer wall fragment (3 m high) there are many embedded bones. Quite easily the survey team found a sheep mandible in the surface of the structure.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 has been destroyed through wholesale excavation. Up to 4 m vertical of earth and stones were removed to create a large gaping hole in the ground.

Shongdo Ra (Shong rdo ra)

General site characteristics

Shongdo RaShong rdo ra is located on a natural terrace, on the left side of the uninhabited ShongShong valley (the western-most effluent of the Tarma TsangpoThar ma gtsang po). Immediately to the north of the site there is a rocky limestone ridge. The terrain is moderately sloping, turf-covered and strewn with pieces of limestone. Shongdo RaShong rdo ra consists of three funerary enclosures with double-course and unordered perimeter walls. The heavily eroded structures are all made of uncut variable-length chunks of blue limestone.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Shongdo RaShong rdo ra is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (18 m by 15 m) is sub-rectangular in form. A number of naturally occurring boulders were incorporated into the perimeter walls. Some of the boulders on the enclosure may also have been moved into their current positions. There are stones piled up on the inner side of the largest of these boulders (3.3 m long). This pile appears to be the vestiges of a shepherd’s shelter (droklhé). Like FS2, there is a gap in the east wall of the FS1 enclosure. This may be a deliberate design trait (as is found in some enclosures that house pillars). The large boulders notwithstanding, variable-length (10 cm to 1.3 m long) stones were used make the perimeter walls. In some places, small stones were placed on top of larger stones. These walls appear to have been crudely built with no particular order or arrangement. Many of the stones of FS1 host orange climax lichen growth. The uphill/north wall of FS1 is constructed of heaped stones. This wall has a maximum interior height of 50 cm and a maximum exterior height of 1.4 m, in order that the interior of the enclosure could be relatively level. The downhill/south wall also consists of stones laid on top of one another. It is raised 20 cm on its interior side and 70 cm on its exterior side; also to compensate for the slope gradient. There are loose rocks scattered around the enclosure as well as some partially submerged ones.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (14 m by 10 m), the highest specimen at Shongdo RaShong rdo ra, is situated 147 m east of FS1. The walls of this sub-rectangular enclosure are level with the ground surface or elevated above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. This structure may once have been taller, but it has been subject to heavy erosion and possible geomorphologic modification. On the west side of the perimeter there is what appears to be a double-course wall fragment (60 cm thick). There is a gap in the east wall. Variable length (10 cm to 70 cm) stones were used in the construction of the FS2 enclosure. The interior of the enclosure is moderately sloping and contains some exposed and partially submerged stones.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (6 m by 6 m) is situated 28 m downhill of FS2. This open enclosure has an ovoid form. There are traces of double-course walls (70 cm thick) on the south and west sides of the enclosure. The east wall is entirely missing. The perimeter walls of FS3 are level with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. The same variable-length stones found in FS2 were used to construct FS3. The level interior is littered with loose stones.

Tara Mönra (Rta ra mon ra)

General site characteristics

Tara MönraRta ra mon ra and Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra are adjacent sites, located on the west side of the Pundri TsangpoPhu ’bri gtsang po/Putö TsangpoSpu stod gtsang po valley, the most important pastoral center in the Latö LhomaLa stod lho ma region. These two funerary sites are located on rocky slopes that abut the moist valley floor. They have a wide eastern vista. From GyadoRgya rdo there are views of the TagoRta rgo range. The sites consist of a minimum of 13 loci each with one or more heavily eroded funerary enclosures. Many of these loci are comprised of one larger structure and one or more smaller satellite structures, most, or all of which, appear to be funerary in function. A significant number of enclosures appear to have been designed with openings in their east wall. These ritual “portals” in the direction of the rising sun may have been envisioned as facilitating the passage of the deceased to the afterlife. Alternatively, they may possibly have been built to facilitate communications between the deceased and the living during the burial rites. These enclosures were built with uncut blue, gray and brown metamorphic rocks of variable length. Given the large size of the site and the rocky terrain, it is possible that there are funerary structures not accounted for in this survey.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Tara MönraRta ra mon ra and Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra are structures built by the ancient MönMon. Some of these structures are thought to have fulfilled pastoral functions. While this does not appear very likely, the utilitarian usage of some enclosures in the ancient pastoral economy cannot be ruled out. In any event, their design and layout may have been inspired by the herding way of life, and made to imitate its familiar structures (tent rings, corrals, shelters, etc.). Just northwest of Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra there is a small side valley called Drenkhyer’Dre ’khyer (Carried Away By Demons). It is said that a betrothed girl who was on her way to meet the groom’s party was abducted by dré’Dre demons in this valley. This tale in an oblique fashion seems to acknowledge the ancient funerary status of the area.

Site elements

Tara MönraRta ra mon ra

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated on the foot of a rocky spur that divides the TaraRta ra locale from Mönra YarkéMon ra yar rked (D-24) (31° 16.063΄ N. lat. / 86° 23.038΄ E. long. / 4730 m). It consists of six large stones (up to 80 cm long) that form part of a rectangular enclosure. There may be the traces of funerary structures on either side of this enclosure remnant. A modern wall built around the edge of a nearby pasture may have been the recipient of stones extracted from FS1 and companion structures. North of TaraRta ra there are the roots of long walls running parallel and perpendicular to the slope. Their age and function are unknown. Possibly, they were part of the necropolis.

Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra South

Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra South is located on rocky slopes just north of TaraRta ra (4730 m).

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 consists of three funerary enclosures in close proximity to one another. FS1A (5 m by 6 m) is the southernmost specimen. It may have had rudimentary double-course walls (70 cm thick). The downhill side of this structure is elevated about 50 cm above the slope and the uphill side is even with the slope. FS1B, the middle specimen, is situated 15 m north of FS1A. The superficial perimeter walls of this ovoid enclosure are highly fragmentary. They may also have had a crude double-course composition. FS1C (13 m by 15 m), an irregularly shaped enclosure, is situated just to the north of FS1B. The disordered perimeter walls are depressed 50 cm on the west side while they are elevated 1 m on the east side, in order to create a fairly level interior.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (11 m by 16 m) is a sub-rectangular enclosure. This heaped-stone wall enclosure has stones piled along the perimeter to a height of 70 cm. Its uphill side is depressed while its downhill side is elevated, as are almost all the larger enclosures of Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra. A single-course enclosure (4.8 m by 6.6 m) is situated 2.5 m to the east. Large stones (up to 80 cm long) that stick as much as 35 cm out of the ground were employed in the construction of this companion structure.

Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra North

Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra North is situated about one-half km farther north on broad, gently inclined rocky slopes (4740 m).

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7.5 m by 8.4 m) is a fairly well preserved ovoid enclosure. There are double-course wall fragments (50 cm to 90 cm thick) that are primarily composed of blocks laid flat on the ground. However, there are also slab-wall segments in which individual stones project as much as 25 cm above ground level. Stones between 10 cm and 60 cm in length were used in the construction of FS1. The east wall is punctuated by a wedge-shaped opening 60 cm to 90 cm wide. The east side of this opening is demarcated by a stone 75 cm in length that is elevated 30 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (5 m by 5 m) is situated 26 m west of FS1. This round enclosure has walls whose design type could not be ascertained. The perimeter walls are 60 cm to 80 cm thick and composed of variable-length stones.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 19 m northeast of FS1. There are two distinctive cells in this enclosure with a combined length of 23 m. The heaped-stone wall perimeter is 30 cm to 1.2 m in height (depending on how high the stones are piled) and average around 1 m thick. The larger east cell measures 16 m by 13 m. The cells are partitioned by a swath of stones 1 m to 2 m in width. Immediately south of the large enclosure are two small stone rings, probably ancillary funerary structures of some kind.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (28 m by 13 m) is situated 48 m east of FS1. The heaped-stone walls of this large rectangular enclosure have been severely degraded, not least of all by the construction of a now abandoned corral right on top of them. The corral is fully self-contained and appears to have used the walls of the old enclosure as a windbreak. The belief that an ancient corral stood here may have influenced the construction of the modern period livestock pen. There is an irregularly shaped enclosure (10.5 m by 15 m) 20 m to the south of the large enclosure. It has stones heaped up to 1 m high along the perimeter.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (13 m by 14 m) is an irregularly shaped heaped-stone wall enclosure. Its rear wall is sunk 1 m below the uphill slope and its downhill wall elevated around 50 cm above the slope. The walls of FS5 are around 70 cm in thickness.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (13 m by 18 m) is situated 4.5 m east of FS5. This sub-rectangular enclosure is subdivided into a north cell and a south cell.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (8.3 m by 8.5 m) is situated 17 m north of FS6. There is a hint of a coherent double-course wall fragment on the north side of this sub-rectangular enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (9 m by 13 m) is a degraded ovoid enclosure, which is difficult to distinguish from the surrounding rocky terrain.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (20 m by 18 m) is situated at the northern extremity of Gyado MönraRgya rdo mon ra. This sub-rectangular enclosure is subdivided into two main cells. The perimeter walls are heavily impacted with earth. These heaped stone walls are up to 1 m in height and are 1 m to 1.5 m thick. There are breaks in the north and east walls of the north cell. There is also an opening in the east wall of the south cell. There is a small ovoid structure immediately to the south of the large enclosure, and three or four smaller enclosures to its west. Another ovoid enclosure (5 m across) is located 7 m south of the large enclosure. This ovoid enclosure has stones heaped up on its south side.

Affiliated sites

Mönra YarkéMon ra yar rked

During the HTWE, three funerary enclosures were detected at the Mönra YarkéMon ra yar rked sites (D-24), which were not surveyed in 2000. These structures are found north of DzongchenRdzong chen, the largest funerary structure in the area. Human skeletal remains found in cists underlying the heaped-stone wall complex of DzongchenRdzong chen have been dated to the imperial period.213 Mönra YarkéMon ra yar rked is situated on broad slopes on the “waist” (foot) of the ridge that encloses the west side of the Pundri TsangpoPhu ’bri gtsang po/Putö TsangpoSpu stod gtsang po valley. This large site is disbursed over a 3.5 km swath of rocky terrain.

Funerary Structure FSA

Funerary structure FSA is situated just north of DzongchenRdzong chen (31° 15.847΄ N. lat. / 86° 23.055΄ E. long. / 4720 m). Very little of this enclosure remains. It appears to have been ovoid in form, and measures around 9 m across.

Funerary Structure FSB

Funerary structure FSB (10 m by 9 m) is an ovoid enclosure with heaped and superficial perimeter walls. The superficial wall segments are comprised of slabs up to 75 cm in length that protrude slightly above the ground surface (to 15 cm in height). These walls do not appear to have been built with any particular order or arrangement. There is a 2.3 m gap in the east wall of funerary structure FSB, which appears to be an original design feature.

Funerary Structure FSC

Funerary structure FSC (20 m by 11 m) is an oblong enclosure with a pinched middle section, almost giving it the form of an hourglass. The constricted middle section of the enclosure measures 8 m across. FSC is situated near the foot of a steep rocky slope. Stones are heaped to a height of 50 cm along its perimeter. Possibly other wall traces are found immediately uphill of FSC.

Belmo Möndur (Bal mo mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Belmo Möndur (sp?)
Site number: D-106
Site typology: II.2b
Elevation: 4900 m
Administrative location (township): Mamik
Administrative location (county): Gertsé
Survey expedition: HTWE
Survey date: June 18, 2004
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: mani plaques and walls.
Maps: UTRS VII
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General site characteristics

Belmo MöndurBal mo mon dur is located on the east side of the BelmoBal mo basin in the PenchéPhan che region (now known as NachenNa chen). The views to the north and south are fairly open, while those to the east and west are constrained by ridges bounding the basin. The shelf upon which Belmo MöndurBal mo mon dur was built is turf-covered and strewn with shards from broken mani plaques. The site was completely altered by the construction of mani walls. In the Chinese Cultural Revolution, these mani walls were in turn destroyed and now lie in two heaps. The mostly broken plaques are primarily inscribed with the mani mantra. These plaques are significantly worn and must be centuries old. Evidently, the mani walls were built with stones extracted from local funerary structures. These Buddhist shrines are likely to have been constructed to rid the locale of negative influences thought to emanate from the funerary structures, or perhaps to make amends after their desecration. Interestingly, despite its wholesale modification, Belmo MöndurBal mo mon dur never lost its MönMon associations. The continued presence of the original structures has probably conspired to help it retain its older cultural connotations. It appears that substantial funerary structures once stood at Belmo MöndurBal mo mon dur. Recently, stones removed from the site were used to build a small enclosure for yak dung storage.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of BelmoBal mo, Belmo MöndurBal mo mon dur is an ancient MönMon burial ground.

Site elements

Belmo MöndurBal mo mon dur was primarily constructed from larger bluish metamorphic blocky rocks (30 cm to 1.2 m long). These stones appear to have been transported from an adjacent rocky slope. The largest of the old mani walls now forms a pile about 4.5 m in length and 1.5 m in height. This pile of sacred rubble may obscure older wall traces. There is also a smaller pile of broken plaques and rubble, the remains of another mani wall. A double-course wall fragment (5 m long, 65 cm thick) from a funerary structure is situated to the west of the mani wall rubble. The blocks in this east-west running wall are flush with the ground level. On either side of this structure there are concavities in the ground, the probable vestiges of two funerary enclosures or cells. The long masonry fragment appears to have been part of a wall common to both cells. The depression on the north side of this east-west oriented wall fragment is surrounded by other wall traces. These structural remains once formed a quadrate enclosure, approximately 3.7 m in length (east-west). No traces of walls remain around the south depression as well. Wall vestiges are also found north of the mani rubble, and there is a wall fragment (2.5 m long) to the east. It is not clear if these walls were part of funerary structures, the mani walls, or both genres of structures.

Affiliated sites

Jangma LangshaByang ma glang sha

Recently, while drokpa’Brog pa were excavating in the settlement of Jangma LangshaByang ma glang sha, in JangmaByang ma township, Drongpa’Brong pa county (31° 34.86΄ N. lat. / 84° 22.99΄ E. long. / 4600 m), human skeletal remains were discovered. A femur from a fairly tall individual was available for inspection.

Am NakkhaAm nag kha

Am NakkhaAm nag kha (Black Plain Rock Formation) is the name of a ridge that parallels the south side of a valley in the PenchéPhan che region (MamikMa mig township, GertséSger rtse county). On this ridge there is a distinctive line of stones that runs between two spurs (31° 45.4΄ N. lat. / 84° 05.8΄ E. long. / 4730 m). This sinuous stone structure is nearly 100 m in length and is located about 20 m above the valley floor. It runs in a northeast-southwest direction and is possibly a natural geological feature. A sloping terrace, 3 m to 10 m wide, forms behind this rock structure. A little farther up valley there are the remains of a manmade stone wall, which circumscribes the base of the southern ridge. This wall is around 200 m in length and 20 cm to 40 cm in height. In between these two linear stone structures is a third example bounding a terrace about 30 m above the valley floor. There are several dozen small stone mounds dispersed around the rocky valley bottom just north of the 200 m long wall. These mounds are 1 m to 2 m in diameter and 20 cm to 30 cm in height. They are impacted with soil and have moss growing on them, indicating that they have stood undisturbed for quite awhile. The mounds and the adjoining stone walls appear to have a funerary function. This is the only site of this particular morphological configuration surveyed to date. According to the local elder, Ngülchu YöntenDngul chu yon tan (Ox Year, born circa 1937), these walls and mounds are associated with the ancient MönMon.

Trachap Möndur (Khra chab mon dur)

General site characteristics

Trachap MöndurKhra chab mon dur is located in the TrachapKhra chab valley of the PenchéPhan che region. The views are open up and down the north-south aligned valley and constrained in the east and west by the parallel mountain ranges. There are no less than ten funerary structures dispersed around the TrachapKhra chab valley. These structures are found on both the flanks of the valley and the valley bottom. All of these structures are constructed of uncut pieces of gray granite. They are of the single-course, double-course and heaped-stone wall types.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Trachap MöndurKhra chab mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (5.1 m by 6 m) is situated on the level gravel-strewn TrachapKhra chab valley bottom (31° 45.054΄ N. lat. / 83° 58.076΄ E. long. / 4540 m). This double-course enclosure is not aligned in the cardinal directions. About half of the enclosure is still extant. The perimeter walls (around 60 cm thick) are composed of stones (20 cm to 50 cm long), which are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is a group of fragmentary structures situated on the broad lower west flank of the valley. Among the most prominent of these structures is a single-course quadrate enclosure, which is not aligned in the cardinal directions (2.8 m by 2.1 m). Only one of its perimeter walls is fully intact. It consists of larger upright stones (up to 60 cm long), which protrude 10 cm to 20 cm above ground level. Just 60 cm northeast of this structure is a double-course slab-wall segment (3 m long) composed of upright slabs (10 cm to 30 cm long), which are flush with the ground surface. This slab wall is about 30 cm in thickness. Other slab-wall fragments are found 5.5 m to the northwest. These double-course fragments are of the same construction and are 80 cm to 1.2 m in thickness. What type of funerary structures these slab-wall fragments formed is no longer evident.

Funerary structures FS3 to FS6 are situated on the wide, moderately inclined slopes above the west side of the valley floor. These four specimens are found in pockets of sand that have formed between successive ribs of granite boulders. These geological structures are part of ancient outwash fans. Funerary structures FS3 to FS7 are made of variable-length pieces of granite (up to 70 cm long).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (10.5 m by 11 m) is a sub-rectangular enclosure that probably had heaped-stone walls. The north or uphill side of this structure is set 20 cm to 40 cm below the upper slope, while the downhill side of the structure is elevated at least 1 m above the adjacent terrain. The interior of this enclosure is level and free of structural elements.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (15 m by 23 m) is a kidney-shaped heaped-stone wall enclosure. It appears to have been subdivided by partition walls into three cells. The perimeter walls of FS4 are around 50 cm in height. The small lower cell is elevated about 50 cm above the downhill slope. The large central cell is set about 50 cm above the lower cell and is somewhat inclined. Some stones are scattered around the central cell. The small upper cell is depressed about 50 cm below the uphill slope.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (10 m by 10 m) is a sub-rectangular heaped-stone wall enclosure. The rear/uphill side of this structure is set 60 cm to 80 cm below the adjoining slope, while the downhill side is elevated around 30 cm above the adjacent slope. The interior of FS5 is free of structural elements.

Funerary structures FS6 and FS7 are located in a larger outwash fan to the south of FS3 and FS4.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (4 m by 4 m) is a single-course ovoid enclosure. Part of this enclosure may also have had double-course perimeter walls. The FS6 interior appears to be free of structural elements. The stones of the enclosure project as much as 25 cm from ground level.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (20 m by 11 m) is an irregularly shaped heaped-stone wall enclosure. FS7 is subdivided by walls into three cells. The circular upper cell has a prominent heaped-stone perimeter wall. The uphill side of the upper cell is depressed around 50 cm below the uphill slope. The downhill side of FS7 is somewhat elevated above the adjoining slope. A long gully, free of stones, runs above FS7. A wall of unknown function, 8 m in length, traverses this gully.

Funerary structures FS8 to FS10 are located in the open sandy and gravelly ground of the valley bottom.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (2.6 m by 2.6 m) is a quadrate single-course enclosure that is aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter walls are composed of stones 20 cm to 50 cm in length, which are flush with the ground surface or which project above it slightly. FS8 has an open interior. Adjacent to the north side of this enclosure there are some stones piled up and some stones that are partly submerged in the ground.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (4.2 m by 4.3 m) is a fragmentary quadrate enclosure that may have had double-course walls. Stones in the perimeter walls are 15 cm to 60 cm in length and project as much as 15 cm from the ground surface. FS9 has an open interior.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (7 m by 6.3 m) is a double-course, quadrate enclosure that is aligned in the cardinal directions. Only small fragments of the double-course perimeter walls in this fragmentary specimen have survived. Stones used to construct FS10 are 15 cm to 40 cm in length, and are either flush with the ground surface or slightly rise above it.

Salung Möndur (Sa lung mon dur)

General site characteristics

Salung MöndurSa lung mon dur is located above the Salung ChuSa lung chu, in fairly close proximity to Salung KhangroSa lung khang ro, a dark-colored mountain on the west side of an east-west running valley, in the PenchéPhan che region. The site has fairly wide views in all directions, especially to the south. The terrain is level, well drained and sandy. Salung MöndurSa lung mon dur consists of ten relatively well-preserved funerary structures that form a compact and integrated group. These structures are built of uncut light-colored pieces of granite of variable length (15 cm to 50 cm long). A number of different types of structures are found at Salung MöndurSa lung mon dur, each of which is liable to have had highly specific funerary functions (both burial and ritual in nature). The various elements of the site are not symmetrically arrayed. The most elaborate and skillfully built structure is funerary structure FS1, a complex trapezoidal structure, which sits on the east end of the site. There are also five ovoid and sub-rectangular, heaped-stone wall enclosures (all with open interiors) (FS2, FS3, FS4, FS7, and FS8), and one quadrate enclosure with stones embedded along the perimeter (FS9). Additionally, there are three narrow rectangular structures of a type not encountered elsewhere (these structures are not aligned in the cardinal directions) (FS5, FS6 and FS10). Finally, there is a small ring of stones as well as obscured minor structural traces at Salung MöndurSa lung mon dur.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa’Brog pa, Salung MöndurSa lung mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is a uniquely designed, trapezoidal enclosure with well-developed double-course perimeter walls. Its parallel east and west walls have a north-south alignment. The well-built robust dry-stone random-rubble perimeter walls of FS1 are 40 cm to 80 cm in height, and 80 cm to 1 m in thickness. They are comprised of three to four vertical courses of stones. In between the outer and inner courses, granite rubble was inserted as a filler to enhance the structural integrity of the walls. The interior of the enclosure is slightly higher than the adjacent terrain. In the middle of the enclosure there is a shallow rock-filled pit about 1.5 m in diameter. This depression may be the remains of a grave chamber.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 4.3 m north of FS1. This more conventionally designed enclosure has heaped-stone perimeter walls and probably a sub-rectangular form. The walls of FS2 are elevated around 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. The east wall (3.7 m long) is largely intact and has a north-south alignment. The east-west dimensions of FS2 are also around 3.7 m. The north wall of this enclosure is partly intact, while the south and west walls have almost completely disappeared.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.4 m by 2.7 m) is situated 1.5 m west of FS2. This enclosure has walls of a non-descript design, and these have degraded to give the structure an ovoid form. The walls appear to be of the heaped-stone variety, whereby stones were piled up along the perimeter with no stipulated order or arrangement.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.9 m by 5 m) is situated 2.4 m to the west of FS3. This ovoid structure is highly degraded. Its heaped-stone wall perimeter is around 50 cm in height and 60 cm in thickness.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (3.5 m by 80 cm) is situated 7 m northeast of FS2. This unusually designed rectangular structure consists of a solid mass of stones that is embedded in the ground surface. These stones protrude as much as 20 cm from the ground surface. A few loose stones are strewn around the top of the structure as well.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (2.7 m by 1 m) is situated 1.6 m northeast of FS5. This long narrow rectangular structure is of the same general type as FS5; however, it is composed of several layers of stones piled on top of one another. FS6 is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding ground level. The stones of this structure were neatly piled up in such a way so that a long narrow gap was left open in the middle of the top. This gap is somewhat depressed below the level of the stones flanking it.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (5 m by 5 m) is situated 3.4 m west of FS5 and 2.9 m north of FS2. This sub-rectangular enclosure has heaped-stone walls elevated 20 cm to 50 cm above the surrounding ground level.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (4 m by 2.6 m) is situated 14.5 m west of FS7 and 7.2 m northwest of FS4. FS8 is another sub-rectangular, heaped-stone wall enclosure with an open interior. Much of the perimeter wall is flush with the ground surface. A portion of the enclosing wall, however, is prominently elevated.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (3 m by 3 m) is situated 9.3 m west of FS8. This quadrate enclosure appears to have had single-course walls, consisting of upright stones embedded in the ground. These stones project a little above the surface. FS9 has been partly overgrown with grass.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 is situated 10.2 m east of FS1, and is of the same general type of structure as FS5 and FS6. Rather than walls constructed by piling sones up in no set order, the stones of FS10 were laid out in two orderly parallel rows. These stones protrude upwards of 30 cm above ground level. There is an open space around 30 cm in width between the two courses of stones, in which a few dislodged stones have impinged. Between FS6 and FS10 there is a ring of small stones, measuring 90 cm in diameter. The single line of stones making up this ring protrudes a little above the ground surface.

Affiliated sites

DornaRdor sna

A gray granite funerary structure is found at DornaRdor sna, not far from Salung MöndurSa lung mon dur (31° 41.411΄ N. lat. / 83° 56.271΄ E. long. / 4550m). This quadrate enclosure (5.1 m by 6 m) is aligned in the cardinal directions. The highly fragmentary, double-course walls contain stones up to 80 cm in length. These stones are flush with the ground surface or slightly rise above it. Stones that were freed from the structure have been piled up in the middle of it to form a cairn, 1.5 m in height. There are possibly two other funerary structures flanking this enclosure, but virtually nothing is left on the surface to visually inspect.

Gakchen (’Gag chen)

General site characteristics

Gakchen’Gag chen is located in the broad Gakchen’Gag chen valley bottom. The various structures of this substantial funerary site are closely grouped together. Gakchen’Gag chen is open in all directions, with the longest views in the south followed by the east. The terrain is sandy and well drained. Corrals and tent foundations built in the vicinity have heavily impacted the archaeological site. These pastoral structures were probably constructed with stones extracted from the funerary monuments. Fortunately, there are no signs of more recent damage to the site. The site consists of no less than twelve enclosures of various sizes exhibiting single-course, double-course and heaped-stone walls. The funerary structures of Gakchen’Gag chen are made of uncut pieces of variable-length (10 cm to 60 cm long) gray granite. There is a lone granite pillar marking the site as well. There are also minor structural traces spread around Gakchen’Gag chen that were not surveyed.

Oral tradition

According to local sources Gakchen’Gag chen is a site associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Upper sector

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (12.4 m by 13.6 m) is a quadrate enclosure roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. The entire structure is elevated 50 cm to 1 m above the surrounding terrain. The well-built, double-course walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) are partly intact. An east-west partition wall bisects the enclosure into two parts. The south cell is 7.6 m in width and the north cell is 4.2 m wide. Against the central portion of the west wall of the enclosure there is a small tumulus, which may be the remains of some kind of interior structure. Two mani plaques rest on this tumulus. Near the northwest corner of FS1 there is an incomplete subsidiary interior enclosure (1.4 m by 2.5 m), whose perimeter walls contain stones embedded in the ground. Loose stones are scattered all around FS1; probably once an integral part of the structure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (18.3 m 17.5 m) is situated 8 m southeast of FS1. It lies diagonally to FS1 and FS3. This quadrate enclosure is not aligned in the cardinal directions. Parts of all four of its double-course walls (60 cm to 90 cm thick) are intact. FS2 is level with the surrounding terrain or elevated slightly above it. Loose stones obscure much of the structure. In the west corner of the enclosure, walls demarcate a subsidiary interior enclosure (6 m by 7 m).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 10 m east of FS2. FS3 is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 11.6 m (north-south) by 6 m (east-west). This structure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding terrain, and its double-course perimeter walls are around 50 cm thick. These walls may have been more than one vertical course in height. Rubble is strewn all across the enclosure. On the east side of FS3 there is an attached cell of the same design, which measures 10 m (east-west). Much of the east wall of this ancillary cell is missing. Between FS2 and FS3 there is a large piece of granite (1.6 m long by 50 cm wide) lying on the ground. This flat stone is of the type that is sometimes used for the burial chambers of Upper Tibetan tombs.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (3.6 m by 3.9 m) is situated 2 m east of FS3. FS4 is elevated around 50 cm above the circumjacent terrain. Its thick perimeter walls are bereft of any design coherence; stones are merely piled up against an earthen embankment. In the middle of this enclosure, a fixed stone protrudes 30 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (4.2 m by 5.7 m) is situated 2.5 m east of FS4. This structure is elevated a maximum of 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. Its surface is almost completely covered in stones. A course of large stones (up to 80 cm long) runs along the base of the south side of FS5.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 is situated 4 m north of FS3. FS6 is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 13.3 m (east-west) by 4.5 m (north-south). This partially intact enclosure is level with the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (7.1 m by 5.4 m minimum) is situated 2.5 m north of FS6. This is a highly fragmentary enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (3.6 m by 3.3 m) is situated 4.7 m west of FS7. This highly dissolute structure has stones embedded over much of its surface. FS8 may have possessed double-course perimeter walls.

Lower sector

Funerary structures FS9 to FS12 are situated at approximately 5 m lower elevation, in closer proximity to the Gakchen Chu’Gag chen chu.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (dimensions unavailable) is situated 34 m south of FS3. This irregularly shaped enclosure has heaped-stone walls.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (2.5 m by 3 m) is situated 2.4 m east of FS9. The incomplete single-course perimeter contains large upright stones (up to 1 m long), which project as much as 40 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (14 m by 11 m) is situated 10 m south of FS9. This enclosure has been severely damaged. The remaining in situ evidence suggests that it may have had double-course perimeter walls. These walls contain stones flush with the ground surface or which rise above to a maximum height of 30 cm.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 (10m by 13.6 m) is situated 18.4 m southwest of FS11. FS12 does not exhibit coherent walls. Stones are embedded and scattered all across this structure.

Pillar

A lone gray granite pillar (1.1 m [height] by 1.5 m [basal girth]) is found in the lower sector directly below the upper sector funerary structures. This pillar is situated 10 m north of FS9 and 24 m south of FS3. This uncut pyramidal stone is highly eroded and there are small spots of orange climax lichen growing on it. It appears to be an integral part of the funerary site.

Shakdé Möndur (Shag sde mon dur)

General site characteristics

Shakdé MöndurShag sde mon dur is located on the east site of Gakchen’Gag chen, in the region known as PenchéPhan che. The site is open in all directions. Shakdé MöndurShag sde mon dur is found on high, level, gravel-strewn ground, and is surrounded by various basins. The site consists of three enclosures with open interiors, which are constructed of sandstone blocks. Corrals that appear to have a parasitic relationship with ancient funerary structures have come up on the site. There are two corrals that contain the same type of sandstone blocks as the funerary enclosures. In any event, the funerary superstructures do not appear to have been tampered with in recent years. The ShakdéShag sde pastoral camp is occupied during the third lunar month.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Shakdé MöndurShag sde mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3.4 m by 3.6 m) is single-course, quadrate enclosure that is aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter walls are made of variable-length (20 cm to 60 cm long) sandstone blocks, which project as much as 35 cm above the ground surface. Most of the north wall is missing in this specimen.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (3 m by 2.7 m) is of the same design, construction and orientation as FS1. Its perimeter walls contain some pieces of limestone as well as the more common brown sandstone of the site. These variable-length (15 cm to 75 cm long) stones are even with the ground surface or protrude above it to a maximum height of 15 cm.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (3.7 m by 4.8 m) is in much poorer condition than its two counterparts. Its perimeter walls are also single-course and aligned in the cardinal directions. FS3 is made of sandstone blocks 20 cm to 55 cm in length, which project as much as 15 cm above ground level.

Demchok Möndur (Bde mchog mon dur)

General site characteristics

Demchok MöndurBde mchog mon dur is located on the edge of DemchokBde mchog, a largely abandoned border village, on the left side of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valley. The site is situated on the forward flanks of a series of prominences that rise above the valley bottom. The views from Demchok MöndurBde mchog mon dur are restricted to the local stretch of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valley. The terrain is somewhat sloping, rocky and sandy. Demchok MöndurBde mchog mon dur consists of no less than twenty-five funerary structures, most of which have been thoroughly vandalized. These heavily built structures are of significant size and cultural importance. Sadly, in the last few years, they have been almost completely destroyed by looters. The site appears to be comprised of quadrate structures (double-course enclosures?) elevated 50 cm to 1 m above the surrounding ground level. All the structures are built of uncut variable-length pieces of gray granite. Many larger stones (50 cm to 1 m long) were used in their construction. These funerary structures were excavated both recently and in the more distant past. These excavations were almost certainly conducted for the recovery of valuable artifacts. The systematic, large-scale nature of the recent excavations can only have been the work of a highly organized and well-equipped team. The destruction of the site appears to have been carried out openly and with impunity.

Oral tradition

This site appears to be associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

The longer dimension given for each locus below generally corresponds with the direction of the axis of the slope.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (22 m by 6 m) is a conterminous band of highly fragmentary structures. Although there is much rubble, only the smallest traces of intact walls have survived. Higher up, on the lower flanks of the hill upon which Khargok Dorjé YudrönmaMkhar gog rdo rje g.yu sgron ma (A-124) sits, are traces of what appears to be a large funerary structure.

The remaining structures of the site are situated around 4270 m elevation:

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (13 m by 5.5 m) is situated 9 m southeast of FS1. FS2 has been reduced to an amorphous rocky dispersion.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (4.4 m by 6 m) is situated on another prominence. Heavily damaged through excavation, there is a stone-filled pit (3 m across) in the middle of the structure surrounded by heaps of stones. The lack of soil cover and weathering indicate that this pit was recently excavated.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (12.4 m by 7.6 m) is situated on the next prominence to the east. This specimen has been damaged almost beyond recognition and is now nothing more than a zone of depressions and a stone-filled pit. In the vicinity there is also an excavation (4 m across) filled with loose stones and ringed by piles of earth. These piles of earth exhibit no appreciable signs of erosion.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (25.8 m by 8 m) is a conterminous dispersion consisting of heaps of stones interspersed with pits that exhibit no signs of erosion.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (17.3 m by 4.5 m) is marked by pits and piles of stones. One of the pits is lined with a tiny wall fragment composed of stones, 10 cm to 40 cm in length. This wall appears to have made up one end of the FS6 structure/structures. In close proximity to FS6, a trench (4.7 m by 1.8 m) was recently dug and the excavated stones thrown back into it. This trench was clearly dug to survey subsurface remains. Its creation indicates a good deal of sophistication on the part of the grave robbers.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (37.2 m by 6 m) is a large dispersion with both old and new excavations. Depressions and piles of stones mark FS7.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (27.6 m by 5.5 m) appears to consist of three discrete quadrate structures.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (22.5 m by 6.2 m and 7.2 m) consists of two discrete structures.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (57 m long) is comprised of at least four discrete structural elements. On the north or low end of the dispersion there is a recently dug trench (4 m by 1 m), which has been refilled with stones. There is also a large stony dispersion with no recognizable monuments. Another structural element consists of two highly fragmentary interconnected quadrate enclosures. Finally, there is a large stone depression that was uniformly excavated to a depth of about 1 m.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (24.8 m by 5 m) is an obscured dispersion that may have consisted of a single structure. There are no signs of recent excavation.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 is an ambiguous dispersion. Nearby, a pit (5 m by 3.8 m) was recently excavated to a depth of 1.2 m. Another pit in the vicinity (3.3 m by 4.9 m) is 1.5 m deep. These pits do not reveal any traces of subsurface structures.

Funerary Structure FS13

Funerary structure FS13 (14 m by 5 m) is a rocky dispersion at which excavations have recently taken place.

Funerary Structure FS14

Funerary structure FS14 (28.4 m long) consists of several structures from which stones have been extracted wholesale. The largest of these structures (11 m by 15 m) has an eroded depression in the middle of it, the remains of an old excavation.

Kolok (Ko logs)

General site characteristics

KolokKo logs is located in an eponymous locale on the left side of the Senggé TsangpoSeng ge gtsang po valley. The site occupies a sandy flat in the valley bottom. On a formation at the edge of the valley is Kolog KharKo logs mkhar (A-125), the ruins of an archaic stronghold. KolokKo logs consists of five double-course enclosures, which are not aligned in the cardinal directions. These enclosures were primarily built of unhewn light-colored pieces of granite of variable length. The enclosures are all very fragmentary, which is probably linked to the construction of an old pastoral camp at the site (it appears to contain stones extracted from the funerary structures). The site is now endangered again by the reestablishment of a pastoral camp by two families, which recently emigrated here from GyamukRgya smug.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (7 m by 4.7 m), a quadrate enclosure, has small in situ fragments of double-course walls (50 cm thick). This structure is elevated about 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. For the most part, the stones used in construction of FS1 appear to have been laid flat on the ground. On the northwest side of the enclosure there is a large square upright stone (50 cm long).

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (6.4 m by 11 m) now consists of just two neatly-built double-course wall segments (50 cm thick). The upright stones in these walls project 10 cm to 30 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (7.8 m by 6.8 m) has parts of all four walls intact. This enclosure was divided into two cells. Its double-course upright stone walls are of the same design as FS2.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4 m across) had been reduced to tiny fragments of upright stone walls of the type found in FS2 and FS3.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 consists of a dispersion of double-course wall fragments that stretch over a transection of 21 m. Several discrete enclosures may have comprised FS5. The walls are composed of parallel courses of stones that project prominently above ground level (up to a height of 30 cm).

Rakder (Rag sder)

General site characteristics

RakderRag sder is located in an effluent of the Domar TsangpoRdo dmar gtsang po. The views up (northeast) and down (southwest) the valley from the site are open. The other two directions are closely bound by the ridges that embrace the valley. The terrain is level, sandy and gravelly, and studded with grasses. The RakderRag sder site consists of a large quadrate funerary enclosure, which is generally aligned in the intermediate directions. This alignment appears to conform to the orientation of the valley. RakderRag sder is situated in a northern part of RutokRu thog that does not appear to have archaic residential structures. Rather, there are a number of rock art sites in this region (I-25, I-26, I-27, I-28), suggesting that it may have been inhabited on a seasonal basis, perhaps during hunting expeditions (some of the local petroglyphs feature hunting compositions). As with the funerary sites of RecoRe co (D-91, D-92, D-93, D-94, D-95, D-96), those who built and used RakderRag sder may have resided in outlying strongholds (such as A-18, A-40, A-107). In any case, the site must have catered to an elite group of ancient society.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Parts of all four perimeter walls of the enclosure (19.2 m by 14.7 m) are intact. This enclosure is elevated 30 cm to 80 cm above the circumjacent terrain. The very substantial, double-course perimeter walls (70 cm to 1.1 m thick) are primarily composed of sandstone slabs laid flat. These variable-length slabs (up to 1 m long) are stacked to create walls that are two to five vertical courses in height (15 cm to 25 cm high). There are also a few slabs laid edgewise in the ground to form the double-course perimeter walls. There is an east-west oriented wall that extends 5 m beyond the west corner of the enclosure. This wall fragment is of an unclear design. There is also a curved wall that extends 5.5 m beyond the south corner of the enclosure. This tail-like wall extension is primarily composed of upright slabs, up to 90 cm in length, which project as much as 45 cm above ground level. The interior of the enclosure is devoid of structural elements, but there are some stones strewn around it. Some stones have been stacked up on the west side of the enclosure.

A quadrate enclosure, made up of four upright slabs, is situated 13.8 m northwest of the big enclosure. Although these four slabs have worn or damaged edges, they still fit together quite closely. The four slabs are 70 cm, 60 cm, 65 cm and 60 cm in length. They project 10 cm to 15 cm above ground level. This structure is liable to have had complementary funerary ritual functions.

Draktsuk (Brag gtsug)

General site characteristics

DraktsukBrag gtsug is located below an eponymous sandstone outcrop situated on the east side of the mouth of a side valley, above its confluence with an effluent of the Domar TsangpoRdo dmar gtsang po. The site is situated in the same valley as RakderRag sder (D-114), a nearby funerary site. The views up (northeast) and down (southwest) the valley are open. The terrain is gravelly and gradually declines in a northerly direction. DraktsukBrag gtsug consists of four funerary enclosures, three of which are large and of a complex design. These monuments must have catered to the mortuary requirements of elite components of ancient society. As no permanent archaic residential installations have been discovered in this region, DraktsukBrag gtsug may possibly have been used as a funerary site by those who occupied outlying strongholds (such as A-18, A-40, A-107).

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (25.3 m by 10.4 m) is a rocky dispersion that appears to comprise one highly fragmentary enclosure. This enclosure exhibits a complex design with a number of interior structural features. Certain parts of FS1 are elevated as much as 50 cm above the adjoining terrain, while other parts are level with the ground surface. Towards the middle of the southeast side of the enclosure there are five large upright slabs planted in the ground. These slabs form a single line, and are 45 cm to 80 cm in length and project 22 cm to 50 cm above ground level. Beside them are three adjacent upright slabs that form a quadrate structure with one open side. The three slabs of this structure are between 65 cm and 90 cm in length and rise 10 cm to 20 cm above ground level. Near the center of FS1 are the faint remains of another structure that possibly marks the location of a subsurface tomb. A southeast-northwest oriented wall of smaller flat slabs seems to bisect FS1. The middle portion of this wall merges with the central structure. There are also a few upright slabs rooted near the southwest end of FS1. The northeast perimeter wall course contains some upright slabs as well. Three slabs (each 85 cm long), placed parallel to and in very close proximity to one another, are planted next to the northeast perimeter wall, perpendicular to its course. Likewise, near the north corner of FS1 there is a single slab (1 m long, 20 cm projection from the surface) that is set perpendicular to the perimeter wall course. There are a few other upright slabs planted in different places of the interior of FS1, which formed structural elements of unknown configurations. There are also some upright slabs planted here and there outside the confines of FS1. These may be remnants of ancillary funerary structures.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (13.6 m by 9 m) is situated 90 m east of FS1, at the foot of an enclosing ridge. Very little of this quadrate double-course upright slab-wall enclosure has endured. A few slabs in the perimeter walls are still erect but most of them have collapsed. The largest upright slab still in place is 1 m in length and protrudes 50 cm from the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5.1 m by 11m) is situated 95 m west of FS1. Some of this extremely degraded structure is slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. No coherent walls have endured in this enclosure. A small number of in situ upright slabs, fixed in the ground, may have been part of its interior structural features.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 46 m northeast of FS2 and 65 m west of FS1. Unlike the other three enclosures of the site, this smaller rectangular specimen is aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 1.7 m (north-south) by 2.8 m (east-west). FS4 is constructed of smaller slabs that were placed edgewise in the ground along the perimeter. They have very little protrusion above ground level. On the north and east sides of the enclosure there are double-course upright slab-wall fragments (around 30 cm thick). Two upright slabs near the middle of the interior appear to make up the two remaining sides of a small quadrate structure.

Nakgyam (Nag gyam)

General site characteristics

NakgyamNag gyam is located on the west side of the Bupzhung TsangpoSbub gzhung gtsang po valley, in a series of interconnected benches and hollows that rise above the valley floor. The site has long views to the east. Most other views from this sheltered location are constrained by the local topography. NakgyamNag gyam consists of not less than six funerary structures built of unshaped light-colored metamorphic rocks (?), which are generally 20 cm to 80 cm in length. In addition to more minor structural traces, major structures may have been overlooked during the survey because of the large and diffuse nature of the NakgyamNag gyam site. Also, these superficial funerary structures are not so easy to recognize among the naturally occurring rocky convolutions of the site. NakgyamNag gyam was well suited to funerary activities, as this location is not particularly conducive to pastoral, agricultural or settlement activities.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, NakgyamNag gyam is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m by 1.5 m) is situated on a wide bench above the valley floor. It is the most southerly specimen at NakgyamNag gyam. FS1 is a fragmentary single-course rectangular enclosure whose perimeter walls are flush with the surface or which rise above it to a height of 20 cm. Small stones are scattered over the enclosure, many of which are partially submerged.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (12 m by 13 m) is a highly dissolute round enclosure. It is not clear whether the perimeter had orderly wall courses, heaped-stone walls or a combination thereof. The interior is free of structural elements save for a small pile of stones in the middle.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (12 m by 13 m) is situated 10.5 m northwest of FS2 in the same small hollow. This highly deteriorated, sub-rectangular enclosure appears to have had a heaped-stone wall perimeter. A few stones are strewn around the interior of the enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (17 m by 14 m) is situated immediately north of FS2 and FS3 in another hollow. FS4 appears to have consisted of two interconnected irregularly shaped cells. Most of this highly fragmentary enclosure exhibits a heaped-stone wall perimeter. There is also a double-course wall segment (8 m long, 1 m thick) of upright stones on the east side of the structure.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (17 m by 13 m) is an ovoid enclosure with both double-course and heaped-stone walls. On the uphill side of the structure, the perimeter is comprised of a random-rubble dry-stone wall (60 cm high) that was built into the side of the hollow. The interior of FS5 is free of structural elements. Mostly larger stones were used to construct FS5.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 occupies another hollow. This structure is elevated about 50 cm above ground level. Its perimeter consists of double-course walls (around 60 cm thick). The south wall of FS6 is the most intact. The interior of this structure is almost completely sheathed in stones with no ordered stonework discernable. FS6 (6 m by 6.3 m) has two sides that are indented to create a modified L-shaped plan. These indentations in the walls are 1.7 m and 2.6 m in length.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (15 m by 9 m), a sub-rectangular enclosure, is situated 11 m north of FS6. This hard to recognize heaped-stone wall structure was built with rocks up to 1 m in length. The perimeter walls are 50 cm to 1.2 m in height. The interior of the enclosure is somewhat depressed.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 is a sub-rectangular enclosure from which many stones have been extracted. A contemporary charnel ground (durtrö) is located in the vicinity, and the removal of stones from FS8 may be related to this cultural feature.

Chutiku Mönkhang (Chu thig’u mon khang)

General site characteristics

Chutiku MönkhangChu thig’u mon khang is located on a high shelf in the Gegyé LhomaDge rgyas lho ma region. It is situated directly south of Dawen Rolpa KyadünDa dben rol pa skya bdun, a lofty and important territorial deity (yüllha) in the adjacent ZhungpaGzhung pa region. A rocky ridge encloses the north side of the site, while the views are quite open to the east and south. The terrain is fairly level, sandy and gravelly. Chutiku MönkhangChu thig’u mon khang consists of two large heaped-stone wall funerary enclosures. The perimeter walls are composed of uncut blocky pieces of white granite (10 cm to 80 cm long). The two enclosures appear to have interiors devoid of structural elements. Like other sites of this typology, the perimeter walls have undergone a considerable degree of subsidence and dissolution. The many dislodged stones on the site indicate that these funerary enclosures were considerably more substantial than they now appear.

The relative locations of Chutiku MönkhangChu thig’u mon khang and the Dawen Rolpa KyadünDa dben rol pa skya bdun range (maximum elevation 6282 m) may have had eschatological significance for the builders and users of the archaeological site. Perhaps Dawen Rolpa KyadünDa dben rol pa skya bdun was seen as a protector of the funerary monuments and/or of those interred in them. The range may also have functioned as the celestial final resting place of the dead.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Chutiku MönkhangChu thig’u mon khang was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary sructure FS1

Funerary sructure FS1 (30 m by 17 m) is comprised of five interconnected ovoid cells. Each cell has a slightly depressed interior. On the south side of FS1 there are two large upright stones embedded in the ground. These stones have a north-south alignment. What may be the remains of another cell are found immediately northwest of FS1.

Funerary sructure FS2

Funerary sructure FS2 (13.4 m by 16 m) is situated 11.7 m east of FS1. This sub-rectangular enclosure has a depressed interior. The north side of the structure is set 50 cm below the adjoining slope. Immediately southwest of FS2 are the vestiges of a wall that may have been part of another cell. There are also minor structural remains in the vicinity.

Tsanyer Marmbur Mönkhang (Tsha gnyer dmar ’bur mon khang)

General site characteristics

Tsanyer Marmbur MönkhangTsha gnyer dmar ’bur mon khang is located in the Gegyé LhomaDge rgyas lho ma region. The site is situated in a valley bottom, on the left side of the stream that flows through it. The terrain is level, sandy and gravelly. Tsanyer Marmbur MönkhangTsha gnyer dmar ’bur mon khang consists of a single heavily disturbed, quadrate funerary mound (bangso).

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Tsanyer Marmbur MönkhangTsha gnyer dmar ’bur mon khang was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

The funerary mound (11.5 m by 5 m) is elevated 30 cm to 1.2 m above the surrounding terrain. It is not well aligned in the cardinal directions. No coherent wall segments have survived. This tumulus appears to have had double-course walls that ran along the rim of the mound. Smaller stones are strewn all across its surface. Reportedly, many stones were extracted from the structure during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, in order to build retaining walls for an agricultural project. This project, to grow grain, was an abject failure. The fields that were tilled lie near the tumulus. Just below the northeast side (side facing the valley’s watercourse) of the mound there is an irregularly shaped dark-colored, metamorphic (?) pillar, 40 cm in height. On a higher bench in the vicinity there is a corral, which is said to have been constructed from a “mönkhang,” dismantled for its stones (32° 08.944΄ N. lat. / 82° 44.460΄ E. long.). No signs of this tomb are discernable.

Doring Barma (Rdo ring bar ma)

General site characteristics

Doring BarmaRdo ring bar ma is located on the northwest margin of the Sekhor LhomaBse ’khor lho ma basin. To the west, the site is closely bound by the ridge that encloses the basin. There are wide views in all other directions. The well-drained terrain is nearly level, sandy and gravelly. Doring BarmaRdo ring bar ma consists of a large funerary mound (bangso) and at least one other funerary structure. In close proximity there is a shepherd’s camp with a few small corrals, which is occupied in the springtime. Many of the walls of the funerary structures were dismantled in order to build this camp. Uncut beige and reddish volcanic (?) stones of variable length (15 cm to 60 cm long) were used to construct the archaeological structures. Stones are scattered all around the site, detritus from the funerary monuments. There is a spring in the vicinity, a fairly unusual occurrence at ancient funerary sites. The name suggests that at one time there was one or more standing stones at Doring BarmaRdo ring bar ma, but evidence of their existence was not discovered. Another seasonal drokpa camp in the area known as Doring LhomaRdo ring lho ma may also have had menhirs, but no archaeological remains were detected there. On the other hand, at Doring JangmaRdo ring byang ma (C-5), another locale in the area, there are two isolated pillars.214

Oral tradition

Although the structures of Doring BarmaRdo ring bar ma are called “möndurMon dur” by local residents, their function is no longer clear to them.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is a large quadrate mound aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 14 m (north-south) by 15.5 m (east-west), and is elevated 1.5 m to 2 m above the surrounding terrain. In the middle of the top of the tumulus there is a stone-filled depression. This shows that, at some time in the past, FS1 was opened by vandals. Just below the rim of the mound there are double-course wall fragments (around 40 cm thick). Such walls must have lined each side of the structure. The longest of these double-course wall fragments (2.3 m) runs along the west rim of the structure. There is also a small fragment of a herringbone wall course on one flank of the mound, indicating that it once boasted extensive and elaborate stonework. Below the north and west sides of the mound are remnants of slab and block walls. These constitute ancillary funerary structures whose configuration is no longer discernable. The longest of these outlying wall segments (3 m long, 40 cm thick) is found to the north of the mound. This north-south oriented, double-course wall is composed of blocks laid flat on the ground. A few old plaques inscribed with the mani mantra have been placed on the mound. Fortunately, FS1 no longer appears to be mined for stones.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (3.8 m by 3.7 m) is situated 43 m west of FS1 at a slightly higher elevation. This quadrate, double-course enclosure is also aligned in the compass points. Some parts of FS2 are level with the ground surface while other parts are elevated as much as 50 cm above the adjacent ground. Only small fragments of the double-course perimeter walls have survived.

Radra Khordo Möndur (Ra gra ’khor rdo mon dur)

General site characteristics

Radra Khordo MöndurRa gra ’khor rdo mon dur is located in the Radra KhordoRa gra ’khor rdo valley, which is sandwiched between Gopuk TsoMgo phug mtsho and the great meridian range to the east. The site is situated on the left side of the valley on a well-drained sandy and rock-strewn bench. This wide bench overlooks the marshy valley bottom. A ridge encloses the site to the south, while the views in other directions are open. Radra Khordo MöndurRa gra ’khor rdo mon dur consists of no less than eight small funerary enclosures. They are constructed of an uncut, purplish metamorphic (?) rock of variable length. Stones up to 1.3 m in length are scattered around the site. All the funerary structures have been heavily disturbed and each may have been opened. The destruction of the site appears to have occurred well in the past. There are no fully intact wall segments at the site. Perimeter walls have been reduced to heaps of stones, which are elevated as much as 30 cm to 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. The few stones still in situ suggest that these walls formed quadrate or sub-rectangular enclosures, some of which were probably aligned in the cardinal directions. They were either of double-course construction or built without any particular order or regimen. For the most part, these walls appear to have surrounded open interiors. There are possibly other funerary structures at Radra Khordo MöndurRa gra ’khor rdo mon dur, which are too highly degraded to be positively identified.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Radra Khordo MöndurRa gra ’khor rdo mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon or Mön NakpoMon nag po.

Site elements

Funerary structures FS1 to FS4 form an east west oriented row:
Funerary structure FS1 (4 m by 3.3 m).
Funerary structure FS2 (4 m by 3.7 m) is situated 8 m west of FS1.
Funerary structure FS3 (4.5 m by 3.5 m) is situated 22 m west of FS2. FS3 is the highest elevation specimen at the site.
Funerary structure FS4 (3.5 m by 3.5 m) is situated 8.2 m west of FS3.
Funerary structure FS5 (4 m by 4.7 m) is situated 5.2 m south or upslope of FS4.
Funerary structure FS6 (3 m by 3.7 m) is situated 7.7 m southeast of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 (4 m by 3.5 m) is situated 22.5 m south of FS6.
Funerary structure FS8 (2 m by 2.3 m) is situated 23 m south of FS7. FS8 is the most easterly funerary structure at the site. There are three slabs, partly exposed, in the middle of the structure, which may represent an interior structural element.

Dungri Rachung Möndur (Dung ri ra chung mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Dungri Rachung Möndur
English equivalent: Conch Mountain Small Enclosures Mön Tombs
Site number: D-121
Site typology: II.2a, II.2b
Elevation: 4530 m
Administrative location (township): Mamik
Administrative location (county): Gertsé
Survey expedition: TUE
Survey date: September 26, 2005
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
Maps: UTRS III, UTRS VII, HAS A3
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General site characteristics

Dungri Rachung MöndurDung ri ra chung mon dur is located on the north side of the wedge-shaped Lakkor TsoLag skor mtsho. The site is found on a well-drained sandy and gravelly plain and is bound in the north by a ridge. From the site there are open views to the south, east and west. There are six funerary enclosures at Dungri Rachung MöndurDung ri ra chung mon dur, exhibiting single-course, double-course and multiple-course perimeter walls. These enclosures have open interiors. They were built primarily using uncut pieces of blue-gray limestone, 10 cm to 60 cm in length.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Dungri Rachung MöndurDung ri ra chung mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon. The site is considered potentially harmful (ka nyenpo).

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is a trapezoidal enclosure that was built on slightly elevated ground. Its two parallel walls (north and south) are aligned east and west. The south wall is 3 m long and the north wall is 2.3 m long. The single-course perimeter walls contain stones placed edgewise into the ground. These stones (up to 35 cm long) project as much as 15 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is also found on slightly elevated ground. This multiple-course, quadrate enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 9 m (north-south) by 11.2 m (east-west). Most sections of the four walls (80 cm to 90 cm thick) are intact, but they are highly eroded. Many tiny stones, as well as those up to 60 cm in length, were laid side by side in order to make up the breadth of the perimeter walls. These stones are even with the ground surface or rise above it as much as 20 cm.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 9.7 m south of FS2 at slightly lower elevation. FS3 consists of a fairly complex network of walls that are more or less aligned in the cardinal directions. The mostly smaller, upright stones of the FS3 walls are even with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm. Bounding the north and south sides of FS3 enclosure are double-course walls (around 80 cm thick). The fragmentary south wall is currently 13.3 m in length (its original length is unclear) and the highly fragmentary north wall is now 10 m in length. In the east half of the south wall, only one course of stones has endured. The enclosure is subdivided into two quadrate cells. The west cell runs the full length between the north and south walls of FS3. It measures 6.1 m (north-south) by 3.6 m (east-west). The east wall of the west enclosure is of single-course composition, while its west wall is double-course (around 80 cm thick). The east cell (3.5 m by 3.8 m) is situated 4 m to the east. This subsidiary enclosure is contained well within the outer north and south walls of the enclosure. The east cell has three single-course walls, while its west wall is double-course (around 90 cm thick).

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated 17 m east of FS3. This highly degraded structure appears to have been made up of at least two interconnected enclosures, as revealed by intersecting wall fragments. An east-west wall segment is 3.6 m in length and a north-south wall segment is 2.6 m in length. The stones in these walls are level with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 15 cm.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated 26.5 m northeast of FS4. This single-course (?) quadrate perimeter measures 2.5 m (north-south) by 2 m (east-west). The perimeter walls of FS5 are made up of relatively larger stones (up to 50 cm long), which project as much as 20 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (10.2 m by 8 m) is situated near the winter pastoral settlement of Dungri RachungDung ri ra chung. This is a single-course quadrate enclosure.

Ritil Tsuk Möndur (Ri mthil gtsug mon dur)

General site characteristics

Ritil Tsuk MöndurRi mthil gtsug mon dur overlooks the Somé TsangpoBso med gtsang po, which is located a few hundred meters to the southwest. The Somé TsangpoBso med gtsang po is the longest river that drains into Lakkor TsoLag skor mtsho. To the northeast, the site is bound by the mountain known as Ritil TsukRi mthil gtsug. The most open vista is found in the northwest. The terrain is very sandy and dotted with sand dunes, which serve to help camouflage the three quadrate funerary mounds of Ritil Tsuk MöndurRi mthil gtsug mon dur. These smaller mounds are highly deteriorated and are not aligned in the cardinal directions. It appears that stonewalls bordered all four sides of the top of each mound.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Ritil Tsuk MöndurRi mthil gtsug mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m by 3 m) is a highly eroded mound and the most easterly specimen at the site. It is elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the surrounding terrain. Some sections of walls, two vertical courses of stones in height, have persisted just below the top of the structure. They lie exposed, the earth around them having eroded away.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4.5 m by 8 m) is situated 1.8 m northwest of FS1. This largest and best preserved mound is elevated 1.5 m to 2.5 m above the surrounding terrain. The double-course wall that lined the east rim of the mound is still partially intact. This wall (around 80 cm thick) contains uncut variable-length (10 cm to 70 cm long) pieces of light-colored limestone and conglomerate. It is up to 60 cm in height and composed of three layers of stones. Small bits of the same type of wall line the south rim of the structure. There is also a small wall fragment on the north side of FS2. Some stones are partly submerged here and there in the mound, and grass grows on it.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5 m by 3 m) is situated 120 m west of FS2 at slightly lower elevation. It is elevated 1 m to 2 m above the surrounding terrain. There are no coherent wall segments remaining on this highly eroded mound. A few stones that were part and parcel of the walls bounding the top of the structure are still in situ. Another possible funerary mound is found some tens of meters northwest of FS3, but the structural evidence is inconclusive. This possible specimen is located closer to the Somé TsangpoBso med gtsang po on rolling sandy ground, which is elevated about 20 m above the river.

Pöri Möndur (Spos ri mon dur)

General site characteristics

Pöri MöndurSpos ri mon dur is located on the northeast side of Lakkor TsoLag skor mtsho. The site was built on the lower southeast flank of a rocky mount called PöriSpos ri. A series of rocky shelves rise above the old Lakkor TsoLag skor mtsho basin (now a series of gravel flats and bars). These shelves terminate at the foot of a chain of outcrops and cliffs that constitute the upper reaches of PöriSpos ri. The site is situated on the highest of the shelves, which is perched about 100 m above the lake basin. Four enclosures that appear to have a funerary function were constructed on this rock- and gravel-strewn shelf. The perimeter walls of the enclosures are of the heaped-stone type, some portions of which are so well-developed as to approximate double-course wall types. The orderly stacking of masonry was facilitated by the angular faces of the stones. All four of these enclosures have interiors free of structural elements. They are constructed of uncut dark-colored metamorphic (?) rocks 10 cm to 1 m in length.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Pöri MöndurSpos ri mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (dimensions are unavailable) is the easternmost structure at the site. This enclosure is irregularly shaped and subdivided into two cells: east and west. The walls of FS1 are around 1 m in thickness, some parts of which appear to have been quite well built. Nonetheless, these walls have undergone much dissolution. The north wall of the enclosure is somewhat depressed below the uphill slope, while the exterior side of the southwest wall is elevated up to 1.2 m above the downhill slope. The interior side of the southwest wall rises to 50 cm in height. There is a gap in the east wall, which may be the remains of a purposefully built opening. A subsidiary cell may be located on the southwest end of the west cell.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4 m by 3.2 m) is situated 3 m south/downhill of FS1.The walls of this enclosure are 60 cm to 1 m in thickness. The upper/northwest wall of this sub-rectangular enclosure is set 30 cm below the slope. Conversely, the lower southeast wall is slightly elevated above the slope. As a result of this compensation, the interior of the enclosure is level. Stones are scattered around the interior of FS2.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (9 m by 6 m) is situated 61 m southwest of FS1. The upper or north wall of this irregularly shaped enclosure has been destroyed by the action of water. Although most sections of the enclosing walls appear to be of the heaped-stone type, there are also portions built in a more orderly manner with stones laid in vertical courses. The north side of FS3 is even with the slope, while its south exterior wall rises 1.5 m to 1.7 m above the slope. The interior of the enclosure is level. Immediately south of FS3 there is a double-course wall fragment (3 m long, 70 cm thick). The upright stones of this wall protrude 10 cm to 30 cm above ground level. Such walls are a signature structure of many Upper Tibetan mortuary sites.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (5.7 m by 4.8 m) is situated 23 m southwest of FS3. Most parts of the perimeter walls of this sub-rectangular enclosure are still intact. These walls are around 80 cm thick and rise at least 30 cm above the interior of the structure. A significant portion of the perimeter walls display an orderly design. These coherent sections are comprised of discrete layers of stones, each of which is composed of courses of multiple stones laid abreast of one another. These better-built wall sections reveal considerable masonry skill on the part of the builders. The north side of FS4 is set deeply below the slope, while the exterior of the south wall is elevated 50 cm to 70 cm above the slope. The north wall of FS4, if it ever existed, was destroyed. It would have been built against a rock outcrop that adjoins the balance of the structure. The west wall has a maximum interior height of 1.1 m. There appear to be naturally occurring boulders incorporated into the south and west walls of the enclosure.

Kyipzhung (Skyibs gzhung)

General site characteristics

KyipzhungSkyibs gzhung is located on the northern edge of a vast basin that lies in both the NaktsangNag tshang and NgariMnga’ ris regions. The site has sweeping views in all directions except in the north. The sloping, sandy terrain is spread with rocks and sparse grasses. KyipzhungSkyibs gzhung consists of at least four structures that appear to be funerary in nature. They are built of variable-length (15 cm to 1.1 m long) bluish and beige metamorphic (?) rocks. In the sandy terrain, these enclosures have become highly degraded. The link road that traverses along the north side of the basin cuts right through KyipzhungSkyibs gzhung.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m across) is a circular mound of earth and stones. It is elevated 1 m on the uphill side and 50 cm on the downhill flank. FS1 has no coherent wall segments.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 23 m southwest of FS1. This quadrate mound is oriented in the cardinal directions, and measures 5.5 m (east-west) by 6.8 m (north-south). It is elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the surrounding terrain. On the north rim of the structure a coherent wall fragment 1.7 m in length has endured. This wall contains stones laid flat. Many other stones are embedded on the flanks and rim of FS2, but they no longer form integral structures. The highly eroded top of the mound is sandy and has a little grass growing on it.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated 64 m west of FS2. This enclosure with its superficial double-course perimeter walls is generally aligned in the compass points. The main enclosure measures 11.5 m (east-west) by 19 m (north-south). FS3 has no north wall. The perimeter walls (60 cm to 90 cm thick) contain variable-length (15 cm to 80 cm long) stones that were both laid flat and placed edgewise into the ground. The east and west walls of FS3 follow the axis of the slope and are moderately inclined. Adjacent to the inner side of the east wall, 2.5 m north of the south wall, there is an inner enclosure (4 m by 5 m) of the same type of construction. This structure may possibly mark the location of a burial. The upright stones of the inner enclosure protrude as much as 40 cm above the ground surface.

A subsidiary enclosure (5.7 m by 6 m) is situated on the south side of the main enclosure. The link road edges against this sub-rectangular enclosure. Its disintegrated perimeter walls contain both flat and upright stones. On the opposite side of the road from this subsidiary enclosure there appear to be the remains of a smaller but similarly constructed enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 is situated immediately east of FS3. This enclosure appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. FS4 is level with the north/uphill slope and is elevated around 1 m above the south/downhill slope. This enclosure has a south wall (9 m long) and a west wall (7 m long), as well as vestiges of a north wall. None of these walls reveal any coherent stonework.

Tsitsi Mönré Tangka (Rtsi rtsid mon ra’i thang kha)

General site characteristics

Tsitsi Mönré TangkaRtsi rtsid mon ra’i thang kha is located in a valley system through which the road passes that links Uru Tso’U ru mtsho to GanglungGangs lung. It is likely that the tsitsi part of the site name refers to goats, but this could not be confirmed. Light-colored limestone formations border the east side of the site, while a broad plain opens to the west. From the site, the northern and southern directions are also quite open. The terrain is well drained, gravelly and very gradually tapers down towards the east. Tsitsi Mönré TangkaRtsi rtsid mon ra’i thang kha can be divided into two sectors: lower/east (dominated by a huge enclosure and a number of more minor examples) and upper/west (23 enclosures). There are also minor structural remains dispersed around the site that were not surveyed. All structures of Tsitsi Mönré TangkaRtsi rtsid mon ra’i thang kha are constructed of unshaped pieces of variable-length, light-colored limestone.

Oral tradition

According to one local drokpa interviewed, Tsitsi Mönré TangkaRtsi rtsid mon ra’i thang kha is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site Elements

East Sector

Giant Enclosure

The east sector is dominated by a gigantic, double-course funerary enclosure that is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. This structure is 103 m in length (east-west), making it the largest funerary enclosure surveyed to date. The east wall is 37 m long and the west wall is 28 m long. There are right angle bends (approximately 3.5 m long) in both the north and south walls, 23 m east of the west wall, which account for the difference in the width of the east and west sides of the structure. The double-course and multiple-course perimeter walls (around 70 cm thick) are composed of uncut, variable-length (up to 70 cm long) pieces of light-colored limestone. Some sections of the perimeter walls are of superficial construction, consisting of blocky stones embedded in the ground. Many of these stones project up to 35 cm above the ground surface. Other sections (particularly on the east and north sides of the enclosure) consist of up to five vertical courses of stones, producing walls up to 30 cm in height. The east wall of the enclosure is elevated about 50 cm above the adjoining slope. There is an opening in the east wall, 1.7 m in width. This opening begins 14 m from the south corner of the enclosure, and is therefore not very well centered. Most of the interior of the enclosure is devoid of structural elements. However, near the west end of the interior, there are faint rocky dispersions of unknown function. Orange climax lichen grows on the walls of the giant enclosure.

Group of Three Enclosures

Approximately 50 m south of the giant enclosure there are three well-defined squarish funerary enclosures. These enclosures are generally aligned in the cardinal directions and form an east-west row. Their not very coherent, double-course perimeter walls (around 40 cm thick) are composed of stones (10 cm to 50 cm long) embedded in the ground surface. There are also wall sections comprised of stones that probably formed two or three vertical courses (50 cm maximum height). These three enclosures have open interiors. From east to west, they have the following dimensions:

Funerary structure FS1 (3.5 m by 4 m).
Funerary structure FS2 (4.5 m by 5 m) is situated 7.5 m west of FS1.
Funerary structure FS3 (4.3 m by 4 m) is situated 8 m west of FS2.

Minor Parallel Structures

Farther west, beginning 20 m south of the giant enclosure, there are two parallel lines of minor enclosures. These two rows are oriented north-south, but they are not very straight. Each structure in a row is spaced 7.5 m to 9 m apart. The east row (18 m long) contains 7 structures and the shorter west row has four structures. These enclosures (80 cm to 1 m across) are sub-rectangular in form and have single-course perimeter walls. The stones in the perimeter walls are flush with the ground surface or slightly protrude above it. The interiors are variously open or covered in stones. Between the east row and FS3 there is an isolated specimen of the same construction. These structures can tentatively be identified as the to of the BönBon tradition; minor ritual constructions of diverse (including funerary) functions (see F-3).

North Enclosure Group

There are also several enclosures north of the giant enclosure. These structures appear to have had double-course perimeter walls, but they all suffer from considerable levels of degradation.

Funerary structure FS4 (2.8 m by 3 m) is situated 22 m north of the indentation in the north wall of the giant enclosure. This square enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions and has an open interior. Its perimeter walls are flush with the ground surface.
Funerary structures FS5, FS6 and FS7 are quadrate structures:
Funerary structure FS5 (3.6 m across) is situated 54 m north of the indentation in the north wall of the giant enclosure. FS5 is missing its west wall. Stones extracted from this structure lie in a pile beside it.
Funerary structure FS6 (3.2 m across) is situated 20 m east of FS5. It has no north wall.
Funerary structure FS7 (3 m across) is situated 19 m east of FS6. It has no north wall.

Tripartite Enclosure

A large enclosure is found 17 m north of the east side of the giant enclosure. This uniquely designed enclosure is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 28.5 m (north-south) by 25 m (east-west). The design of the perimeter walls is no longer very clear but they do not appear to have been very substantially built. There appear to have been parallel outer and inner walls on the north and south sides of the enclosure. The inner walls have been nearly effaced. Inside the outer enclosure there are three subsidiary enclosures that are symmetrically arrayed. These long and narrow rectangular structures are also aligned in the cardinal directions. They possess single-course perimeter walls composed of stones up to 45 cm in length, which are embedded in the substrate. These stones are flush with the ground surface or rise above it to a maximum height of 15 cm. The largest of the three subsidiary enclosures is set in the very middle of the outer enclosure. It measures 12 m (east-west) by 1.8 m (north-south). On the east end of the largest subsidiary enclosure there is a band (about 2 m long) of tightly knit stones embedded in the ground. The other two subsidiary enclosures measure approximately 8 m (north-south) by 1.8 m (east-west). They are situated 2 m east of the larger subsidiary enclosure and are aligned at right angles to it. There is a gap of 2.6 m between the two smaller specimens. The two smaller enclosures also have bands of stones covering the ground surface on their facing ends. In the east wall of the outer enclosure there seems to be an opening, which is aligned with the gap between the two smaller subsidiary enclosures. The two smaller subsidiary enclosures appear to merge with inner north and south walls of the outer enclosure.

Funerary structure FS8 (3.5 m across) is situated 18 m north of the tripartite enclosure. The north wall is missing.

West Sector

At the base of the ridge, enclosing the plain in which Tsitsi Mönré TangkaRtsi rtsid mon ra’i thang kha was established, there are two rows of smaller funerary enclosures. These enclosures are situated 240 m west of the giant enclosure. These structures were aligned to conform to the slope gradient and not the cardinal directions. The lower, north-south oriented row contains seven ovoid or sub-rectangular double-course enclosures of similar size and construction (31° 33.46΄ N. lat. / 87° 47.27΄ E. long.). The superficial perimeter walls are around 80 cm in thickness and contain stones that have little protrusion from the ground surface. From south to north, the lower row enclosures have the following dimensions and relative locations:

Funerary structure FS1 (10 m by 8 m).
Funerary structure FS2 (9 m by 10 m) is situated 3 m north of FS1.
Funerary structure FS3 (11 m by 8 m) is situated 3 m north of FS2.
Funerary structure FS4 (11 m by 8 m) is situated 7 m north of FS3.
Funerary structure FS5 (11 m by 8 m) is situated 2 m north of FS4.
Funerary structure FS6 (1 m by 8 m) is situated 7 m north of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 (11 m by 8 m) is situated 7 m north of FS6.

The northwest-southeast oriented upper row is situated 16 m to 20 m upslope of the lower row. The upper row also contains seven funerary structures. These much smaller terraced structures have an elevated northeast/downhill wall and often no southwest/uphill wall. The pairing of the smaller structures of the upper row with the larger structures of the lower row is an unusual design trait, the cultural significance of which is not evident. Perhaps one type of structure represents the actual tomb while the other is an interrelated funerary ritual venue. From south to north, the upper row structures have the following dimensions and relative locations:

Funerary structure FS8 (4 m by 4 m).
Funerary structure FS9 (3 m by 2.6 m) is situated 11 m northwest of FS8.
Funerary structure FS10 (4 m by 3.8 m) is situated 10 m northwest of FS9.
Funerary structure FS11 (3 m by 2 m) is situated 11 m northwest of FS10.
Funerary structure FS12 (4.5 m by 4 m) is situated 11 m northwest of FS11.
Funerary structure FS13 (3 m by 3 m) is situated 13 m north of FS12.
Funerary structure FS14 (4 m by 3 m) is situated 20 m north of FS13.
There are also a number of other terraced funerary structures of the same type and size as are found in the upper row:
Funerary structure FS15 is a heavily degraded specimen, situated 20 m north of FS14.
Funerary structure FS16 is a heavily degraded specimen, situated 27 m north of FS15.
Funerary structure FS17 is situated 17 m north of FS16.
Funerary structure FS18 is situated 9 m north of FS17.
Funerary structure FS19 is situated 11 m north of FS18.
Funerary structure FS20 is situated 13 m north of FS19.
Funerary structure FS21 is situated 79 m northeast of FS20.
Funerary structure FS22 is situated 46 m north of FS21 (33.598΄ / 47.303΄ / 4640 m).
Funerary structure FS23 (10 m by 20 m) is an irregularly shaped enclosure, situated 32 m east of FS17.

Affiliated Sites

TrapukKhra phug

Near the northwest shoreline of the great salt lake, Kering TsoSke ring mtsho, there appear to be the remains of a funerary structure. This site is called TrapukKhra phug. Reportedly, in the Chinese Cultural Revolution, a couple of large, predominantly white limestone enclosures at TrapukKhra phug were used to grow grass or grain shoots. Between these two enclosures there are the remains of a possible funerary enclosure (3.5 m by 3.5 m). The perimeter walls of this highly deteriorated structure are composed of both flat and upright stones. On one corner of the enclosure there is a thin upright slab, which projects 50 cm above ground level.

Chepu Möndora (Chad phu mon rdo ra)

Basic site data

Site name: Chepu Möndora (sp.?)
Site number: D-126
Site typology: II.2b, II.2c, II.2d
Elevation: 4760 m to 4800 m
Administrative location (township): Zhungmé
Administrative location (county): Shentsa
Survey expedition: TUE
Survey date: October 9, 2005
Contemporary usage: Pastoral usage.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: mani and Tsatsa shrines.
Maps: UTRS VIII, HAS D4
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General site characteristics

Chepu MöndoraChad phu mon rdo ra is located in a side valley, north of YundrukG.yu ’brug.215 The turf-covered site enjoys a broad eastern vista. In other directions, surrounding ridges constrain the views. Chepu MöndoraChad phu mon rdo ra can be divided into two sectors: north (more than one dozen funerary enclosures and mounds) and south (three large mounds and a network of small quadrate structures and slab walls). The two sectors are divided from one another by the valley’s watercourse. All structures of Chepu MöndoraChad phu mon rdo ra are made of an undressed, variable-length (10 cm to 50 cm long) brown rock.

Oral tradition

Local sources associate Chepu MöndoraChad phu mon rdo ra with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

North sector

There are two broad concentrations of funerary enclosures in the north sector. The double-course perimeter walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) of these enclosures consist of blocks laid flat on the ground.

East concentration

Funerary structure FSA (13 m by 6.5 m) has been reduced to a rocky dispersion with only small fragments of double-course perimeter walls remaining.
Funerary structure FSB (12 m by 6 m) is situated 9 m north of FSA. This extremely degraded enclosure is of the same design and construction as FSA.
Funerary structure FS1 (5.7 m by 3.2 m) is a quadrate enclosure with parts of its double-course perimeter walls intact. FS2 (7.2 m by 6 m) is situated 18 m west of FS1. It is the same type of construction as FS1. There may also be an enclosure between FS1 and FS2.
Funerary structure FS6 (5.5 m by 8 m) is situated 10.7 m southwest of FS2. This rectangular structure is elevated around 50 cm above the surrounding terrain. FS6 has no coherent wall segments remaining.

West concentration

Funerary structure FS3 (9.5 m by 5 m) is situated 26 m west/upslope of FSA. It is now just a rocky dispersion with only hints of coherent walls left in place. Between FS3 and FSA there is at least one small enclosure.
Funerary structure FS4 (5 m by 5.3 m) is a square enclosure adjacent to FS3. FS4 is slightly elevated on all sides and has an open centre. Fragments of double-course walls have endured.
Funerary structure FS5 (5.5 m by 5.7 m) is adjacent to FS4 on its northwest side. The poorly developed walls of this enclosure are mostly level with the ground surface
Funerary structure FS7 (20 m by 18.6 m) is situated 37 m west/upslope of FS6. This irregularly shaped structure is elevated 1.5 m to 2 m above the surrounding terrain. On top of it there are five rocky mounds, all under 1 m in height. In between these mounds there is turf-covered ground. These rocky mounds may be what are left of quadrate masonry structures that were built on top of an earthen mound.
Funerary structure FS8 (9.5 m across) is situated 7 m north of FS7. FS8 is an irregularly shaped, rocky dispersion elevated 50 m above the upper slope and around 1.5 m above the downhill slope. There are perhaps four small enclosures located between FS7 and FS8.
Funerary structure FS9 (11 m by 11 m) is situated 19 m west of FS7. FS9 is a low-lying, quadrate enclosure with in situ double-course wall fragments and an open interior.

South sector

The south sector is situated on the opposite side of the valley’s watercourse from the upper extent of the north sector. There are minor structural remains in the south sector that were not surveyed.

Funerary mound 1

The south sector is dominated by a funerary mound (14 m by 15 m), which is elevated 2 m to 3 m above the surrounding terrain. Funerary mound 1 was built with intricately designed masonry embellishments, of which only small vestiges remain in place. This structure has been heavily impacted by anthropogenic disturbances. It appears that most of its exterior stonewalls were dismantled. The corrals of a nearby homestead appear to be the recipient of the removed stones. Well-built, double-course walls are found embedded on top of the mound. These wall fragments run parallel and perpendicular to one another, but it is not clear what type of structure they created. There are similar wall fragments near the base of the mound. The most extensive of these are found on the east side. It appears that there were tiered walls or a plinth on this side of the mound. There are also masonry wall fragments along the flanks of the mound. The flanks of the mound taper sharply inwards toward the top of the structure, due to the forces of erosion. On top of this flat mound there is a small wall, upon which old plaques inscribed with the mani mantra rest. This shrine was probably founded in order to subdue negative influences emanating from the funerary site.

Slab-wall and nodular network

Beginning 16.5 m west of the big funerary mound there is a uniquely designed network of funerary structures, 54 m in length. Unfortunately, these structures have been heavily impacted by human activities. This network consists of a series of double-course slab walls (most of which run east-west) linking no less than eight minor quadrate structures or nodes. The slab walls and intervening masonry structures form a single uneven east-west line. The quadrate structures resemble the to of the BönBon tradition (see F-3). On the eastern extremity of the network there is a wall (3 m long) consisting of upright slabs (15 cm to 25 cm long) placed in parallel courses, 20 cm apart. This wall runs west to the first of the eight nodes, all of which have been reduced to dispersions, 1 m to 3 m across. It appears that these were walled structures of minimal height, but few constructional features are discernable. All eight structures are linked together by double-course slab walls, most segments of which are more heavily built than the most easterly specimen described above.

Funerary mound 2

Funerary mound 2 is situated 13.5 m west of the western extremity of the slab wall and nodular network. It appears to be a low-lying quadrate tumulus that was aligned in the cardinal directions. Its original dimensions and height are uncertain. This funerary mound has been heavily damaged by the action of water. This flat-topped mound is surmounted by a small wall, upon which there are old plaques inscribed with the mani mantra.

Funerary mound 3

Funerary mound 3 is situated 27 m south of funerary mound 2. This is the most westerly and highest elevation structure at Chepu MöndoraChad phu mon rdo ra. This heavily disturbed square mound is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 10 m by 10 m. It is elevated 2.5 m to 3 m above the surrounding terrain. On top of this flat mound there is a small Tsatsa shrine. On the east side of the mound there is an interconnected earthen platform. This platform is about the same size as the tumulus itself. The platform is traversed by north-south oriented double-course wall fragments (around 50 cm thick) of skillful construction. Funerary mound 3 appears to have been an elaborately designed structure.

Semodo (Se mo do North)

General site characteristics

SemodoSe mo do North is located on the north side of SemodoSe mo do, a 3.5 km long island with a rugged limestone backbone. An alternative name for the island, NangdoNang do, reflects the privileged geomantic and strategic position of this highly insulated site. Another name, SinmodoSrin mo do, is related to the supposed occupation of the island by a semi-divine class of female beings known as sinmo. The site is found on a broad bench that forms between the shoreline and mountainous core of the island. SemodoSe mo do is surrounded on all sides by the profoundly deep waters of NamtsoGnam mtsho. Traditionally, it is usually accessed in the winter months when NamtsoGnam mtsho is frozen. In addition to archaic cultural residential structures and Buddhist retreat caves that housed famous lamas of the 8th to 13th century CE (see B-126 and B-127), there are nine enclosures on the north side of the island. These superficial and built-up structures have open interiors and appear to have a funerary function. They are constructed of uncut, variable-length (primarily 20 to 70 cm long) pieces of blue-gray limestone, which support orange climax lichen growths. These enclosures, at least superficially, resemble the so-called möndur of the core region of Upper Tibet located farther west.

The survey of SemodoSe mo do residential sites shows that this island reached the zenith of material cultural development in the archaic cultural horizon. The presence of ostensible funerary structures is liable to reflect this period of intensive occupation as an interrelated part of the monument assemblage and lifecycle of the island. The use of the north side of SemodoSe mo do for funerary purposes is probably related to the limited solar exposure of this side, which makes it inappropriate for habitation. The northern aspect of the site may also possibly be related to archaic Tibetan eschatological beliefs concerning a boreal afterlife.216

Oral tradition

Probably the most knowledgeable person alive regarding the oral tradition of SemodoSe mo do is a ngakpa named A TopA thob, who resides at Trashi DochungBkra shis do chung. He mostly learned about SemodoSe mo do from the late Lama ChödakBla ma chos bdag, a monk at GurchungGur chung monastery.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m by 3 m) is a quadrate structure that is either the remains of a crude shelter or a funerary enclosure. The walls of this structure reach 1.3 m in height and are of rudimentary construction. Adjacent to this structure are the highly degraded remains of a sub-rectangular superficial enclosure. It appears to have a funerary identity and single-course perimeter walls. The two structures of S1 are situated on a broad point that overlooks NamtsoGnam mtsho.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (4.8 m by 4 m) is a sub-rectangular double-course enclosure with an open interior. The superficial perimeter walls (60 cm thick) of this structure are composed of variable-length stones that were laid flat. These stones are flush with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. Just 70 cm to the north is a less well-preserved enclosure (4 m by 3 m) of the same design and construction. These enclosures occupy another portion of the long bench.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (5.8 m by 3.8 m) is a sub-rectangular enclosure situated on the outer edge of the same bench. This poorly preserved structure may have had crudely constructed double-course perimeter walls. These walls now consist of just one layer of stones embedded in the ground, but perhaps they were more developed originally. In any case, many of these upright stones prominently project above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (4.4 m by 4.7 m) is just half an enclosure. Its roughly built walls are up to 80 cm in height. The perimeter walls consist of larger stones stuck in the ground, upon which other stones were piled.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is another enclosure with partially intact perimeter walls, which is situated on the outer edge of the bench.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (9.3 m by 6 m) is a well built, rectangular enclosure situated at the base of the spine of the island. This structure was established on a moderately inclined slope, and is generally aligned in the cardinal directions. The perimeter walls of this enclosure appear to be of both an ordered and unordered style of construction. The west and south walls of the structure each incorporate a large boulder. The south/upper wall consists of a single line of stones that are level with or slightly protrude above ground level. The west wall is composed of small stones, many of which are only around 5 cm in length. The stones of the west wall appear to have been neatly stacked. This wall is around 50 cm in height and around 50 cm in thickness. Although not so much is left of it, the north wall also appears to have been comprised of stacked stones. The east wall of the enclosure is highly fragmentary. There are a few stray stones embedded inside the enclosure.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (1.9 m by 2.2 m) is a small partially intact enclosure. The east wall of this structure is missing. S7 appears to have perimeter walls consisting of piled stones. These walls are 50 cm to 80 cm in height.

Khandok (Kha ’dogs)

General site characteristics

KhandokKha ’dogs is located in a grassy and sandy plain on the east side of DaroktsoDa rog mtsho. This site has open vistas in most directions. Due to time limitations and other logistical concerns, only two of the funerary structures of KhandokKha ’dogs could be surveyed. Other funerary structures were spotted spread out across the plain.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (5 m by 5.5 m) is a quadrate enclosure that appears to be aligned in the cardinal directions. It is built above a small watercourse. The entire structure is somewhat elevated above the surrounding plain. It seems to have single-course perimeter walls, but many of the stones have been pulled out of the ground. Some of the extracted stones now sit inside the enclosure. Dark-colored stones, 40 cm to 60 cm in length, which project as much as 30 cm above the surface, were used in construction. There is a double-course slab-wall fragment (3.8 m long) situated 18 m northwest of FS1. The parallel lines of upright slabs (10 cm to 30 cm long) are spaced 30 cm apart from one another. These slabs are level with the ground surface or project slightly above it.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (7 m by 5.6 m), another quadrate enclosure, is situated 105 m north of FS1. This structure is elevated 1 m to 1.5 m above the surrounding plain. Nearly the entire perimeter of FS2 has been dismantled, and many of the stones piled up inside the enclosure. Stones 40 cm to 60 cm in length were used in the construction of FS2.

Tsodo Möndur (Mtsho do mon dur)

General site characteristics

Tsodo MöndurMtsho do mon dur is located on the southeast side of TsodoMtsho do, the largest island of Upper Tibet. This 12 km long island rises out of the great salt lake, Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho. Tsodo MöndurMtsho do mon dur is situated in a locale known as KochungKo chung (sp.?). It has open views across the Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho basin to the east. Five enclosures were detected at Tsodo MöndurMtsho do mon dur. These structures appear to have a funerary identity and are found on sandy and rock benches. They are primarily constructed from a light-colored, hard, fine-grained rock of variable length (10 cm to 80 cm long). The structures are in a very poor state of preservation, precluding a close assessment of their design characteristics. It appears that these structures had heaped-stone walls. Double-course perimeter walls may also be represented among them. It is quite possible that other structures were overlooked in the rocky terrain during the survey.

There is also an archaic residential settlement consisting of all-stone corbelled edifices on TsodoMtsho do (B-131), which is located just over 2 km from the funerary structures. These two sites may be interrelated, as the twin burial and residential components of ancient settlement on the island. SemodoSe mo do (D-127) and TsodoMtsho do, two large islands, both appear to support funerary sites. This is not the case on the smaller Upper Tibetan islands with archaic cultural sites. Perhaps a certain minimum physical distance between residential installations and burial grounds was considered desirable by the ancient inhabitants of the islands.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Tsodo MöndurMtsho do mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3.4 m by 5 m) is an irregularly shaped enclosure with unordered perimeter walls. These walls reach a maximum height of 30 cm. FS1 has a northeastern aspect.

Funerary structures FS2 to FS5 are clustered a little to the southwest of FS1 and all have an eastern aspect.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (3.5 m by 2.7 m) is a rectangular structure that appears to be aligned in the cardinal directions. FS2 was established on a narrow bench and is entirely covered in loose stones.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (6.7 m by 7 m) is situated 12.7 m upslope of FS2. This ovoid or sub-rectangular structure with an open interior was built into a fairly steep slope. Stones are piled up to a height of 90 cm on its south/forward flank. The slippage of the slope has obliterated much of the upper portion of the structure.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (6.6 m by 4.8 m) is situated 1 m north of FS3. This ovoid structure has the same setting as FS3 and was built into a fairly steep slope. Its highly degraded perimeter walls enclose an open interior.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (4.5 m by 4.8 m) is situated 1 m north of FS4 and was also built into a fairly steep slope. The perimeter walls of this ovoid enclosure are in an advanced state of disintegration.

Gyamngönpo Möndur (Gyam sngon po mon dur)

General site characteristics

The quadrate funerary superstructure of Gyamngönpo MöndurGyam sngon po mon dur is located near the east side of a very large sandy and grassy plain. Bounding the plain in the east is a bluish outcrop, GyamngönpoGyam sngon po. To the southeast of the so-called möndur there is the peak of Shendo YamarBshan mdo g.ya’ dmar, the highest point in the ridgeline. The structure was constructed on level terrain somewhat offset from the cardinal directions (4.7 m by 4.4 m). It now consists of single-course perimeter walls, but there is faint evidence to suggest that originally they may have been partially or fully double course. Dark blue metamorphic stones and white igneous rocks were used to construct the walls (up to 50 cm in thickness with a maximum projection of stones 20 cm above ground). The interior is devoid of structural elements, but, at some point in the past, stones were removed from the outer walls and piled up inside the enclosure. This stone pile was made long enough back to be quite heavily eroded.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Gyamngönpo MöndurGyam sngon po mon dur is an ancient MönMon burial structure.

Unknown

General site characteristics

Hidden in and around an extensive area of ancient moraines, between the two effluents (Ngekar ChuDngas dkar chu and Tamchok KhabapRta mchog kha ’babs) that make up the headwaters of the Tamchok TsangpoRta mchog gtsang po (Brahmaputra river), there is a funerary site. Seven superficial structures were surveyed here but there may well be more. Funerary structures FS1 and FS2 are situated on top of an ancient terminal moraine in an extremely isolated location. Funerary structures FS3 to FS7 are located where moraines give way to a ridge, barricading the south side of the NgechuDngas chu, 180 m above the valley floor. This latter group of structures is constructed of white igneous, dark metamorphic and other types of rocks of variable dimensions. None of the funerary structures at this site are well aligned in the cardinal directions.

Oral tradition

None was collected.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS 1 (9m by 5 m) appears to be a transitional type of structure with heaped-stone wall and double-course perimeter design traits. This sub-rectangular structure is constructed of white igneous stones of variable size, and is divided into two uneven cells by a bisecting wall (comprised of a single line of stones placed upright in the ground). The interior of FS1 is concave, a sign of erosion and possibly subsidence.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS 2 (6 m by 5 m) is situated 4 m from FS1 on the same flat moraine top, which is not much wider than the funerary structure. FS2 consists of a single-course perimeter wall and is in very poor condition.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 appears to be another structure with a transitional morphology (heaped-stone wall and double-course perimeter subtypes). The perimeter measures 5.4 m by 8.6 m, but is cut away on one side to create an indenture 3.3 m in length. The enclosure includes wall segments with one or two vertical courses of slabs, laid flat. Other wall sections contain incoherent clusters of stones and a few sections are comprised of upright slabs.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (approx. 7.8 m by 6.5 m) has been partially obliterated. The design of this structure is not immediately apparent. It contains fragments of double-course walls consisting of slabs laid flat in vertical courses.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is around 5 m in length. Its west side has been obliterated. Double-course perimeter wall fragments have survived: these are 50 cm to 60 cm in thickness, and include upright stones that project a maximum of 25 cm above the ground surface.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 is around 4.5 m in length, but its west side is missing. Double-course perimeter fragments are comprised of upright stones as well as slabs and blocks, laid flat. The perimeter wall is around 60 cm in thickness and upright stones project a maximum of 20 cm above the surface.

Funerary Structure FS7

The superstructure of funerary structure FS7 (5.2 m by 6m) is only partially intact, but includes part of the west wall. This possibly ovoid structure is of the same construction as neighboring specimens. Walls are 70 cm to 80 cm in thickness and upright stones project a maximum of 30 cm above the surface.

II.3. Cubic mountaintop tombs

Another characteristic class of archaic monuments in Upper Tibet is cubic stone tombs. In this survey 22 such sites are presented. The above-ground cubic tombs were erected on the tops of high ridges and mountains to an elevation of 5600 m. The cubic tombs were almost always sited on summits thickly blanketed in talus. They were also frequently set on the edge of high points overlooking steep slopes or cliffs with panoramic views of the adjoining countryside. These sites often comprise the highest ground around for some distance. The cubic tombs were generally built of locally occurring dark-colored sandstone and volcanic slabs and chunks (up to 1.2 m in length), laid flat in random-texture, dry-stone courses. The exterior dimensions of the tombs range between 1.5 m by 1.5 m by 1.2 m and 2.5 m by 3.5 m by 1.8 m. The walls are usually aligned in the cardinal directions, an important feature of many pillar and enclosure sites as well. The top of the tombs are flat, and virtually all have been opened and the contents discarded or stolen.

There is a rectangular chamber set in the center of the masonry carapace elevated around 50 cm above ground level. Measuring in the range of 80 cm by 50 cm to 2 m by 1.1 m, finer sized stones were used to fashion these central chambers. The chambers are normally aligned in the compass points. These 70 cm to 1.1 m deep openings appear to have functioned as reliquaries. Their association in the oral tradition with the ancient MönMon and the occasional adventitious usage of the chambers to accommodate human burial bear this out. It would appear that skeletal elements, the products of fractional or secondary burials, were deposited in the central chambers. Given their size, extended corpse burials would not have been feasible (unless they were used for juvenile inhumations) except in the largest central chambers, a small minority of the total. Tibetan historic era reliquary structures are mud plastered and colorfully painted, and it does not seem likely that the cubic tombs were originally fabricated as raw unadorned stone chests.

Curiously, the geographic distribution of the cubic tombs is restricted to western Tibet. They occur both north and south of the Transhimalaya (Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se) range, between 84° 33΄ and 79° 03΄ E. Longitude. The cultural factors explaining why the cubic mountaintop tombs are confined to this specific region are still obscure. Other characteristic monuments of Upper Tibet, such as the all-stone edifices, pillars erected inside quadrate enclosures, and arrays of pillars appended to edifices, enjoy much wider territorial dispersal

A BönBon scriptural account seems to describe a form of burial for ancient priests known as shen, which may correspond to the form and lofty aspect of the cubic mountaintop tombs.217 If indeed this textual source is related to the tombs under consideration, it indicates that they were used to dispose of the mortal remains of high status priests in prehistoric times. Clearly, the siting of tombs in high, inaccessible locales intimates an exclusive social sphere of usage. This aura of special status is supported by the relatively small number of such cemeteries thus far documented.

I have presented ethnographic data to suggest that the lofty aspect of the sites was connected to a belief in a celestial afterlife.218 This is also supported by Tibetan funerary texts that describe a celestial afterlife known as Gayül (Joyous Country), a paradise paralleling in ideal terms the mortal way of life.219 It would seem that the mountaintop tombs served as a kind of launch pad for the deceased on its journey to the hereafter. Some mountaintop sites (see E-11, E-19, E-30) with their terraces, pads, pathways and walls, all constructed from talus, indicates that there was indeed a complex ceremonial component attached to the burials.

Special attention has been paid to identifying and collecting osteological samples from the ruins of the central depositories. Only a small fraction of the total number of tombs contain skeletal remains and these are all tiny, hard to distinguish fragments. The samples collected were partially or fully exposed to the elements and subject to infiltration by foreign organic substances. Samples taken from tombs of the EndritséAn 'bri rtse (E-11) (fragment of cranium, human?) and Denjangri Mukpo DongLdan byang ri smug po gdong (E-18) (human cuspid and jaw fragment, other bone matter) cemeteries have yielded dates so recent as to fall outside the range of radiocarbon calibration. One sample of bone (species undetermined), collected from the central depository of a cubic tomb near Denjangri Mukpo DongLdan byang ri smug po gdong, has yielded a calibrated radiocarbon date of circa 1000 to 1210 CE. It is not at all clear, however, if the sample dated represents part of an original interment or a subsequent addition to the tomb. More stringent sampling will be required in order to determine the age of the cubic tombs.

Trashi Darlung (Bkra shis dar lung)

General site characteristics

Near the summit of a small spur, situated above the confluence of the lamlungLam lung and Trashi DarlungBkra shis dar lung valleys, are ten platform-like structures. These structures are found on the southeast face and are separated from the rest of a mountain mass by two rocky ribs. The site has long vistas to the southeast, in the direction of the Yarlung TsangpoYar lung gtsang po. The structures are built of unhewn blocks (up to 1 m long) laid in random-work, dry-masonry courses. They are generally smaller and of a more rudimentary construction than the typical structures of the cubic mountaintop tomb typology and represent a significant morphological variation. An assessment of the structural qualities of the Trashi DarlungBkra shis dar lung monuments is hampered by the poor state of preservation (none of them are well preserved enough to have intact central depositories). Given the location (not within the territorial ambit of the typical cubic tombs) and unusual construction features, their function and chronology are uncertain.

Oral tradition

According to an elderly man (born circa 1926) who hails from the hamlet at the foot of the site, the platform-like structures of Trashi DarlungBkra shis dar lung are very old and may have had a funerary function.

Site elements

Lowest structures

Funerary structure FS1 (4690 m): its poorly preserved remains are found on a rock-strewn, sandy slope inclined at approximately a 30° angle.
Funerary structure FS2 (1.6 m by 1.7 m by 1.1 m) is located immediately above FS1.

Lower row of four structures

Directly above FS2 is a row of four quadrate structures situated on the edge of a small vertical drop (35.888΄ / 26.304΄ / 4750 m). The surrounding slopes are inclined at around a 45° angle. The ground, while still sandy, is rockier than that below. The dissolving structures form a north-south row, 13 m in length, and are almost flush with the uphill slope, while on the downhill side they have significant elevations. From south to north, the four structures have the following dimensions:

Funerary structure FS3 (1.2 m by 1.2 m by 50 cm).
Funerary structure FS4 (1.5 m by 1.5 m by 1.3 m).
Funerary structure FS5 (1.5 m by 1.8 m by 1.1 m).
Funerary structure FS6 (1.6 m by 1.2 m by 1.3 m).

Upper row of four structures

Directly below the lower row of four structures, analogous structures form a row, 18 m in length (35.896΄ / 26.293΄ / 4760 m). The upper row is built on the edge of a cliff and is less straight than its lower counterpart. The terrain here is very rocky. The uphill sides of the poorly-preserved structures are almost flush with the uphill slope. From south to north, the four structures have the following characteristics:

Funerary structure FS7 (1.2 m by 1.5 m by 70 cm): in the middle of the structure there is a depression (the remains of the base of a central depository?).
Funerary structure FS8 (1 m by 1.2 m by 50 cm).
Funerary structure FS9: little is left remaining.
Funerary structure FS10 (1.5 m by 1.2 m by 70 cm).

Endritsé Möndur (An ’bri rtse mon dur)

General site characteristics

Endritsé MöndurAn ’bri rtse mon dur is located on a 5100 m high mountain of the same name that rises 370 m out of a valley, a major feeder of the Tritso TsangpoKhri tsho gtsang po. In the vicinity of EndritséAn ’bri rtse there are the pastoral settlements of Rama GyamRa ma gyam and Gyé NgönpoGyad sngon po (sp?). The dark-colored EndritséAn ’bri rtse has a distinctive pyramidal form and stands alone, enjoying 360° views from the summit. It is a local female territorial deity (yüllha). There is only a small prayer flag mast on the summit, illustrating that this mountain is seldom visited. Still, it is unusual to have a mountain with tombs that is not completely ignored or demonized by the drokpa. There are no less than 24 cubic tombs of standard construction (some are actually square while most are somewhat elongated). In addition to the tombs, there is a network of walls, walkways and pads made of the same dark-colored metamorphic rock, which is scattered across the higher reaches of EndritséAn ’bri rtse. The talus-strewn upper slopes provided ample building materials for the funerary complex. The chunks of talus used in the random-work constructions tend to be blocky.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Endritsé MöndurAn ’bri rtse mon dur consists of tombs of the ancient MönMon. According to one informant, EndritséAn ’bri rtse was the older yüllha of the region. The ancient sacred status of the mountain is clearly indicated by the presence of the funerary complex. The dominant contemporary yüllha is the male MagyungMa gyung (sp?), located on a mountain to the east in the range separating the two main river systems of Götsang TöRgod tshang stod. One local septuagenarian reports that MagyungMa gyung and EndritséAn ’bri rtse are husband and wife.

Site elements

Upper east and north slopes

On the upper eastern flank of the mountain there appear to be two or three cubic tombs that are so deteriorated they are barely recognizable from the field of talus. Above these tombs a dry-stone wall of talus encloses a walkway along the northeast flank of the EndritséAn ’bri rtse mountain just below the summit. In most places this wall is just a heaped line of loose stones circumscribing the steep slope. Approximately 10 m above the walkway there is another cubic tomb (2 m by 1.9 m). The maximum height of its downhill side is 1.2 m and that of its uphill side, 50 cm. Part of the central depository (reliquary) is intact; it appears to have been 80 cm long. A 1.1 m deep oval-shaped depression (3.3 m by 2.5 m) is found 20 m to the south of this cubic tomb. It appears to have an in situ corbel resting on its upslope rim. The function of this structure is unknown. If there were analogous structures in the vicinity, they have been reabsorbed into the talus slopes.

The walled path continues around to the north side of the mountain and disappears some meters below the summit. Above this upper length of the trail there is another cubic tomb. It is 2 m in length and up to 1 m in height. Its downhill side has been destroyed. At the same elevation, in close proximity, there is a walled level area. Above the cubic tomb there are two more walled terraces, interconnected by a wall. These walls, now nothing more than heaps of stones, are up to 80 cm high on their downhill sides. The level areas enclosed within measure around 3 m by 6 m. The function of these pads or terraces is enigmatic. Perhaps they were used as camping areas for those who built the tombs and conducted the burial rites. On the other hand, they may have had a ritual purpose. On the north side of the EndritséAn ’bri rtse mountain just below the summit, there are two more similarly-sized and constructed walled pads. There is another walled pad, 5 m higher in elevation and yet another 2 m above it, both of which are of similar size and dimensions. The forward walls of these four enclosures are flush with or only slightly elevated above the downhill slope, probably as a of result disintegration. There may be other such structures on the east and north slopes of EndritséAn ’bri rtse but time limitations precluded a more thorough combing of the mountainside.

The summit

The very summit of EndritséAn ’bri rtse appears to have once had a cubic tomb, but it has either disappeared with time or it has been incorporated into the base of the prayer flag mast. From this high point, the summit ridge drops in elevation towards the southwest. What appears to be the base of a cubic tomb is located on the narrow summit ridge. Beyond this point, the summit ridge narrows to less than 1 m in width in places with sheer drops on both sides. The summit ridge then widens again in the proximity of the base of another cubic tomb. The maximum height of this structure is 1 m (west side), 50 cm (south side) and level with the summit in the other directions. Its linear dimensions are unclear.

Continuing down the ridgeline, in a southwestern direction, three more cubic tombs are met with. In between them and the aforementioned specimen (at 5050 m), there is the probable base of a cubic tomb but the remains are too dissolute for a positive identification. The group of three tombs (5040 m) is partially interconnected by walls running between them. The highest specimen (Funerary structure FS1) in this group (1.8 m by 1.8 m by 1 m [height]) is situated on the ridge-top. A much more poorly preserved specimen (Funerary structure FS2) is located 4.5 m away, on the summit. From this second cubic tomb, a wall (24 m long, up to 1 m high) extends to the third specimen and then somewhat beyond it. A 6 m long wall also extends from FS1 in the direction of funerary structure FS3 (this wall was originally somewhat longer). These two interconnecting heaped-stone walls do not actually contact the tombs but run in close proximity to them. These walls enclose a small hollow in the ridge-top, in which the third tomb (FS3) of the group is located.

Funerary structure FS3, among the best preserved at EndritséAn ’bri rtse, measures 2.5 m by 2 m by 1.3 m, but it must have been somewhat taller when constructed. Fortunately, its rectangular central depository is intact (1 m by 60 cm by 50 cm). Stone courses lining this chamber taper inwards so that its top only measures 40 cm by 40 cm. The central depository could have been easily capped by a single stone. A good deal of the outer structure of the tomb not only surrounds the central depository but rises above it, creating a substantial encasement. A sodden piece of what ostensibly was part of a human skull and another piece of bone were discovered in the snow-covered central depository. When subjected to chronometric testing, the skull fragment (about the size of a silver dollar) yielded disappointing results.220

Continuing down the ridgeback there is a zone of isolated walls of the same design and construction. Just below these walls there is another cubic tomb. Measuring approximately 1.7 m by 1.7 m, this specimen has been reduced to less than 90 cm in height. Directly below it is the lowest cubic tomb on the summit ridge. Only the upslope half of this structure is intact (maximum height of 1.3 m).

Southwest shelf

Below the southwest extremity of the summit, the steep slopes of EndritséAn ’bri rtse fall away into the valley below. On the upper reaches of these slopes there is a natural talus-covered shelf that hosts a group of 13 cubic tombs. This shelf is 73 m long (east-west) by 17 m wide (north-south). The greatest concentration of tombs is on the somewhat higher east end of the shelf. Also on the east end are two enclosures (roughly 3 m by 4 m) that may be the remains of ancient shelters. The tombs of the southwest shelf have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS1 (2.3 m by 2.2 m by 1 m) is the most westerly specimen on the southwest shelf. The base of its central depository is intact.
Funerary structure FS2 (1.7 m by 2.3 m by 1.1 m).
Funerary structure FS3 (2.2 m by 1.6 m by 90 cm).
Funerary structure FS4 (1.8 m by 2.4 m by 1.1 m) has its central depository partially intact.
Funerary structure FS5 (1.7 m by 1.7 m by 60 cm) is highly deteriorated.
Funerary structure FS6 (1.7 m by 2.1 m by 90 cm) has its central depository (1 m by 60 cm) partially intact.
Funerary structure FS7 (2.5 m by 2 m by 1.1m) has the remains of its central depository filled with structural detritus.
Funerary structure FS8 is adjacent to FS7. Almost no structural evidence remains.
Funerary structure FS9 (2 m by 1.7 m) has just the base of the structure extant.
Funerary structure FS10 has been leveled.
Funerary structure FS11 (2 m by 2 m by 70 cm) has the base of its central depository visible.
Funerary structure FS12 (2.5 m by 1.9 m by 1.3 m) has the base of its central depository intact.
Funerary structure FS13 (1.6 m 1.5 m by 50 cm) is highly deteriorated.

Affiliated sites

sna leb

It is reported that, during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, farming was tried with disastrous consequences in a locale called NalepSna leb, located east of EndritséAn ’bri rtse. During plowing, stone cists containing human bones were discovered here. It is said that none of the burial sites have survived.

Drönchung (’Bron chung mon dur)

General site characteristics

Drönchung’Bron chung mon dur is found on the undulating summit of an eponymous rocky ridge, which is situated 100 m above the west side of the Dri Jiu’Bri byi’u valley. Unlike most other examples of this typology, the site does not have a particularly lofty aspect or panoramic views. There appear to be nine cubic tombs at this site in various stages of advanced disintegration. They were built from pieces of a local, dark-brown blocky rock (primarily 20 cm to 60 cm long). The extreme decay of the tombs seems to suggest that the site was desecrated long ago. There is no evidence of contemporary disturbances at Drönchung’Bron chung mon dur.

Oral tradition

Mountaintop tombs such as Drönchung’Bron chung mon dur are commonly ascribed to the ancient MönMon in the oral tradition of this region (ZhungpaGzhung pa).

Site elements

The nine cubic tombs of Drönchung’Bron chung mon dur were surveyed from north to south (the most northerly specimen = funerary structure FS1). Funerary structures FS1, FS2, FS3, FS4, and FS5 form a meandering 32 m long north-south aligned line of structures, situated at the same general elevation. These structures have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS1 (2.5 m by 2.1 m by 1.1 m) is one of the best preserved specimens at the site, yet little more than its base remains. FS1 was built on the rocky ridgeline. It is situated so that the views to the south and west are mostly blocked.
Funerary structure FS2 is so highly deteriorated that it is barely recognizable. The views south and east are also cut from this ridgeline structure.
Funerary structures FS3, FS4, FS5, FS6, and FS7 are located in a shallow hollow, sandwiched between two small rocky crests. These structures have constricted views in all directions. Funerary structures FS3, FS4 and FS5 have been reduced to a few in situ foundation stones. Funerary structure FS6 has been almost leveled as well.
Funerary structure FS7 (2.5 m by 2.5 m) has been gutted, thus nothing of the central depository (reliquary) remains. The inside of the exterior walls reaches 90 cm in height. The inner wall construction reveals that these structures were well built, like most other sites of the typology.
Funerary structures FS8 and FS9 are located 30 m west of FS7, in a smaller hollow. FS8 is now nothing more than a rocky pit, 1.3 m deep and 3.5 m across. FS9 has been reduced to its foundation. These two structures are so deteriorated that they could not be positively identified as cubic tombs. Old wall traces of a probable ritual function circumscribe the hollow as well.

Affiliated sites

rdo ring

About one-half km north of Drönchung’Bron chung mon dur, in a gully at the foot of the ridge, there are two pillars (31° 51.882΄ N. lat. / 81° 46.704΄ E. long.). Local drokpa believe that these two pillars are ancient monuments, a belief which is supported by the heavy erosion and geochemical weathering affecting the stones. However, one is dislodged and the other specimen is no longer well anchored in the ground, suggesting that the latter may have been reinstalled. These two pillars may even have been relocated to their present position. This is supported by the lack of evidence for enclosing walls and the more than 5° slope gradient of the present site. The dislodged specimen has three irregular sides and measures 1.3 m by 1 m (girth). The partly rooted pillar has four irregular sides and measures 90 cm by 1.1 m.

Funerary superstructures

Two single-course funerary enclosures were detected in different locations in the upper Dri Jiu’Bri byi’u valley bottom. Both of these are highly fragmentary. The approximate dimensions of one specimen are 3.5 m by 3.5 m (31° 41.920΄ N. lat. / 81° 48. 191΄ E. long. / 4840 m). The other specimen has been reduced to just a single line of stones (41.609΄ / 48.465΄ / 4840 m).

Nyukri (Smyug ri)

General site characteristics

There are probably eight cubic tombs on the top of NyukriSmyug ri, a dark-colored pyramidal peak, situated on the western edge of the Dri Jiu’Bri byi’u drainage basin. NyukriSmyug ri is an isolated, relatively high summit topped with talus, which enjoys unencumbered views in all directions. From the summit of NyukriSmyug ri, TrotungKhro thung (E-4), Mönpa NakpoMon pa nag po (E-1), distant mountains with lofty burial grounds, are visible. The structures of NyukriSmyug ri were constructed with reddish brown and bluish volcanic (?) rock slabs of variable length (up to 1 m in long), in the typical fashion.

Oral tradition

Generally speaking, in this region (ZhungpaGzhung pa), sites such as NyukriSmyug ri are associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Summit tombs

There are two cubic tombs on the summit ridge of NyukriSmyug ri, one on the north side and one on the south side (5070 m). These structures are separated by 38 m. The south summit specimen is highly degraded and only a small part of it has survived. The north specimen is also highly degraded, having been reduced to a fragment of an outer wall. On the talus mantle there may have been other specimens but virtually nothing of them remains. Near the south summit tomb there are traces of a small enclosure recalling similar structures at EndritséAn ’bri rtse (E-11).

North slope structures

Below the north summit tomb, at a distance of 40 m, there are the remains of another enclosure (2.5 m by 2.5 m). Its walls reach a maximum height of 50 cm. Farther down the north slope there appears to be the remains of a cubic grave, leveled to its foundation (5040 m).

East slope tombs

Just the below the summit, on the east flank of the mountain, there are two cubic tombs spaced 11 m apart. The south specimen measures 1.5 m by 1.5 m by 60 cm (height) and the north specimen measures 1.7 m by 1.8 m by 60 cm.

West slope tombs

There are also two cubic tombs on the west slope, just below the summit. The west sides of these specimens were constructed against a boulder. The south specimen (1.5 m by 1.5 m by 1 m) has a well-preserved rectangular central depository (60 cm by 40 cm by 70 cm [depth]). The adjacent north tomb (1.6 m by 1.4 m by 90 cm) also has the benefit of its central depository, which is a little smaller than its counterpart (30 cm by 50 cm by 60 cm).

South slope tomb

On the south flank of NyukriSmyug ri, just below the south summit tomb, there is another specimen, which has been reduced to its foundation.

Affiliated sites

There is reported to be two funerary superstructures, of the enclosure type, near the west foot of NyukriSmyug ri.

Drakrel Chok (Brag ral lcog)

General site characteristics

On the mesa-like flat summit of Drakrel ChokBrag ral lcog there are the remains of three or four cubic tombs. This summit directly overlooks the Dri Jiu’Bri byi’u valley. The Drakrel ChokBrag ral lcog summit is open in all directions except in the south, where the view is more confined. Steep slopes on the west side of the mountain drop down more than 200 m vertical to the valley below. At the north foot of Drakrel ChokBrag ral lcog there is the archaeological site of Membar DoringMe ’bar rdo ring (C-78). The cubic tombs are made of locally occurring reddish volcanic slabs (primarily 20 cm to 50 cm long).

Oral tradition

In this region (ZhungpaGzhung pa), sites such as Drakrel ChokBrag ral lcog are generally attributed to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

North summit

In the middle of the north side of the summit, in close proximity to two small cairns, there is the lower portion of a cubic tomb (1.5 m by 2 m by 20 cm [height]). Nearby are the possible remains of another specimen, but it is now so dissolute that a positive identification could not be made.

South summit

On the south side of the summit there is a much better preserved cubic tomb (51.648΄ / 48.685΄ / 4950 m). This specimen measures 2.3 m by 2.5 m by 1.5 m. Although the exterior portion of the east side of the structure has collapsed, much of the top portion and central depository appear to be intact. It seems that a retaining wall was built along the south side of the cubic tomb. The foundation of a smaller cubic tomb (up to 50 cm in height) is situated 2.5 m away.

Affiliated sites

There is reported to be a cubic tomb on the summit of a reddish ridge, across a small basin to the east of Drakrel ChokBrag ral lcog.

Gomkhor (Sgom ’khor)

Basic site data

Site name: Gomkhor
English equivalent: Meditation Circle
Site number: E-15
Site typology: II.3
Elevation: 4700 m to 4710 m
Administrative location (township): Zhungpa
Administrative location (county): Gegyé
Survey expedition: UTAE
Survey date: May 21, 2001
Contemporary usage: Refurbishment as a Buddhist shrine.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Plaques with the mani mantra.
Maps: UTRS VI, HAS A2
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General site characteristics

GomkhorSgom ’khor is the name of a rocky ridge that rises 50 m above an eponymous valley and settlement. There appear to be the remains of five cubic tombs in two different groups on the summit of GomkhorSgom ’khor. Two specimens were rehabilitated to serve as mani walls. GomkhorSgom ’khor is well known in the ZhungpaGzhung pa region for its many mani walls, built as acts of devotion by local residents in pre-modern times. Since the 1980s many of these shrines have been rebuilt. Uncut reddish and bluish volcanic stone slabs (mostly between 30 cm and 50 cm in length) were used to construct the tombs and to refurbish them for use as walls to support mani plaques.

Oral tradition

According to elder residents of GomkhorSgom ’khor, these structures are the remains of ancient MönMon tombs, which were converted into Buddhist shrines long before living memory.

Site elements

Middle summit

In the middle of the flat summit there appear to be the remains of two cubic tombs spaced 6 m apart. One of these specimens measures 2 m by 2 m by 50 cm. The other specimen has been reduced to a mound with no coherent features.

Edge of the summit

Some tens of meters to the north, two or three more cubic tombs are situated on the edge of the mesa-like summit overlooking the settlement of GomkhorSgom ’khor. These structures are situated about 3 m apart from one another. The largest specimen (2 m by 1.8 m by 1.2 m) appears to have some of its central depository intact. On top of this structure there are pieces of old plaques with worn mani inscriptions, creating a shrine that was built in pre-modern times. The design, construction and location of this structure corroborate its möndur attribution in the local oral tradition. It is longer and the stonework is of generally higher quality than the purpose-built mani walls of GomkhorSgom ’khor. The morphology of a second specimen, used to enshrine mani plaques, does not permit positive identification as a cubic tomb. The third specimen (1.6 m by 1.9 m) has been nearly leveled.

Gyamchung Möndur (Gyam chung mon dur)

General site characteristics

Gyamchung MöndurGyam chung mon dur, a wide-ranging network of funerary and possibly other types of structures, is located at the base and along the slopes of a ridge system known as GyamchungGyam chung. This large site spans 170 m vertical. At the lower end of GyamchungGyam chung there is a corral of the local seasonal drokpa encampment. Gyamchung MöndurGyam chung mon dur consists of four or five cubic tombs and more than 20 walls, forming terraces along steep slopes and the edges of cliffs. The terraced structures have forward walls with significant elevations, while their rear walls are usually flush with the uphill slope. Most of these structures have a width of 1 m or less. The function of the terraced constructions is enigmatic. They appear to have had a funerary ritual function rather than a defensive role as ramparts, but this remains to be proven. In any case, ramparts have not been found with cubic tombs at any other site in western Tibet. All the cubic tombs and terraced constructions of GyamchungGyam chung have eastern and southern exposures. They were built with random-rubble, dry-stone walls. Variable-length slabs (20 cm to 90 cm) and blocky stones went into their construction. A grayish (metamorphic?) rock with a well-developed reddish brown varnish was used to build the structures of the site.

Oral tradition

According to some local sources, Gyamchung MöndurGyam chung mon dur is an ancient MönMon funerary site.

Site elements

Base of the ridge

Funerary structures FS1 to FS5 were constructed in a steeply inclined narrow valley. Some of these specimens appear to have been terraced structures with relatively tall, fully exposed forward walls and side walls that progressively disappear into the ground in an uphill direction. The rear of these structures appears to have been fully buried:

Funerary structure FS1 (2.6 m by 2.6 m) has been reduced to a fragmentary foundation with a depression in the middle (33° 04.227΄ / 80° 25.404΄ / 4480 m).
Funerary structure FS2 is located several meters from FS1 (04.231΄ / 25.401΄ / 4480 m). It consists of just remnants of a single wall.
Funerary structures FS3 and FS4 are adjacent specimens with a total length of 5 m (04.263 / 25.379 / 4500 m). The forward wall of these structures is 1 m in height. As they have been engulfed by the slope, the width of the structures is not clear. In close proximity there are faint traces of other walls.
Funerary structure FS5: only faint traces of this terraced structure remain (04.269΄ / 25.376΄ / 4510 m).

Lower ridge

This group includes both cubic tombs (length by width by maximum height) and terraced constructions:

Funerary structure FS6 (2 m by 2 m by 60 cm [height]) is situated on an outcrop suspended above the head of the valley (04.279΄ / 25.347΄ / 4530 m). This cubic tomb is composed of slabs, 20 cm to 80 cm in length. Its central depository (reliquary) is partially intact.
Funerary structure FS7, a cubic tomb, of which less than half is intact, is situated a little higher than FS6 (04.281΄ / 25.339΄ / 4530 m).
Funerary structure FS8 is a terraced construction (4.7 m by 2.4 m [height]) built along the edge of a cliff (04.276΄ / 25.320΄ / 4540 m). It is not clear how much of the structure is submerged below the ground.
Funerary structure FS9 is located on the same spine of rock as FS8, but at a slightly lower elevation (04.277΄ / 25.333΄ / 4540 m). It was built upon a notch in the formation. This probable cubic tomb has been reduced to its foundation.

Funerary structures FS10 to FS14 form a horizontal line of terraced structures:

Funerary structure FS10 is located on a parallel rocky spine (04.304΄ / 25.329΄ / 4540 m). Exceedingly little of this terraced structure has endured. In close proximity, there are other wall fragments.
Funerary structure FS11 was constructed into the slope a few meters from FS10 (04.302΄ / 25.331΄ / 4540 m). Only scant remains are visible. The forward wall of this structure is up to 1 m in height.
Funerary structure FS12, a small construction, has the same aspect as FS11 (04.302΄ / 25.330΄ / 4540 m). Its forward wall is up to 70 cm in height. Between FS11 and FS12, there are the faint traces of an analogous structure.
Funerary structure FS13 shares the same slope contour as FS11 and FS12 (04.298΄ /25.328΄ / 4540 m). The forward wall of this structure has a maximum height of 1.4 m.
Funerary structure FS14 has a forward wall up to 1 m in height (04.287΄ / 25.317΄ / 4550 m).

Middle ridge

Funerary structures FS15 to FS19 are terraced constructions possessing the same design and aspect as the lower ridge group.
Funerary structure FS15 (6 m by 50 cm [height]) is built on the edge of a narrow ledge (04.292΄ / 25.301΄ / 4590 m).
Funerary structure FS16 (3.4 m by 1.5 m) is situated on a ledge a few meters from FS15 (04.288΄ / 25.291΄ / 4600 m).
Funerary structure FS17 (1.7 m by 1.7 m) is located higher up the steep slopes of the ridge (04.301΄ / 25. 285΄ / 4620 m).
Funerary structure FS18 has been reduced to a small remnant (1 m by 1.2 m), occupying the same contour of the slope as FS17 (04.299΄ / 25.277΄ / 4620 m).
Funerary structure FS19 (5.7 m by 1.4 m) is situated a few meters from FS18 (04.292 / 25.272 / 4620 m).

Upper ridge

Funerary structures FS20 to FS25 are analogous terraced structures.
Funerary structure FS20 (2.2 m by 70 cm [height]) was built into a cliff situated higher up on the ridge (04.314΄ / 25.274΄ / 4640 m).
Funerary structure FS21 consists of three wall segments, located on the same cliff edge as FS20 (04.315΄ / 25.267΄ / 4640 m). These three wall segments span 3 m. It is not clear if they originally formed one integral unit or if they were built with gaps between them. The maximum height of the forward faces of these structures is between 1.1 m and 1.9 m. Their maximum width is 1.5 m.
Funerary structure FS22 (11 m by 1.3 m) is broken into two parts, and is situated a few meters from FS21 on the same cliff edge (04.306΄ / 25,250΄ / 4640 m).
Funerary structure FS23 is the highest structure (11 m by 1 m) at Gyamchung MöndurGyam chung mon dur (04.314΄ / 25.247΄ / 4650 m). It is broken into two parts and has a maximum width of 2 m. Unlike the other terraced constructions, its uphill wall is also elevated above the slope (60 cm in height). It is 300 m vertical to the valley floor from this point. Above FS23 the rocky ridge falls away before climbing to even greater heights.
Funerary structure FS24 (1.7 m by 60 cm) (04.313΄ / 25.233΄ / 4630 m).
Funerary structure FS25 (3.5 m by minimal height) (04.302΄ / 25.253΄ / 4630 m).

Cubic tombs

Funerary structure FS26 is a cubic tomb of conventional construction prominently situated on the top of a level rocky outcrop (04.253΄ / 25. 286΄ / 4580 m). The structure (2.8 m by 2 m by 1.3 m) is quite closely aligned in the cardinal directions. On the top of the more intact east side of the tomb there are stone chips. These chips may have been part of the original capping structure overlying the central depository. The partially intact, rectangular chamber is 60 cm wide. Variable sized slabs (up to 70 cm long) went into the construction of FS26. Some tens of meters to the south are FS15 and FS16.

Funerary structure FS27, another cubic tomb, is situated lower, in a notch in the ridge-top (04.191΄ / 25.295΄ / 4500 m). This conspicuously placed tomb measures 2.5 m by 2 m by 70 cm. The central depository is largely intact and is aligned in the cardinal directions (like the entire structure itself). The central depository measures 50 cm (north-south) by 90 cm (east-west) and has a maximum depth of 40 cm (but it is partially filled with rubble). On the west side of the central depository, several stones form overlapping vertical courses.

Large enclosure

In a sloping valley, west of the structure-studded ridge, there is a relatively large construction, divided by a partition wall into two equal halves (04.064΄ / 25.276΄ / 4420 m). Measuring 6 m (lateral walls) by 16 m (walls parallel to the axis of the slope), it could not be determined whether this was a residential or ceremonial ruin. It is built on a rocky slope with an approximate 10° gradient. Much of the structure is set well below ground level. While the uphill wall is relatively well preserved (consists of several vertical courses of masonry), the other walls have lost their coherence. Stones primarily 25 cm to 50 cm in length went into the construction of this structure.

Milam Khyilam (Mi lam khyi lam)

General site characteristics

The funerary structures of Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam are found near two passes known as Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam and Khyichong LaKhyi mchong la (Jumping Dog Pass) and near the summit of a higher ridgeline called Pema NakyölPad ma nag yol. This ridge system rises above the southern margin of the Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho lake basin. From the long summit there are broad vistas in nearly all directions. The cubic tomb site of Tanu MöndurRta nu mon dur (E-8), located about 20 km to the north, is in direct view. To the southeast is the territorial deity (yüllha) of the region, the high mountain, Orok TaktsenO rog stag btsan.221 The remains of probably 22 cubic tombs of various sizes are situated on the slopes and summits of the Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam ridge system, beginning about 150 m above the Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho basin. They form a network of funerary structures extending over a distance of about 3 km to a high point on the ridgeline. Although there are no signs of recent vandalism, as with virtually all the cubic tombs of western Tibet, Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam was desecrated in the past. The higher tombs tend to be better preserved, probably because there has been very little visitation or grazing of livestock in this area. All the tombs are built of light brown variable-length (primarily 30 cm to 70 cm long) stone slabs that, in some cases, have darkened to an almost magenta color. Some structures contain stone slabs up to 1.1 m in length.

Oral tradition

Local drokpa widely believe that the cubic tombs of Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam are ancient MönMon burial structures.

Site elements

Lower reaches group

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 appears to be the traces of the lowest elevation cubic tomb at the site (32° 27.146΄ / 83° 10.918΄ / 4600 m); however, not enough remains in place to positively identify these remains. This structure is set on the first rocky eminence rising above the Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho lake basin.

Funerary Structures FS2 and FS3

Funerary structures FS2 and FS3 appear to be the remains of two cubic tombs but very little of these structures survives (26.863΄ / 10.699΄ / 4650 m). They are located higher up the ridgeback from FS1.

Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam and Khyichong LaKhyi mchong la group

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (2.8 m by 1.6 m by 70 cm [maximum height]) is situated on a subsidiary summit of the ridgeline, on ground lightly strewn with talus (26.802΄ / 10.603΄ / 4690 m). Although part of the cubic tomb has been leveled, a small portion of its central depository (reliquary) is intact. Due to the dissolution of the structure, it could not be determined whether it was aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (2.8 m 1.6 m by 1 m) is located in the vicinity of FS4 in an analogous setting (26.780΄ / 10.572΄ / 4700 m). The middle of the structure has been gutted, therefore the size of the central depository is no longer evident. In this large hollow in the structure there are traces of osteological materials. A small bone fragment, possibly belonging to a human, was collected from this cubic tomb and subjected to chronometric analysis.222 While the provenance of the assayed sample is unclear, it demonstrates that bones upwards of 1000 years old found their way into cubic tombs. The dated bone fragment may possibly have been part of an original interment or deposited as part of a subsequent adventitious burial. It is also possible that its deposition was a matter of happenstance.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 is situated 7.5 m west of FS5 on the ridge-top. It has been reduced to traces of the foundation.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (2.8 m by 1.8 m by 60 cm) is situated just below the precipitous south side of the ridge-top on a slope lightly strewn with talus (26.776΄ / 10.621΄ / 4690 m). This location is in close proximity to the Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam and Khyichong LaKhyi mchong la passes. It overlooks the juncture of the Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho and Oma Tso’O ma mtsho lake basins, a powerful geomantic configuration.223 FS7 appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. The top of the structure has been completed engulfed by rubble.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (1.6 m by 1.6 m by 60 cm) is situated on the east side of Khyichong LaKhyi mchong la (26.808΄ / 10.422΄ / 4690 m). The walls of this tomb were probably aligned in the cardinal directions but too little remains in place to know for certain.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (2.4 m by 4 m by 1 m to 1.3 m) is situated less than 2 m away from FS8. This unusually large specimen is not well aligned in the compass points. Its central depository measures 2.3 m by 90 cm, and is one of the only such internal spaces in any cubic tomb surveyed to date that could have potentially accommodated a whole, unflexed adult corpse. There is still one in situ stone (1.1 m long) capping the 70 cm deep central depository.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (1.7 m by 2.5 m by 90 cm) is situated on the west side of Khyichong LaKhyi mchong la (26.823΄ / 10.319΄ / 4700 m). The top of this structure is completely filled with rubble.

Pema NakyölPad ma nag yol group

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (2 m by 2.3 m by 1m) is located northwest of FS10, on a higher ridge called Pema NakyölPad ma nag yol (26.957 / 10.009 / 4780 m). FS11 is situated on a southern aspect talus-covered shelf, just below the ridgeline. Much of this structure has been leveled.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 is located near FS11 on the very eastern end of the talus-blanketed Pema NakyölPad ma nag yol summit. In this extremely large structure (3.6 m by 4 m by 40 cm to 60 cm) there appear to be the traces of a central depository, identifying it as sepulchral in function.

Funerary Structure FS13

Funerary structure FS13 is situated on the summit, 6 m west of FS12. It is a similarly sized and constructed structure but in a much more degraded condition.

Funerary structure FS14

Funerary structure FS14 is situated in close proximity to FS13 (27.014΄ / 10.033΄ / 4780 m). This smaller structure has been leveled. FS14 appears to be the remains of a cubic tomb.

Funerary Structure FS15

Funerary structure FS15 (2 m by 2 m by 50 cm) is situated higher up the Pema NakyölPad ma nag yol summit ridge (27.012΄ / 09 995΄ / 4800 m). The integral lower walls of this structure envelop the base of the central depository, which is filled with debris.

Funerary Structure FS16

Funerary structure FS16 (2.5 m by 1.9 m by 1 m) is situated much higher up the ridge-top (27.023 / 09.766 / 4880m). Its central depository is largely intact and well aligned in the cardinal directions: it measures 75 cm (east-west) by 40 cm (north-south) by 60 cm deep.

Funerary Structure FS17

Funerary structure FS17 (2.6 m by 2.4 m by 1.1 m) is located on the summit at a slightly higher elevation than FS16. The remains of its central depository are filled with earth and stones.

Funerary Structure FS18

Funerary structure FS18 (1.8 m by 1.8 m by 1 m) is located higher up the summit ridge and overlooks the sheer south side of the mountain (27.009΄ / 09.601΄ / 4930 m). The mostly intact central depository is not well aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 40 cm by 50 cm by 70 deep. This is one of the best preserved cubic tombs at the Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam site.

Funerary Structure FS19

Funerary structure FS19 (2.3 m by 1.9 m by 1 m) is also one of the best preserved cubic tombs at the site (27.014 / 09 585 / 4930 m). The large central depository is well aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 1 m (east-west) by 60 cm (north-south) by 60 cm (depth).

Funerary Structure FS20

Funerary structure FS20 (1.4 m by 1.8 m by 70 cm) is located just below the south side of the summit, higher up the ridgeline (26.978΄ / 09.371΄ / 4980 m). FS20, a largely collapsed cubic tomb, is surrounded by rock ledges on three sides.

Funerary Structure FS21

Funerary structure FS21 is located on the summit, a few meters from FS20. This almost entirely destroyed specimen is not fully identifiable.

Funerary Structure FS22

Funerary structure FS22 (2 m by 2.2 m by 70 cm to 1.3 m), a well preserved cubic tomb, is situated farther west on the summit ridge (27.005΄ / 09.315΄ / 4980 m). FS22 overlooks the south side of Pema NakyölPad ma nag yol. The walls of the central depository (80 cm by 1.2 m by 60 cm [deep]) are not very regular. Some capstones are still in place along the east side of the central depository. This is the most westerly funerary structure at Milam KhyilamMi lam khyi lam, although the ridgeline continues west for some distance. The lack of tombs on the west end of the summit seems to suggest that this direction was not as important to the builders as the eastern vista.

Denjangri Mukpo Dong (Ldan byang ri smug po gdong)

General site characteristics

On or near the talus-covered summit of the Denjangri Mukpo DongLdan byang ri smug po gdong mountain there are probably seven cubic tombs of conventional design and construction. This imposing ridge is located northwest of old Oma’O ma. From its summit there are good views north and east (in the direction of Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho), while the views south and west are closed by adjacent ridgelines. Grayish slabs (that have darkened substantially) of variable length (primarily 30 cm to 70 cm long) were used in construction.

Oral tradition

In this region (SenkhorBse ’khor), sites such as Denjangri Mukpo DongLdan byang ri smug po gdong are commonly connected to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

East summit group

This group is found on or near the east summit ridge.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (2.9 m by 3.4 m by 40 cm to 60 cm [height]) is situated on the relatively level east end of the summit ridge. The sub-rectangular lower portion of the central depository (reliquary) (80 cm by 1 m by 25 cm [depth]) is intact.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated 19 m southeast of FS1 and has the same aspect. FS2 has been reduced to a dissolute foundation, thus it could not be positively identified.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated on a ledge below the east summit. One corner of this highly deteriorated cubic tomb still reaches 70 cm in height. Little else coherent remains in this specimen.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (1.9 m by 2.4 m by 50 cm to 1 m) is situated near FS3, on a smaller talus-sprinkled ledge. This relatively well-preserved specimen appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. Its central depository is covered in stones and impacted earth.

Main summit group

This group is found further west, on or near the main summit ridge.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is situated on a ledge overlooking the steep south face of the mountain (29.149΄ / 06.595΄ / 4930 m). So deteriorated is this small specimen that it could not be positively identified as a cubic tomb.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (1.9 m by 2.2 m by 50 cm) is situated just below the summit on a broad north slope lightly strewn with talus. The walls of this cubic tomb are aligned in the cardinal directions. The partially intact, large central depository measures 1.1 m (east-west) by 60 cm (north-south) by 30 cm deep. The bottom of the central depository is obscured by rubble.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (2.5 m by 2 m by 40 cm) is situated on the talus-covered summit Just the base of the central depository has survived. Human skeletal remains were detected in the central depository. Among these tiny bone fragments was a mandibular section with a canine and pre-molar tooth, which was collected for chronometric analysis. This bone specimen yielded disappointing results.224 These results may possibly indicate that the assayed sample represented part of an adventitious human burial of more recent times.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 is situated just below the summit on a south slope heavily cloaked in talus. FS6 consists of a rocky pit (1.7 m by 2.7 m by 1 m [depth]). This structure may also have had a burial function.

Tsuk Serra (Gtsug ser ra)

General site characteristics

Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra is the name of a dark-colored mountain that rises 500 m above the eastern margin of the large basin that cradles the lakes of Oma Tso’O ma mtsho and Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho. Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra is one of five mountains with cubic tombs in eyeshot of Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho (see E-8, E-17, E-18, E-23). There are good views north and south from the funerary structures of Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra. Structures on the east side of the mountain also have good views to the east, while those on the west side of the mountain have fine views in that direction. Various types of enclosures, cubic tombs and other ritual structures are found at the foot and on the slopes and summit of Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra. The cubic tombs were made of variable length, grayish stone slabs (up to 1 m long). Several of the cubic tombs were converted into rudimentary rock shelters. There is also an old cairn on the summit of Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra.

Oral tradition

In this region (SenkhorBse ’khor), sites such as Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra are generally associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Lower site

Superficial structure

There is a single-course square, funerary enclosure (6 m by 6 m) in the plain north of Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra (32° 24.798΄ N. lat. / 83° 18.785΄ E. long. / 4530 m). The terrain here is gently sloping and gravelly. Aligned in the cardinal directions, about 50 percent of this superficial structure is intact. Variable-length (up to 75 cm long) stones that project a maximum of 15 cm above ground level make up the walls of this enclosure.

Standing stone

At the east foot of Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra there is a standing stone (90 cm [height] by 1.2 m [basal girth]) of unknown identity (23.719΄ / 21.248΄ / 4670 m). Some stones were piled up around the west side of this pillar-like stone. It could not be determined if this standing stone was naturally occurring or raised through human activity.

Superficial structures on the east saddle

On a saddle connecting Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra with a ridge to the east there are the scant remains of what appears to be a platform-like structure (23.417΄ / 21.149΄ / 4770 m). This structure (3.7 m by 3.4 m minimum) is elevated about 1 m above the downhill slope. On top of the saddle, 25 m to the south, there are the remains of a double-course, sub-rectangular enclosure (17 m by 9.5 m). The perimeter wall fragments are well built and around 75 cm in thickness. Larger stones (primarily 40 cm to 70 cm long) were used to build these walls. The longest stone in this enclosure is 1 m, and some stones were inserted upright into the wall courses. The enclosure is divided by the remains of a wall into two roughly equal cells. The south cell is sunk about 50 cm below ground level.

Eastern ridgeback group

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is found on the talus strewn eastern ridgeback of Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra (23.429΄ / 21.079΄ / 4810 m). This structure is so highly disintegrated that it could not be positively identified as the remains of a cubic tomb.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2 m by 2 m) is a cubic tomb leveled to its foundation (23.433΄ / 21.064΄ / 4820 m). The remains of what appears to be two other cubic tombs are situated 9 m below and 3 m above FS2. However, there is very little to distinguish these structures from the surrounding talus-covered slopes.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is situated higher up the same slopes as FS1 and FS2 (23.445΄ / 21.024΄ / 4830 m). This is another probable cubic tomb, which has been reduced to its fragmentary foundation.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (3 m by 3 m by 70 cm to 1.3 m [height]) is situated on a small saddle perched above the lower east slopes of Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra (23.459΄ / 21.008΄ / 4830 m). This fairly well-preserved cubic tomb was built in the conventional manner with locally occurring slabs of stone up to 1 m in length. Its central depository is completely filled with rubble.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 is a highly unusual composite structure located 6 m west of FS4. It consists of a highly fragmentary outer enclosure that measures 11 m (north-south) by 7.5 m (east-west). Within this enclosure sits a cubic tomb (2 m by 1.8 m by 30 cm [maximum height]). The base of the central depository (reliquary) has endured. Inside the same enclosure, 1.6 m north of the cubic tomb, there is a small single-course slab-wall enclosure aligned in the cardinal directions. This subsidiary enclosure measures 2.5 m (north-south) by 3 m (east-west). Many of the upright stone slabs forming the perimeter walls of the subsidiary enclosure are elevated 20 cm to 40 cm above ground level. The largest slab used in its construction is 1.2 m in length. Through the agency of gravity most of these slabs are now inclined at various angles. There are also two pillar-like stones, 60 cm in height, in the subsidiary enclosure. The cubic tomb and subsidiary enclosure are symmetrically arrayed inside the large outer enclosure. Although all the individual structural elements of FS5 find common expression in Upper Tibetan archaic ceremonial structures, this is the only monument of this particular morphological configuration surveyed to date.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (2.3 m by 3 m by 40 cm) is situated higher up the ridgeback on a small rock-strewn level area (23.447΄ / 20.929΄ / 4860 m). While there is little structural coherence left in this cubic tomb, the base of the central depository is recognizable.

Summit group

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (2 m by 2 m by 50 cm) is situated on the east edge of the summit ridge (23.464΄ / 20.863΄ / 4930 m). The central depository of FS7 seems to have collapsed. In close proximity are the crude walls of what appears to be a shepherd’s shelter (droklhé).

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 is situated below the north side of the summit, on a talus-cloaked slope (23.488΄ / 20.880΄ / 4910 m). The north wall of this cubic tomb appears to have been rebuilt to serve as a rudimentary shepherd’s shelter.

West shoulder group

On a talus-covered shoulder of Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra, located west of the summit ridge, there is group of four cubic tombs spread out over a transection of 13.5 m (23.462΄ / 20.837΄ / 4900 m). There are also the remains of two other cubic tombs on this shoulder. The views from the shoulder are open in the north and south and particularly in the west.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (2 m by 2 m by 70 cm to 90 cm) is the highest cubic tomb in the group of four. This structure was built against a small rock face. What remains of its central depository appears to be filled with debris.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 is situated just below FS9. This average-sized cubic tomb was gutted and transformed into a rudimentary shelter. Given their extreme location and the lack of good grazing ground, such rock shelters at Tsuk SerraGtsug ser ra may have been built as a refuge.

Funerary structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (2.3 m by 2 m by 70 cm) is situated below FS10. The central depository in this cubic tomb has collapsed.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 (2 m by 2 m) is the lowest cubic tomb in the group of four. It has been leveled to its foundation.

Funerary Structure FS13

Funerary structure FS13 is situated 27 m north of the group of four. It was gutted to produce a small rock shelter. Stones up to 1.5 m in length went into its construction.

Funerary Structure FS14

Funerary structure FS14 is situated 12.5 m north of FS13. Although the center of this cubic tomb was removed, it is in more of an original state than FS13. FS14 reaches a maximum height of 1.1 m.

Gyaruk Möndur (Rgya rug mon dur)

General site characteristics

The two funerary structures of Gyaruk MöndurRgya rug mon dur are situated on ridge-tops of GyarukRgya rug (the ruk, “side by side” part of this toponym refers to the juxtaposition of white and black rock formations in the locale). The site rises above the west shore of Yubuk TsakhaG.yu sbug tshwa kha (4560 m), a salt lake that greatly expands and shrinks in size. The presence of tombs and many petroglyphs (I-15) along the west side of the lake indicate that it has long been the focus of human settlement, despite being situated so far north. The relatively low elevation of the Yubuk TsakhaG.yu sbug tshwa kha basin and the 6000 m high meridian range to the west, providing ample fresh water, are the main geographic endowments accounting for this settlement. Although Gyaruk MöndurRgya rug mon dur has been classed as a type II.3 monument (due to its ridge-top aspect), it has little resemblance to the average cubic tombs of this typology. Gyaruk MöndurRgya rug mon dur is perhaps better classed as a type II.2 monument, but the in situ evidence does not permit a detailed analysis of its design and construction. Stones of various colors and lengths (up to 90 cm long) went into the construction of Gyaruk MöndurRgya rug mon dur.

Oral tradition

According to local residents, Gyaruk MöndurRgya rug mon dur belonged to the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is situated in the middle of a fairly level ridge-top. It has morphological characteristics of both the double-course enclosure (II.1b) type and bangso (II.2d) type of funerary structures, but its precise design could not be ascertained. This dissolute structure (8 m by 8 m) is elevated 1 m to 1.4 m above ground level. Small intact wall fragments suggest that it was square in shape, although it now has a round appearance. The center of FS1 appears to have been open, but dislodged stones are now scattered all around the structure.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is located higher up the same ridgeback on a relatively broad and level portion of the summit. It is of similar construction to FS1. We might speculate that FS2 consisted of a central mound enclosed by a wall. Small traces of double-course walls make up the perimeter of this probable quadrate structure (11 m by 11 m). FS2 is elevated 1.2 m to 1.6 m above the summit. The construction of a shepherd’s shelter (droklhé) in the middle adds another 50 cm to the height of FS2. This concave rock shelter is measures 2.3 m across and 1 m in depth.

Affiliated sites

NgöndongSngon gdong

Two funerary structures are found at a locale called NgöndongSngon gdong (Blue Face), situated northwest of Yubuk TsakhaG.yu sbug tshwa kha.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 is a sub-rectangular double-course (6 m by 6 m) enclosure situated in the middle of the boulder-strewn slopes of NgöndongSngon gdong. More than 50 percent of its 50 cm thick walls are intact. The variable-length (primarily 30 cm to 50 cm long) stones in these walls are mostly flush with the ground surface. There are also at least two slabs in the walls, projecting 25 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is situated on a rocky shoulder, overlooking the south side of NgöndongSngon gdong. This structure now has the appearance of a rocky tumulus, elevated 70 cm above the surrounding terrain. The faint remaining wall fragments of this probable quadrate structure appear to be aligned in the cardinal directions. They contain variable-length stones. FS2 measures 2.8 m (north-south) by 3.7 m (east-west). Horns of domestic sheep and goats have been placed on the ruins of FS2, probably in the mistaken belief that a chöten once stood here. For instance, the local guide to the site is under the impression that FS2 represents the base of an old chöten.

Rongdeu KarpoRong rde’u dkar po

It is reported that several kilometers north of NgöndongSngon gdong, at a locale called Rongdeu KarpoRong rde’u dkar po (White Valley Knoll), a “möndur” of the enclosure type was excavated in the search for valuables (sometime before this survey). Digging down into the middle of the enclosure, the leg joints and hornless skull of a blue sheep are said to have been discovered but nothing else.

TroksharmaKhrog shar ma

What appears to be a minor funerary structure was detected in the pastoral hamlet of TroksharmaKhrog shar ma, in 2006 (33° 01.512΄ N. lat. / 86° 06.473΄ E. long. / 4880). This site is in GomoRgo mo township, GertséSger rtse county. The terrain is sandy, level and open. This squarish enclosure (1.1 m by 1.3 m) has single-course perimeter walls, which are mostly made up of nine blue-gray grained stones. These upright stones are up to 60 cm in length and project as much as 25 cm above the ground surface. There is also one section of the perimeter wall that is composed of small pieces of milky quartz, a highly unusual feature.

Dzari Rakpa (Rdza ri rag pa)

General site characteristics

The tombs of Dzari RakpaRdza ri rag pa are located on a gravel- and talus-strewn ridgeback, rising 400 m to 500 m above the shores of Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho. Both Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho and Tso MapamMtsho ma pham, the major sacred lakes of the region, are visible from the site. The documentation of Dzari RakpaRdza ri rag pa confirms that mountaintop cubic tombs were indeed built south of the Transhimalaya in extreme southwestern Tibet. There appear to have been no less than 29 cubic tombs and two slab-wall enclosures erected at Dzari RakpaRdza ri rag pa. However, there is little structural evidence left at the site to assess. Many of the tombs were either destroyed or structurally modified, obliterating most original design features of these monuments. None of them have fully intact central depositories (reliquaries). These structures are of typical size, measuring 1.8 m to 2.5 m on each of their four sides. Primarily blocks 30 cm to 80 cm in length and 10 cm to 20 cm in thickness were used to construct the tombs. The heavy impacts to the site may be related to its proximity to Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se and Tso MapamMtsho ma pham, highly important Buddhist pilgrimage sites. The relatively heavy traffic through the region and the zeal of Buddhist pilgrims and clerics over the centuries may well have played a role in the degradation of the tombs of Dzari RakpaRdza ri rag pa.

Oral tradition

According to some local sources, the mountain of Dzari RakpaRdza ri rag pa was once a SingpaSing pa (invaders from the northwest) stronghold. The structural modification of some of the cubic tombs does indeed give the impression that primitive lookout posts were created from them.

Site elements

South sector

The south sector consists of a group of cubic tombs sitting on a dark-colored rock outcrop, which rises directly above the Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho basin (30° 43.304΄ N. lat. / 81° 09.758΄ / 4990 m). No less than 11 cubic tombs, many of which have been leveled to their foundation, are spread over a 50 m transection. Among these tombs, there are those that were converted into small shelters or fortifications.

Northeast sector

The northeast sector is situated higher up the ridgeline, on a small knob of dark-colored rock (13.476΄ / 09.801΄ / 5050 m). At this location there is a single gutted cubic tomb. Its east wall still attains 1.5 m in height but very little else remains intact. Below the knob of rock there are the remains of a quadrate slab-wall enclosure (3.7 m by 3.7 m). This structure was built of slabs up to 80 cm in length that protrude as much as 30 cm above ground level. Another fragmentary enclosure (5 m across) is situated on a rocky slope 28 m to the south.

North central sector

Located higher up the ridgeline, the north central sector contains the highest elevation tombs at Dzari RakpaRdza ri rag pa (43.522΄ / 09.719΄ 5080 m). The central sector hosts at least one dozen highly deteriorated tombs that were built on a rocky outcrop. On the east side of the north central sector there are three somewhat better-preserved specimens that form a row along the ridgeline. These three larger specimens measure about 2.5 m on each side. Traces of what appears to have been the central depository (1.8 m by 40 cm by 50 cm [depth]) have survived in the highest tomb among them. The stone blocks along the edge of this central chamber form less than perfectly straight walls. In the lowest specimen of the three tombs, there are three in situ blocks forming one corner of the central depository. From the stones of other north central sector tombs, a cairn, a shepherd’s shelter and the base of a prayer flag mast were built.

Northwest sector

The northwest sector is situated below and to the west of the north central sector (43.518΄ / 09.650΄ / 5060 m). On a knob of rock and an adjacent slope there are the remains of five more cubic tombs. In only one of these specimens can the base of the central depository be discerned.

Affiliated sites

DokuRdo sku

Local sources report that there are structures analogous to those of Dzari RakpaRdza ri rag pa on the higher ridge of DokuRdo sku, which is located to the west.

Paktuk (Pags mthug)

General site characteristics

PaktukPags mthug is located on one of a group of ridgelines of the same name. This ridge rings a portion of the Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho basin. From the site there are fairly open views in all directions. At least eleven funerary structures, many of which appear to have been cubic graves, are situated on the northeast-southwest running rocky spine. There are also the traces of walls and at least one enclosure at PaktukPags mthug. The tombs and other structures are spread out over more than 1 km along the talus-blanketed ridgeback. Many of them are so deteriorated that they have been almost reabsorbed into the depositions of talus. The cubic tombs among them appear to have been of standard design and construction. All structures at the site are made of variable-length (30 cm to 80 cm long) reddish and purplish slabs of volcanic talus. These funerary structures are closely associated spatially and functionally with a small array of pillars appended to an edifice (C-158). These monuments constitute two distinctive components of what appears to have been an integrated (functionally and chronologically) necropolis. On high ground around the Tarap TsoRta rabs mtsho basin there are four other sites of the cubic tomb typology (E-8, E-17, E-18, E-19).

Oral tradition

According to the folklore of Oma’O ma, there was once a local chieftain who was extremely fond of wild yak (drong) hunting. One day because of all his killing there were no wild yaks left in the region. In order to survive he was reduced to boiling the skins of wild yaks and eating them. The name of the site, “Thick Hide” is said to refer to this incident.

Site elements

Southwest group

Funerary structures FS1 to FS7 are situated southwest of the other structures on the lower end of the site. These cubic tomb traces were not individually surveyed because of their extremely poor condition and the inability, in some cases, to positively differentiate between manmade structures and natural heaps of talus.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (1.7 m by 2.3 m) is situated off the spine of the ridge just below FS9 and FS10. FS8 is one of the best preserved cubic tombs at PaktukPags mthug. Although it has been reduced to 30 cm or less in height, its quadrate form is still discernable. Stones up to 1 m in length went into the construction of FS8. Several in situ stones of the central depository (reliquary) still mark this cubic tomb.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9, a highly deteriorated structure, is situated on the high point of the ridgeline.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 is located on the high point of the ridgeline, in close proximity to FS9. This cubic tomb has been reduced to an amorphous heap of stones. FS10 is connected to FS9 by a single-course wall, 15 m in length. The stones of this meandering wall appear to have stood erect with their two broad sides oriented perpendicular to the axis of the ridgeline. A continuation of this wall follows the ridgeback for at least 100 m in a downhill direction and perhaps for the entire 460 m to the base of the ridge. Due to its advanced state of degradation, the original extent of this wall is difficult to judge. In the upper section of the wall there are several upright stones, protruding 30 cm to 40 cm above the talus mantle. Most other stones, however, have collapsed in a domino fashion along the slope gradient. This wall appears to have been closely linked with other structures at PaktukPags mthug and is likely to have had a funerary ritual function.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (2.2 m by 2.2 m) is situated between FS10 and the array of pillars (C-158). This single-course enclosure consists of stones that protrude upwards of 30 cm above the talus-covered slope. In addition to the outer perimeter walls, there appears to be a rectangular inner enclosure (1 m across) that is also composed of upright stones.

Cheri Teldzong (Phye ri thal rdzong)

General site characteristics

Cheri TeldzongPhye ri thal rdzong is located on a small sandy shelf, just below the eponymous rocky peak. The site overlooks the ZhingsaZhing sa basin and the great salt lake, Ngangla RingtsoNgang la ring mtsho. It consists of a single rectangular structure that appears to have been oriented in the cardinal directions. While it is certain that Cheri TeldzongPhye ri thal rdzong belongs to a different typology than the common cubic tomb of western Tibet, it was placed in this category of sites because of its lofty location and possible mortuary function. Nevertheless, given its general form, it is also possible that this monument represents an archaic cultural shrine of the sekhar or tenkhar class. According to RuntorRu ’thor elders, the environs of ZhingsaZhing sa were cultivated in ancient times. It may be expected then, that shrines for the ritual upkeep of the farming community were established at this locale.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Cheri TeldzongPhye ri thal rdzong is an ancient monument.

Site elements

The cubic structure of Cheri TeldzongPhye ri thal rdzong measures 7.2 m (north-south) by approximately 2.2 m (east-west) by 80 cm to 2 m in height. There are small coherent wall sections on the east and west sides of the structure and a relatively large section of intact stonework on the south side. Cheri TeldzongPhye ri thal rdzong is of random-rubble construction and is composed of variable-length blocky stones (30 cm by 60 cm long). Both a dark-colored grainy rock and a light-colored conglomerate were used in its construction.

Yadra Trik (G.ya’ sbra khrigs)

General site characteristics

Yadra TrikG.ya’ sbra khrigs is located on the summit of a flat-topped black outcrop rising above the southern end of a huge basin. This outcrop is part of a series of blackish formations known as Yadra TrikG.ya’ sbra khrigs. The site enjoys open views in all directions. The outcrop is covered in dark blue slates some of which have weathered to a reddish color. These slates were used to construct six sub-rectangular above ground tombs. These structures are of a more rudimentary construction than the typical mountaintop cubic tomb. Through subsidence and the ravages of time, the structures of Yadra TrikG.ya’ sbra khrigs now have a rounded appearance. Each specimen contains a large central cavity (reliquary) encased in the outer walls. These walls are made from slabs 20 cm to 80 cm in length and 2 cm to 10 cm in thickness. There are no signs that the cavities were ever lined with a finer inner layer of masonry. The upper portions of the outer walls of each structure taper inwards. This inward positioning of the slabs must have continued all the way up to the original height of the structures. Given the local geology, it is likely that the tops of the walls were capped with long slates. The structures must have been approximately 50 percent higher than the tallest extant specimens (1.2 m), in order to be spanned by the slates available at the site. The bases of the structures are often inset into the mantle of slates covering the summit. This must have given the roughly built structures more stability.

There are also wall remnants along the west rim of the formation and along the north flank of the site, dividing the upper and lower summits of the formation. These wall traces (none of which are free standing) were built in a similar fashion to the tombs, and are an integral part of the funerary complex. They may have had ritual functions. Yadra TrikG.ya’ sbra khrigs is one of the most northerly archaeological sites surveyed to date. It coincides with the northern margin of human settlement in the JangtangByang thang (much of which arose in the Communist period).

Oral tradition

In northern GertséSger rtse, drokpa associate Yadra TrikG.ya’ sbra khrigs with the ancient MönMon. Some drokpa believe the site to consist of ancient fortifications.

Site elements

Funerary structures FS1 to FS5 are spread out over more than half the summit in a transection 29 m long.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (2.3 m across) has been leveled on its exterior sides. The walls around the central cavity are 20 cm to 35 cm in height. This structure is situated adjacent to a wall on the north side of the site, which is 8.3 m long and a maximum of 1.2 m high.

Funerary structures FS2 to FS5 form a row along the west rim of the summit.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2.5 m by 2.5 m), the most northerly specimen in the row, has a maximum exterior height of 1 m. The remains of the central cavity (1.4 m by 1.3 m) are visible. The inward tapering of the walls begins 50 cm above the base of the central cavity. FS2 was built on a plinth of slates. Nearby, on the west rim of the summit, there are two wall fragments (2.6 m long by 1 m high, 1.5 m long by 1.3 m high).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (2.1 m by 2.1 m) is now almost level with the summit. The central cavity is set 65 cm below the mantle of slates covering the summit. FS3 was built on a slate plinth, 50 cm in height, that extends beyond the structure to the west rim of the formation.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (2.4 m by 2.6 m) is 50 cm high on its exterior sides. It also appears to have been built on top of a plinth of slates. The central cavity (1.3 m by 1.5 m) is 1.1 m in depth. The slabs of the outer walls begin to taper inwards 70 cm above the base of the central cavity.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (2.3 m by 2.8 m) is highly fragmentary. The remains of the central cavity are 40 cm in depth. The walls lining the west rim continue a little south of FS5.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (2.2 m by 2.2 m) is situated on a shelf about 5 m below the west edge of the summit. This relatively well-preserved structure was built against two large boulders. Its exterior walls reach a maximum height of 1.1 m and the central cavity is 60 cm in depth. The overlapping courses of slates begin 50 cm from the base of the central cavity.

Tagen Gyamnari (Rta rgan gyam sna ri)

General site characteristics

Tagen GyamnariRta rgan gyam sna ri is located on a ridge of the same name, a southern continuation of the long KyiserSkyid gser ridgeline (see C-161). This ridge rises about 200 m above the sloping plain to the east. The site enjoys wide views especially in the east. The terrain is rocky (but much less so than most sites of this typology) and sandy. The east side of the Tagen GyamnariRta rgan gyam sna ri ridge is very steep, while its west side gradually tapers downward in the direction of RigyelRi rgyal (D-33, E-6, I-2). On the broad, inclined summit and east slope, ten cubic tombs were documented. The cubic tombs all appear to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. However, several are too disintegrated to know for certain. Where discernable, the central chambers of the tombs have longer east-west dimensions. This suggests that the interments were oriented in these directions. All of the tombs of Tagen GyamnariRta rgan gyam sna ri are constructed of variable-length (20 cm to 1.7 m long) brown sandstone slabs.

Oral tradition

In GertséSger rtse, monuments such as Tagen GyamnariRta rgan gyam sna ri are frequently associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3 m by 1.5 m) is situated on the lower north ridge-top near the east rim of the summit. The structure has been reduced to around 50 cm in height and six vertical courses of mostly smaller slabs. The base of the central chamber is discernable in FS1.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2.3 m by 2 m) is located just below the east rim of the formation. This specimen is highly fragmentary and mostly made up of smaller slabs.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (2.3 m by 2.9 m) is situated on the top of the summit (53.619΄ / 11.838΄ / 4680 m). It is around 80 cm or ten to 15 slabs in height. Mostly, longer slabs up to 1.7 m in length were used to build FS3. The central chamber (1.2 m by 50 cm) is 40 cm deep and partly filled with sand and rubble. The central chamber (reliquary) is well built and lined with finer slabs than the outer walls.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (2.5 m by 2.3 m) is situated 8 m east of FS3 on a rocky base. It has been leveled to around 50 cm in height. Mostly longer slabs were used in its construction.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (2.1 m by 1.4 m) is situated on a high point of the summit (52.576΄ / 12.104΄ / 4780 m). It is between 50 cm and 90 cm in height. Although this specimen is not well preserved, a small portion of the central chamber is still intact. FS5 appears to have been constructed of mostly smaller slabs.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (1.7 m by 1.6 m) is situated 18 m southeast of FS5. This poorly preserved specimen has been reduced to a height of around 60 cm. It appears to have been built using mostly smaller sandstone slabs.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 now measures 1.6 m by 1.4 m, but its outer walls are incomplete (52.540 / 12.090 / 4780 m). This specimen was built on stony ground, and has a maximum height of 1.3 m. Although the exterior of FS7 is highly degraded, its central chamber is well preserved. This reliquary is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 60 cm (east-west) by 45 cm (north-south). It is 70 cm deep and lined with around 12 vertical courses of slabs on all four sides. One capstone over the central chamber is still in situ, a rare occurrence.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (2.8 m by 2.4 m) is situated on a rocky spur, on the east slope of Tagen GyamnariRta rgan gyam sna ri (52.369΄ / 12 584΄ / 4710 m). FS8 has a maximum height of 80 cm. A coherent wall segment has survived on the north side of FS8.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (2.4 m by 1.7 m) is situated 15 m west or upslope of FS8. This very poorly preserved specimen has a maximum height of 70 cm.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (2.4 m by 2.1 m) is situated on the tip of another rocky spur (52.435΄ / 12.634΄ / 4710 m). FS10 has a maximum height of 1.1 m. Slabs and blocks up to 70 cm in length were used in its construction. The remains of the central chamber are filled with rubble.

Affiliated sites

Two possible funerary enclosures are found south of Tagen GyamnariRta rgan gyam sna ri (32° 50.515΄ N. lat. / 83° 13.729΄ / 4660 m). One of these structures measures 6.5 m by 7.3 m and probably had single-course perimeter walls. Nearby is a smaller specimen. The stones in the perimeter walls of these highly degraded enclosures were laid flat.

Tremo Khar (Spre mo mkhar)

General site characteristics

Tremo KharSpre mo mkhar is located in the ZhungsaGzhung sa region on an eponymous hilltop. This hilltop rises 300 m above the BargaBar ga plain and has unobstructed 360° views. The Tremo KharSpre mo mkhar hilltop is the only place in the middle of the celebrated pilgrimage place known to the BönpoBon po as Gangritso SumGangs ri mtsho gsum where its three main sacred geographic features, Gangkar TiséGangs dkar ti se, Tso MapangMtsho ma pang and Pori NgedenSpos ri ngad ldan, can be seen simultaneously. All four structures of Tremo KharSpre mo mkhar are built of uncut variable-length tan blocks laid in random-rubble courses. The identification of these structures is hampered by the very poor state of the extant remains. They appear to be either representatives of the cubic tomb typology or closely related monuments. There is an old mani wall on the summit of Tremo KharSpre mo mkhar, which may have been constructed to symbolically and ritually bring Tremo KharSpre mo mkhar under the auspices of Buddhism.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, ancient fortifications belonging to the SingpaSing pa once stood at Tremo KharSpre mo mkhar.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

On the north slope of the hill, approximately 20 m below the lower west summit, there is a square masonry structure (3.3 m by 3.3 m), which is about 70 cm in height (FS1). The overlapping upper courses of stonework indicate that this structure was originally not much taller than it is today. It is very likely to have had a stone roof. Inside FS1 are four small spaces that were either used for sleeping or to accommodate burials or the deposition of relics. These compartments constitute a highly unusual design trait not encountered elsewhere in Upper Tibet.

Within 30 m of FS1 there are three highly deteriorated constructions. These may possibly be the faint remains of mountaintop cubic tombs. They have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Funerary structure FS2: (1.6 m by 1.9 m) has been reduced to its base.
Funerary structure FS3: (3 m by 3 m) has been leveled to its 50 cm high base. FS2 appears to have been oriented in the cardinal directions.
Funerary structure FS4: (1.5 m by 1.8 m) has been reduced to its crumbling base.

In addition to these four structures, there may be other structural traces on the same rocky slope.

Rübel Mukpo (Rus sbal smug po)

General site characteristics

Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po is located on an eponymous purplish ridgeback that rises above the west side of the SharmaShar ma valley (base: 4680 m). There are no less than the remains of eleven cubic tombs scattered across the upper half of the talus-covered ridgeline. This rocky spine (runs southeast-northwest) is aligned with the BönBon sacred lake, Langa TsoLa lnga mtsho and the BönBon sacred mountain, Takri TrawoStag ri khra bo/Nemona NyiGnas mo sna gnyis, a geographic situation which is not likely to be a coincidence. The geomantic dimensions of this configuration may have played an important role in the eschatological beliefs of the tomb builders. Above 5000 m, Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po also enjoys good views of the Great Central Himalaya from LemiSle mi to the Uttaranchal border. The existence of relatively well preserved specimens at this site proves that the cubic tomb typology, like that of the walled pillars and array of pillars appended to an edifice typologies, extended to extreme southwestern Tibet. The remote nature of Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po seems to have preserved the tombs from utter destruction or architectural modification by Buddhist zealots. Nyerma Gyam MöndoGnyer ma gyam mon rdo (D-60) and Dzari RakpaRdza ri rag pa (E-21) and Tremo KharSpre mo mkhar (E-26), sites in the same region, do appear to have been as lucky. The structures of Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po are made of uncut grayish slabs and blocks 20 cm to 70 cm in length. Some of the tombs are aligned in the cardinal directions.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of ZhungsaGzhung sa, the Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po remains are the tombs of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (2 m by 2 m) is not aligned in the cardinal directions. It has a maximum height of 1 m or eight vertical courses of stones along its downhill face. The uphill side of the structure is now nearly level with the slope. The central chamber (reliquary) is partially intact (60 cm by 40 cm by 50 cm [deep]). What appears to be a human vertebra is deposited inside this chamber. Approximately 5 m below FS1 there is a small pile of rubble that was partially transformed into a small rudimentary enclosure. This may have been the location of another cubic tomb.

Funerary structures FS2, FS3 and FS4 are located in a broad south-facing slope just off of the rocky spine of the ridge.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2.2 m by 2.5 m) has been reduced to around 30 cm in height (43.919΄ / 06.246΄ / 4970 m).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (2.5 m by 2.5 m) is situated 11 m southwest and 3 m lower than FS2. It has been reduced to its fragmentary base.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (2.2 m by 2.3 m) is situated 4 m west of FS3 at the same elevation. This somewhat better preserved specimen appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (1.9 m by 2 m) is highly fragmentary (43.958΄ / 06 235΄ / 5000 m). The extant base of the structure has a maximum height of 50 cm, and appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. There is another possible cubic tomb in the vicinity but too little remains to be certain of its identity (43.966΄ / 06.270΄ / 4990 m).

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 has degraded so that only fragments of its base and upper section remain (44.112΄ / 06.128΄ / 5090 m).

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (2.2 m by 2 m) is a highly degraded specimen with little height (44.187΄ / 06.052΄ / 5140 m).

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (2.2 m by 2 m) has been reduced to a dissolute base (44.218΄ / 06.027΄ / 5170 m).

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (2 m by 2.2 m) is situated 10 m northwest of FS8. This specimen is 40 cm to 60 cm in height, and is aligned in the cardinal directions. The central chamber (45 cm by 60 cm) has survived to a depth of 30 cm. The central chamber is lined with smaller stones than those used for the construction of the outer walls.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 is a heavily degraded specimen, about 40 cm in height (44.266΄ / 06.013΄ / 5190 m). It appears to have been aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (2.2 m by 2 m) is the highest cubic tomb at Rübel MukpoRus sbal smug po (44.308΄ / 06.002΄ / 5200 m). It has been reduced to a height of 50 cm or less. FS11 does not appear to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. The central chamber has been gutted but it is still clearly discernable. It has a maximum depth of 40 cm.

Tsokgi Möndur (Btsog gi mon dur)

General site characteristics

Tsokgi MöndurBtsog gi mon dur is located directly above the lower sector of the NyenlungGnyan lung Valley funerary site of the same name (D-91). There are two cubic tombs on the dragon-back ridgeline that forms the western gateway of the NyenlungGnyan lung Valley. The site appears to have been chosen for its geomantic excellence. The tombs face east and have broad views of the NyenlungGnyan lung Valley, the main valley of RecoRe co and a tributary valley to the north. The cubic tombs of Tsokgi MöndurBtsog gi mon dur form the westernmost extent of this archaeological typology.

Oral tradition

According to residents of RecoRe co, Tsokgi MöndurBtsog gi mon dur are tombs of the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (1.9 m by 2 m) is the higher elevation cubic tomb of the site. It has a maximum height of 90 cm and has undergone much deformation. FS1 sits on a notch in the rocky ridgeback. It is built in the typical fashion, with slabs up to 1 m in length. Part of its stone- and sand-filled central chamber (reliquary) is visible. Stones have been stacked on top of FS1 for no apparent reason.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2 m by 2 m) was built on a rock outcrop (29.270΄ / 02.968΄ / 4430 m). It has been reduced to about 1 m in height. However, a superstructure, 60 cm in height, was added to the original base of the structure. This addition is constructed much more crudely than the original cubic tomb and has undergone less subsidence. The structural extension has the appearance of a bumpa and may have been added for religious reasons.

Shankhorwa (Shar ’khor ba)

General site characteristics

ShankhorwaShar ’khor ba is located on the summit of an eponymous mesa, a prominent landmark on the southeast margin of the Selé PukSe le phug basin. The broad summit of ShankhorwaShar ’khor ba is relatively flat and strewn with volcanic talus. It rises 80 m above the Selé PukSe le phug basin. The views from the site in all directions are open. There are twelve cubic tombs and several funerary enclosures situated near the west rim of ShankhorwaShar ’khor ba, the side overlooking the expansive Selé PukSe le phug basin. All of these structures are in an advanced state of deterioration. The cubic tombs are perched on the very edge of the summit and many of them appear to have been aligned in the cardinal directions. The funerary structures of ShankhorwaShar ’khor ba are constructed of uncut pieces of a reddish and bluish volcanic stone generally 20 cm to 60 cm in length.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, ShankhorwaShar ’khor ba is an ancient site.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (15.7 m 11 m) is a sub-rectangular, heaped-stone wall enclosure. It is set away from the edge of the summit on open ground. The heaped-stone walls of the perimeter are around 50 cm in height and 1.2 m in thickness. Some of the stones of the enclosure walls have orange climax lichen growing on them, a good indication that they have not been disturbed for a long time. There is possibly a single-course ovoid enclosure (7 m by 7 m) situated 13 m northwest of FS1.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is a cubic tomb that has been reduced to its fragmentary base. A small shepherd’s shelter was built on top of this structure.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (2.5 m by 2.5 m) is situated 7.5 m northwest of FS2. This cubic tomb reaches a maximum height of 80 cm on its west side.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (2.2 m by 2.2 m) is situated 9.5 m northwest of FS3. This better preserved cubic tomb is about 50 cm in height on all four sides. Rubble obscures any remaining traces of the central chamber (reliquary).

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (2.3 m by 1.6 m) is situated 9.3 m north of FS4. This cubic tomb has been reduced to a height of 15 cm to 30 cm. Stones (40 cm to 60 cm long) form the lowest course of about one-half of the central chamber. This constitutes the only definitive evidence of a central chamber at the site.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6, a cubic tomb, has been reduced to a fragmentary base.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 is a cubic tomb that has been leveled to its base, which is no more than 15 cm in height. In the vicinity there are a series of cavities up to 2 m deep in the talus of the summit. These cavities appear to be manmade. Other cavities are found farther north along the rim of the formation. Perhaps these cavities were used for burial or alternatively, they represent excavations carried out to procure building materials for the funerary structures of the site.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 is a highly degraded base of a cubic tomb.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (2.1 m by 2.2 m) is a degraded cubic tomb, up to 70 cm in height. Perhaps the base of the central chamber is in place, but there is not enough evidence left to know for certain.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (2.3 m by 2.1 m) is 90 cm to 1.2 m in height, but it has been subject to much structural deformation and subsidence. Stones up to 1 m in length went into its construction. Between FS9 and FS10 there is a north-south aligned wall, 16.5 m in length, which runs perpendicular to the rim of the summit. In most places, this rudimentary wall is only one stone in height.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 is situated 5.5 m north of FS10. Only the remnants of the base of this cubic tomb have survived. Some stones have been piled up on this structure. Two concentric stone rings are situated 2.8 m east of FS11. The outer ring is composed of 16 stones (up to 30 cm long) embedded in the ground as well as two unfixed stones. The inner ring is made up of seven stones, including two that are 1.2 m in length. This ovoid structure measures 2.8 m to 3.2 m across. The stones used to build it protrude 10 cm to 20 cm above ground level.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 is situated 23 m northeast of FS2. This disintegrated cubic tomb is highly deformed and around 50 cm in height.

Funerary Structure FS13

Funerary structure FS13 (1.7 m by 2 m) is situated 18 m northeast of FS12. This ruined cubic tomb is 40 cm to 80 cm in height.

Funerary Structure FS14

Funerary structure FS14 (3 m by 4 m) is a structure, fully sheathed in stones, that is situated away from the rim of the mesa. Mostly smaller stones were used to build this funerary (?) structure. These stones are flush with the ground surface or rise above to a maximum height of 30 cm.

Alhé Möndur (’A lhas mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Alhé Möndur
Site number: E-30
Site typology: II.3
Elevation: 5070 m to 5130 m
Administrative location (township): Götsang Tö
Administrative location (county): Gar
Survey expedition: TUE
Survey date: September 17, 2005
Contemporary usage: None.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: A single inscribed plaque.
Maps: UTRS V
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General site characteristics

Alhé Möndur’A lhas mon dur is located on the southern end of a ridge system that divides the two main valley systems of GötsangRgod tshang. The summit portion of this ridgeline site rises 270 m above the river that flows around its south side. The summit and upper flanks of the site are cloaked in red and beige talus (of volcanic origins?). Alhé Möndur’A lhas mon dur enjoys expansive eastern and western vistas. There are somewhat lesser views to the south, and to the north, higher sections of the same ridge system block the view. The cubic tombs of Alhé Möndur’A lhas mon dur are mostly aligned in the cardinal directions. They are each constructed of thick slabs up to 90 cm in length. Many of these tombs were built on top of small rock outcrops. The majority of the tombs form a single line of structures on the narrow east-west oriented ridgeback. There is also a slab-wall enclosure among the cubic tombs of Alhé Möndur’A lhas mon dur.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Alhé Möndur’A lhas mon dur is associated with the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (3.1 m by 2 m) is situated on a shelf, lightly blanketed with talus. It is located below the summit ridge, on the northwest side of the hill. This highly degraded cubic tomb has been reduced to 1 m or less in height. Only small coherent wall fragments have endured. A depression in the top of the structure coincides with the location of the central chamber (reliquary). Approximately 40 m west of FS1 there is possibly another cubic tomb but the remains are so degraded as to be inconclusive.

Funerary structures FS2 to FS12 are situated on the summit of the ridge.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is the most easterly specimen on the summit. Reduced to its base, FS2 measures 1.6 m (north-south) by 2.5 m (east-west). Some of the stones of this cubic tomb were used to construct an adjacent wall with a much more recent pedigree.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (2.8 m [north-south] by 2.4 m [east-west] by 1.2 m [maximum height]) is situated 18 m west of FS2. The central chamber has been gutted and the south side of the tomb has collapsed.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (2.5 m by 3.4 m by 1.7 m [height]) is situated 10 m west of FS3. Like the outer shell itself, the partly intact central chamber (95 cm by 80 cm) is aligned in the cardinal directions. The south side of FS4 has mostly collapsed. An old plaque inscribed with Buddhist prayers rests on this tomb.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (3.1 m by 2.5 m by 1.4 m) is situated 5.4 m west of FS4. There is a gaping cavity (1 m by 70 cm) that extends all the way to ground level where the central chamber once sat. The masonry that lined the central chamber is entirely missing.

Funerary Structure FS6

Funerary structure FS6 (2.3 m by 2.6 m by 1.2 m) is situated 7 m west of FS5. The partly intact central chamber (90 cm by 80 cm) is mostly filled with stones.

Funerary Structure FS7

Funerary structure FS7 (1.9 m by 1.2 m by 1.2 m) is situated 13.5 m west of FS6. It is found just below the summit on the south side of the mountain. The central chamber is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 80 cm (east-west) by 40 cm (north-south). The alignment of the central chamber and the ridgeline upon which it was built may suggest that regeneration and the journey to the afterlife were envisioned as processes akin to the rising and setting sun.

Funerary Structure FS8

Funerary structure FS8 (1.5 m by 1.7 m by ) is situated less than 1 m down slope of FS7. Largely leveled to its foundation, the base of the central chamber is still visible.

Funerary Structure FS9

Funerary structure FS9 (1.6 m by 1.5 m by 90 cm) sits on the summit and is situated 22 m southwest of FS8. It is aligned in the cardinal directions. Between FS8 and FS9, there is an enclosure (4 m by 13 m) on the summit with walls around 50 cm in height. These walls are composed of stacked slabs and slabs that were propped up. This enclosure appears to have had some type of funerary ritual function.

Funerary Structure FS10

Funerary structure FS10 (2 m by 2.5 m by 80 cm) is situated 5.2 m west of FS9. This tomb has largely collapsed.

Funerary Structure FS11

Funerary structure FS11 (1.8 m by 1.8 m) is situated just below the summit, 11.8 m southwest of FS10. It is found on the south side of the ridge. FS11 has been leveled to its foundation.

Funerary Structure FS12

Funerary structure FS12 (1.8 m by 1.9 m) is situated on the west edge of the summit, 9 m west of FS11. Although it has been reduced to its foundation, the base of the central chamber is partly intact. In close proximity, there is a small cairn standing on the edge of the summit.

Funerary Structure FS13

Funerary structure FS13 (2.2m by 2.4 m by 70 cm) is situated on the sloping ridgeback, 14 m southwest of FS12. It is located approximately 7 m below the summit.

Funerary Structure FS14

Funerary structure FS14 (2.3 m by 2.3 m by 70 cm) is situated 6.5 m down the spine of the ridge from FS13. FS14 is found about 2 m vertical below FS13. Most of the base of the tomb has endured. It is aligned in the cardinal directions.

Funerary Structure FS15

Funerary structure FS15 (2 m by 3.5 m) is situated on the ridgeline, 47 m west of FS14. There is an approximately 20 m vertical difference between FS14 and FS15. FS15 has been almost leveled.

Funerary Structure FS16

Funerary structure FS16 (2.3 m by 2.5 m by 2 m) is situated 6 m west of FS15 at the same elevation. The central chamber (90 cm by 70 cm) is partly intact in this relatively well preserved cubic tomb.

Funerary Structure FS17

Funerary structure FS17 (2.5 m by 3.3 m by 70 cm) is situated 14 m northwest of FS16 and about 6 m vertical directly below it (52.998΄ / 44.843΄ / 5100 m). This heavily damaged specimen is the most westerly of the cubic tombs of Alhé Möndur’A lhas mon dur.

Affiliated sites

Changla TakCang la btags

Changla TakCang la btags is said to be a very deep and extensive limestone cave complex located in Götsang TöRgod tshang stod (32° 07.580΄ N. lat. / 80° 46.919΄ E. long. / 4740 m). The narrow mouth to the cave is found on a steep limestone slope and it has an eastern aspect. From the entrance, a ledge circumvents a sink hole. About 20 m to 40 m from the mouth of the cave there are human bone fragments scattered about the cave. These probably represent the remains of coherent burials that have been disturbed by people entering Changla TakCang la btags. The cave complex was penetrated to a distance of about 150 m from the entrance through narrow passages and vertical tunnels with no other objects of archaeological interest being detected.

A large fragment of a human tibia removed from the cave floor was submitted for radiocarbon analysis. This sample yielded the following chronological data:

AMS, sample no. Beta-255675; conventional radiocarbon Age: 1610 +/-40 BP; 2 Sigma calibrated result (95% probability): cal 380 to 550 CE; intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve: Cal 420 CE; 1 Sigma calibrated result (68% probability): cal 410 to 450 CE.

As these chronometric results indicate, at least a portion of the Changla TakCang la btags burial most probably dates to the fifth century CE. This geographically, if not culturally, corroborates an ancient Chinese literary account that cave burials were practiced in Zhang ZhungZhang zhung. The T’ang Annals note that in Zhang ZhungZhang zhung (Yang t’ung), on a day determined by divination to be propitious, a corpse was deposited in a secret cave or inaccessible place.226

There is no reason to believe that the Changla TakCang la btags cave burial was unique and we might expect that more will be discovered in Tibet over time.

Directly below Changla TakCang la btags there is a quadrate structure locally identified as a “möndur” (07.500΄ / 46.917΄ / 4550 m). This platform-like structure (2.9 m by 3.7 m) is built of unhewn limestone blocks, a maximum of 90 cm in length. There are up to three vertical courses of blocks making up the structure, and it has a maximum height of 80 cm. There is a similar, but less well preserved structure situated, 22 m downhill.

Yitsé Khar (Yid rtse mkhar)

General site characteristics

Yitsé KharYid rtse mkhar is located on an eponymous mountain a little below its summit. At the southeast base of the sacred Yitsé KharYid rtse mkhar mountain there is a high volume spring, the source of the Kongchen ChuKong chen chu. Yitsé KharYid rtse mkhar mountain occupies a salient position near the confluence of several valleys and basins. The remains of three cubic tombs are found on a relatively level stretch of ground, which is hemmed in by three large crags. These tombs are perched 230 m above the KongchenKong chen valley and occupy elevated rocky ground. From the site there are long views in all directions except in the north, the direction of the Yitsé KharYid rtse mkhar summit (5030 m). The terrain is sandy and thickly covered in rocks. The cubic tombs are constructed of a blue-gray grained metamorphic (?) rock of variable length (up to 60 cm long), which has weathered to a reddish color. Some of the stones of the central chambers have orange climax lichen growing on them. Although the tombs are in poor condition, they do not appear to have been disturbed for a long time.

As with virtually all the cubic tombs sites, those of Yitsé KharYid rtse mkhar were probably desecrated when Buddhism became the banner of the dominant political forces of the region. This destruction of tombs was probably part of the process of subjugation and the severing of the old sociopolitical links of which they were apart. The mountaintop cubic tombs, by virtue of their prominent and lofty positions, were conspicuous symbols of the archaic cultural order.

Oral tradition

According to local drokpa, Yitsé KharYid rtse mkhar is an ancient MönMon monument.

Site elements

The outer shells of the three cubic tombs have largely disintegrated. Only tiny coherent wall fragments are extant. None of the tombs appears to have been well aligned in the cardinal directions. The central chambers (reliquaries) of the tombs were carefully constructed.

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1 (2 m by 2.7 m by 1 [maximum height]) has a partially intact central chamber, which measures 45 cm by 35 cm by 40 cm (depth).

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 (2.1 m by 2.3 m by 70 cm) is located 15 m east of FS1 at the same elevation. The base of the central chamber is intact (50 cm by 80 cm by 35 cm [maximum depth]).

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 (2 m by 1.5 m by 60 cm) is 4.5 m south of and 1.5 m lower than FS2. The fragmentary base of the central chamber is approximately the same size as that in FS2.

Selhé Mönkhang (Gsas lhas mon khang)

General site characteristics

Selhé MönkhangGsas lhas mon khang is set on the summit of a ridgeline overlooking Aru TsoA ru mtsho. The Selhé part of the name of the site may possibly be related to the séGsas, an archaic class of deities. There are at least three funerary structures found here, which are made of a bluish metamorphic slabs. These highly degraded structures appear to be architecturally modified cubic tombs. There is also a stone hut on the site.

Oral tradition

Local elders report that Selhé MönkhangGsas lhas mon khang represents the remains of ancient MönMon houses.

Site elements

Funerary sructures FS1 and FS2 appear to have been converted into primitive shelters. Any such modification must have been carried out under the impression that these structures were originally MönMon residences rather than MönMon tombs.

Funerary sructure FS1

Funerary sructure FS1 (3 m by 2.8 m by 1.8 m [height], 5200 m) is situated along the ridgeline 64 m uphill of a stone hut (see below). This structure is sub-rectangular in shape and has a maximum height of 1.8 m. FS1 is made of stone slabs up to 1 m in length laid in random-work courses. The base is topped by a beehive-shaped structure (1.3 m across, 1.1 m in height) with a hollow interior. The original structure was probably gutted to create this rudimentary shepherd’s shelter.

Funerary sructure FS2

Funerary sructure FS2 (1.8 m by 2 m by 1.8 m) is situated 6 m south of FS1 at a slightly higher elevation. It also appears to have been structurally modified to create a crude shelter. FS2 is sub-rectangular and contains a hollow interior (1 m by 1m by 90 cm), the probable vestiges of an improvised shelter that has now largely collapsed.

Funerary sructure FS3

Funerary sructure FS3 (2 m by 1.7 m by 1.4 m) is located southwest of FS1 and FS2. It is the highest and most southerly structure at Selhé MönkhangGsas lhas mon khang (5220 m). FS3, which is perched on the edge of an outcrop, enjoys the best view of Aru TsoA ru mtsho from the site. It is nearly cubic in shape. The interior (1 m by 65 cm by 70 cm) of FS3 is much more like the central chambers of mountaintop tombs in form and size. This specimen does not appear to have undergone any structural modification, but it is heavily degraded.

Stone hut

At the lower end of the site there is an all-stone hut with a crude corbelled roof and rounded walls (2.8 m across and 1.6 m high, 5190 m). Like a nearby corral, this hut, at least in part, appears to have been constructed from stones pilfered from the archaeological site. The design of the stone hut seems to have been inspired by the architecture of mountaintop cubic tombs. On the same outcrop as the hut there appears to be the remains of two masonry bases that belonged to cubic tombs, however, there is no integral stonework in place.

Affiliated sites

Deu Gyarukrde’u rgya rug

Deu GyarukRde’u rgya rug is the name of a hill, offset from the lofty ArugangA ru gangs meridian range (34° 11.6΄ N. lat. / 82° 14.9΄ E. long.). From the summit of this light-colored hill there are commanding views of Aru TsoA ru mtsho and MikmartsoMig dmar mtsho. This location, between the two lakes, enjoys a considerable degree of geographic and geomantic prominence. On the flanks and summit of Deu GyarukRde’u rgya rug there are undeveloped stone structures, which could not be positively identified as manmade. According to local drokpa, these structures were built by the ancient MönMon. Perhaps the very rudimentary nature of the site reflects is location in the northern JangtangByang thang, a highly marginal environment (extremely high, cold and dry). Light-colored, grained stones, up to 60 cm in length, are found in these structures.

On the south flank of the hill there is a possible crude funerary structure (2.5 m by 2.3 m). In close proximity there are a couple more, even more ambiguous, structures. The most prominent structures at the site are meandering stone walls 50 cm to 1 m in thickness. These superficial structures are only one layer of stones in height. These walls are not continuous; there are many breaks in them. Perhaps these are natural lines of stones that were enhanced by early inhabitants of the region during the construction of the funerary site. In any event, the stones appear to be randomly distributed. The southwest wall extends 120 m from the summit, along the southwest slope. The southeast wall is less developed but, at 190 m, it is longer. The northwest wall has many gaps and in places it runs laterally along the northwest slope. In total, the northwest wall is 270 m long.

There are three possible funerary structures on the lower west flanks of Deu GyarukRde’u rgya rug (11.73΄ / 14.72΄ / 5060 m). These are sub-rectangular structures. There is some heaping of the stones, which is the only potential indication of human modification. The three structures measure: north (1.3 m by 1.3 m), central (2 m by 1.4 m) and south (highly fragmentary). These structures are situated in shallow depressions, which may possibly be evidence for excavations carried out during interments. There are other minor stone traces at Deu GyarukRde’u rgya rug that may be worth further investigation.

II.4. Shrines and miscellaneous constructions

At a number of residential sites in Upper Tibet there are the ruins of shrines that can be assigned to the archaic assemblage of monuments. These structures are found both outdoors and in caves used for habitation. Most of them appear to belong to the tenkhar, sekhar, lhaten, or lhatsuk classes of monuments, cubic or stepped tabernacles used to enshrine and propitiate indigenous deities. While forms of these monuments are still constructed today, according to BönBon tradition, their origins can be traced to prehistoric times. Fairly well-preserved examples sheltered in caves are sometimes covered in a mud veneer and decorated with red and yellow ochre and lime pigments. The shrines have square or rectangular bases and were built of stone slabs and blocks. Some specimens may have had elaborate superstructures, as indicated by the depiction of archaic shrines in the rock art of Upper Tibet, but few traces remain. Archaic shrines can be distinguished from the ruined bases of chöten by the absence of overhanging masonry tiers, coursed-rubble stonework, etc. Also, unlike chöten, some archaic shrines were partly built underground. It is probable that a wide range of ritual functions and chronologies is indicated for this heterogeneous class of ceremonial monuments.

Only two sites surveyed to date are composed exclusively of shrines. Pangar Zhungkhang GokDpa’ ngar gzhung khang gog (F-1) consists of six large cubic structures, situated on the edge of an extensive pastureland.227 It is possible that the limestone structures of Pangar Zhungkhang GokDpa’ ngar gzhung khang gog represent an unknown type of above-ground tomb, as their construction is locally attributed to the ancient MönMon. The celebrated monument known as Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa (F-2), located in PurangSpu rang, is maintained to the present day (it was partly destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution). It consists of two large unmortared stepped structures chiefly built of cobbles tinted red with ochre. According to the local myth, the 8th century CE Vajrayāna hero Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che magically built these twin shrines in the amount of time it took for his disciple to prepare a pot of rice. Stepped shrines of the same form are a significant motif in Upper Tibetan petroglyphs and pictographs, all of which appear to predate the 13th century CE.228

Guru Bumpa (Gu ru ’bum pa)

Basic site data

Site name: Guru Bumpa
Site number: F-2
Site typology: II.4
Elevation: 4020 m
Administrative location (township): Döyö
Administrative location (county): Purang
Survey expedition: HTCE
Survey date: May 4, 2002
Contemporary usage: Active ritual use.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Many stones inscribed with the mani and other mantras and prayer flags, as well as mani wheel, chöten and tenkhar shrines.
Maps: UTRS X, HAS C4
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General site characteristics

Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa, a Buddhist religious monument, is located on high ground near the agricultural village of DöyöSdod yod. The site overlooks the Maja TsangpoRma bya gtsang po (Karnali river) valley to the south and east. A sheer drop of as much as 100 m begins near the site in both of these directions. To the north and west there is rolling country with some arable plots situated at about the same elevation as Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa. Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa consists of two stepped platforms of seven graduated tiers each. These dry-stone structures are aligned in the cardinal directions. They are built of stones (mostly of cobbles), 20 cm to 80 cm long, which have been tinted red with ochre. There are many old mani stones at Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa, as well as simply built chöten, tenkhar and mani khorlo shrines. On the top of each stepped bumpa there is a prayer flag mast connected to one another by a line of prayer flags.

The twin structures of Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa closely resemble numerous rock art (both petroglyphs and pictographs) compositions depicting stepped shrines of the tenkhar, lhaten and sekhar classes. Much of this rock art can be attributed to the early historic period, lending credence to the belief that Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa was created in antiquity.229 Nevertheless, the style of construction is rudimentary and easily amenable to modification, which may have led to many instances of reconstruction and refurbishment over the centuries. It may also be worth considering the possibility that Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa was originally founded as an archaic religious monument (as was much of the analogous rock art). We must bear in mind that Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che occupation myths veil or reconfigure the pre-Buddhist origins of many sites in the Tibetan cultural world. Remarkably, Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa survived the Chinese Cultural Revolution largely intact, although the site was desecrated. It is reported that stones with Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che’s footprint (Zhapjé), enshrined at the site, were destroyed at that time.

Oral tradition

According to local myth, the eighth century CE Buddhist master Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che and a servant (zhapchi) came to the nearby village of DöyöSdod yod. In the time it took his servant to cook a pot of rice, Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che magically created Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa. According to a couple octogenarians of DöyöSdod yod village, including Trashi DöndrupBkra shis don grub, Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che magically created Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa in a single night,

Site elements

North Bumpa

The lowest tier or level of the north bumpa measures about 19 m on each of its four sides. Each successive tier is smaller until the seventh or top tier measures about 2 m by 2 m. The north bumpa has an overall height of about 7.5 m. The lowest tier is 80 cm in height and each of the successive tiers is 1 m to 1.2 m in height. At the corners of each of the seven levels, a single line of stones are stacked to make cairns. On the north side of the second tier, many of the cobbles have been inscribed with the mani mantra (and other mantras). On the east side of the second tier there are red ochre tinted yak skulls (a common offering to the deities). Adjacent to the east side of the north bumpa there is a mani wall that extends south to the south side of the south bumpa. A mani wall also comes in close proximity to the south and west sides of the north bumpa.

South Bumpa

The south bumpa is situated 12 m south of the north bumpa Its east wall is aligned with the west wall of the north bumpa. The lowest level of the south bumpa measures 14 m to 16 m on each of its four sides. The top or seventh tier is more than 2 m along each of its four sides. The total height of the structure is approximately 6.5m. The graduated tiers are around 80 cm to 1 m in height. At the corners of the seven tiers there is a single line of stones stacked to make cairns. The north side of the south bumpa is completely open. The east side of the lowest tier has been widened to create a broad mani wall. The west and south sides of the lowest level have also been designed as mani walls. The south side mani wall extends north and merges with the mani wall that encloses the west side of the north bumpa. Red ochre tinted yak skulls have been enshrined on the west side of the lowest level of the south bumpa.

Affiliated sites

Chöten ChenpoMchod rten chen po

Chöten ChenpoMchod rten chen po is a similarly constructed shrine of six or seven graduated tiers surmounted by a cubic structure (30° 19. 2΄ N. lat. / 81° 10.5΄ E. long. / 3970 m). Chöten ChenpoMchod rten chen po is situated in a walled compound, beside the main road leading to the PurangSpu rang county seat. It is smaller and not as well built as Guru BumpaGu ru ’bum pa. Many prayer flags are stuck in the top of Chöten ChenpoMchod rten chen po. The construction of this shrine is also associated with the activities of Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che in Purang MéSpu rang smad.

Khyinak Rong (Khyi nag rong)

General site characteristics

Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong is located in a narrow valley that is closely bound by mountains on nearly all sides. The tallest of these mountains is the red territorial deity (yüllhaYul lha) of Tsaktik KyangtraBtsag tig rkyang khra, situated due east of Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong. The site consists of an integrated necropolitan complex situated on a moderately sloping bench flanked by gullies. The northeast-southwest oriented Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong valley is made up of a series of benches and gullies, and declines moderately to the southwest. Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong does not enjoy long views in any direction, rather it was sited to have a fully sheltered or hidden aspect. The terrain is sandy and strewn with rocks. The necropolis is generally oriented in the intermediate points of the compass, perpendicular to the axis of the bench. This uniquely designed complex consists of a temple-tomb or mausoleum, an appended enclosure, a series of small quadrate constructions, and other minor structures. All structural elements of Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong are built of blue-gray limestone and to a lesser extent of sandstone in various colors. Undressed variable-length (up to 40 cm long) pieces of stones were used in construction. Two samples taken from different load-bearing tamarisk beams embedded in the southwest wall of the temple-tomb have been dated circa the fourth or fifth century CE.230

Oral tradition

According to residents of ZhungpaGzhung pa, Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong is an ancient monument.

Site elements

Temple-tomb

The site is dominated by the shell of an edifice, which probably functioned as a mortuary temple and burial monument. This building measured no less than 6.3 m (northeast-southwest) by 3.1 m (southeast-northwest). It probably contained two chambers, at least one of which is L-shaped. The edifice has a coursed-rubble fabric and the thick seams contain copious amounts of a clay- or mud-based mortar.

The forward/southeast wall is 3 m to 4 m in height. Due to the ravages of time, the forward wall now has a V-shaped gap in the middle of it. The southwest half of the forward wall was generally built with larger stones than the northeast half. The construction and presentation of the forward wall suggests that is was not too much taller originally than its current height. About 1 m up from the base of the northeast half of the forward wall there are herringbone courses of masonry. Stones and earth are heaped up below the herringbone stonework. This is a distinctive stone working technique found in larger temple-tomb edifices appended to arrays of pillars as well as in some castles. For instance, Rala KharmarRa la mkhar dmar (see A-65) founded by the first Buddhist king of TöStod, Nyima GönNyi ma mgon (probably in the early tenth century CE) exhibits herringbone stonework. The existence of this special style of masonry at both Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong and Rala KharmarRa la mkhar dmar indicates that it persisted in the Upper Tibetan architectural canon for no less than 450 to 600 years. Here we have an example of a specific stone working technique that was carried from the protohistoric period all the way down to the dawn of the great Buddhist resurgence in western Tibet.

The southwest wall is 4 m high. At the base of this wall there are either the remains of a small structural extension or a buttress. In the middle of the southwest wall there is a cavity (80 cm by 50 cm by 70 cm [deep]). This cavity came about through damage to what may have been a purposely built recess in the structure. The cavity reveals three tamarisk beams (10 cm to 15 cm diameter), which are an integral part of the construction of the southwest wall.

The southwest half of the temple-tomb is dominated by a narrow (70 cm to 80 cm wide) L-shaped chamber (each of its two sides is about 2 m long). This chamber is liable to have had both burial and funerary ritual functions. Most portions of the outer walls surrounding this chamber are 40 cm to 60 thick. The portion of the forward/southeast wall bounding the inner side of the “L,” however, is 1.8 m thick. This much thicker wall section significantly adds to the structural integrity of the chamber. There is an opening (20 cm by 25 cm) near the top of the southeast end of the southwest wall of the chamber. This opening is supported by a brown sandstone lintel, 35 cm in length. There is also an opening (20 cm by 25 cm) in the upper southeast wall of the chamber, which has a sandstone lintel, 25 cm in length. The deliberate inclusion of apertures in the L-shaped chamber, may suggest that it had habitational functions, perhaps related to the conduct of mortuary rites. These openings may also have played a role in the desiccation of the interred remains by providing ventilation to the chamber. The walls surrounding the chamber are up to 2.2 m in height. This demonstrates that the floor of the chamber was elevated as much as 1.8 m above ground level. The elevation of the chamber may possibly be related to eschatological beliefs, concerning the celestial realm, that were held by the builders. Elevated burial chambers are, of course, also characteristic of the mountaintop cubic tombs (II.3) and temple-tombs appended to arrays of pillars (II.2c). The narrow nature of the chamber, the massive forward wall buttress and comparative architectonic data from other archaic monuments, indicates that Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong may have had an all-stone corbelled roof.

On the exterior face of the northwest wall there are still traces of clay plaster, illustrating that Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong was not left with raw stone walls. We might even consider that this plaster was painted and decorated with mineral pigments, as are some archaic horizon shrines found in sheltered locations and nearly all lamaist facilities of the historic epoch.

Save for the forward wall, the northeast half of the temple-tomb has been reduced to heaps of earth and stone rubble. It probably featured an L-shaped or some other type of chamber. Temple-tombs and other archaic funerary monuments of Upper Tibet usually exhibit symmetrical design features. Nevertheless, the difference in the southwest and northwest halves of the forward wall of the edifice may suggest that the chambers were of different designs.

To

To the northwest of the edifice there is a series of small quadrate masonry structures, which are mostly grouped in two rows. These two rows are oriented southeast-northwest, having the same alignment as the two shorter walls of the temple-tomb. These superficial structures, 19 in number, consist of a layer of stones laid flat on the ground. There are two main types among them: enclosures made up of a single line of stones with open interiors, and stones tightly knit across the breadth and length of the structure. It is possible that they had minimal superstructures made up of several vertical courses of masonry, but there is no extant structural evidence of this feature. The area around the quadrate structures is covered in loose stones, which probably originated from the quadrate structures themselves. The morphological traits of the quadrate structures, their organization in rows and their presence at a funerary site, recall the to of the BönBon tradition. According to Loppön Tendzin NamdakSlob dpon bstan ’dzin rnam dag (in personal communication), BönBon’s most senior scholar, this is their most likely identity.231

The shorter, southwest row of quadrate structures begins 8.8 m northwest of the edifice. Beginning from the specimen closest to the edifice, these constructions have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Structure S1 (90 cm by 1 m) has a top sheathed in stones, which project a maximum of 20 cm above ground level.
Structure S2 (80 cm by 70 cm by 20 cm [maximum projection above ground level]) is situated 1.3 m northwest of structure S1. It consists of tightly knit stones embedded in the ground.
Structure S3 (60 cm by 70 cm by 25 cm) is situated 1 m northwest of S2. It consists of a perimeter of stones with just one stone in the middle.
Structure S4 (60 cm by 60 cm by 20 cm) is situated 1 m northwest of S3. It consists of tightly knit stones embedded in the ground.
Structure S5 (60 cm by 60 cm by flush with the surface) is situated 75 cm northwest of S4. It consists of a surface sheathed in stones.
Structures S6, S7 and S8 are located near the edge of the gully that forms the northwest bounds of the site.
Structure S6 (1 m by 1.2 m by 25 cm) is situated 5.2 m northwest of S5. It apparently had an open center surrounded by perimeter walls.
Structure S7 (1.6 m by 1.6 m by 60 cm) is situated 2.5 m northeast of S6. This specimen seems to have had an interior free of stones.
Structure S8 (1.1 m by 1.1 m by 30 cm) is situated 7.5 m north of S7. This specimen also seems to have had an interior devoid of stones. There is an erect stone 30 cm in height in close proximity to S8.
Structures S9 and S10 are intermediate structures situated between the two main rows.
Structure S9 (80 cm by 75 cm by 20 cm) is situated 70 cm northeast of S1. This specimen consists of a closely knit mass of stones.
Structure S10 (1.2 m by 1.2 m by 40 cm) is situated 1.8 m east of S9. This specimen is covered in rubble.
The northeast row of quadrate structures begins 3 m northwest of the edifice. Beginning from the specimen closest to the edifice, these constructions have the following dimensions and characteristics:
Structure S11 (1.6 m by 1 m by 40 cm) is highly disintegrated and covered in a heap of stones.
Structure S12 (1 m by 1.2 m by 20 cm) is situated 4.4 m northwest of S11. It has an interior free of stones.
Structure S13 is situated 1 m northwest of S12. This is a highly degraded specimen.
Structure S14 is situated about 1 m northwest of S13. This is a highly degraded specimen.
Structure S15 (80 cm by 65 cm by slight projection above ground level) is also highly degraded.
Structure S16 (60 cm by 50 cm by 10 cm) is situated 50 cm northwest of S15.
Structure S17 is situated 1 m northwest of S16. This is a highly degraded specimen.
Structure S18 (1 m by 90 cm by 30 cm) is situated 1 m northeast of S12.
Structure S19 (90 cm 50 cm by 1 cm) is an isolated specimen situated about 12 m southwest of the edifice. Approximately 8 m southwest of the edifice there is a standing stone 30 cm in height.

Slab walls

Between S8 and S17 there is a zone of slab walls, covering an area of 2.2 m (northwest-southeast) by 1.2 m (northeast-southwest). This array of upright slabs begins 2.3 m southeast of S8. The slab-wall fragments are oriented southeast-northwest and are spaced around 20 cm apart. The individual slabs are 10 cm to 50 cm in length, and are flush with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 5 cm. There are also lines of parallel slabs running at right angles on each end of the array.

Enclosure

Appended to the southeast side of the temple-tomb are three walls that, together with the southeast wall of the edifice, make up a square enclosure (10.5 m by 10.4 m). The three outlying walls (around 90 cm thick) are composed of stones laid flat. In some places along the perimeter there are small wall segments composed of two or three vertical courses of stones. These wall segments are around 30 cm in height, indicating that the enclosure was a substantial structure. Many stones lie in its interior, which undoubtedly were once part of the Khyinak RongKhyi nag rong facility. There appears to be an opening or “portal” in the forward/southeast wall of the enclosure. The enclosure with its forward opening, layout and wall design is reminiscent of the enclosures used to house pillars (II.1b).

1. Supplemental Data on Archaeological Sites First Surveyed before 2001

Dzongser (Rdzong ser)

Basic site data

Site name: Dzongser
English equivalent: Yellow Fortress
Site number: A-1
Site typology: I.1a
Elevation: 4720 m
Administrative location (township): Zhago
Administrative location (county): Shentsa
Survey expedition: CCE and THE
Survey date: June 10, 1999 and June 3, 2006
Contemporary usage: Rudimentary religious activities.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: mani walls, chöten, and other shrines.
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General site characteristics

DzongserRdzong ser is located on an eponymous hill in the Belro TsangpoSbal ro gtsang po valley, approximately 10 km upstream of where the river debouches into Kering TsoSke ring mtsho.232 This conspicuous rocky hilltop is quite defensible and keeps watch over a wide area, as do many archaic cultural summit installations of Upper Tibet. The narrow, flat hilltop has a north-south oriented axis, and rises 50 m above the surrounding basin. The site is dominated by an all-stone corbelled edifice known as Kyi PukSkyid phug (Happiness Retreat), which is situated on the north end of the DzongserRdzong ser summit. This important monument was desecrated during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Some attempt has been made to rehabilitate the site, but these efforts have been of limited effectiveness. Sadly, Kyi PukSkyid phug, one of Upper Tibet’s only continuously inhabited archaic cultural edifices now languishes in a state of disrepair. To the north and east of the site there are very extensive marshy pastures, which are likely to have played an important economic role in the founding and maintenance of DzongserRdzong ser. Kyi PukSkyid phug was probably originally founded as an elite residence and stronghold, only to assume a Buddhist identity at a later date. This analysis of its architectural history is in keeping with the local oral tradition.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, DzongserRdzong ser was originally an ancient fortress. In interviews conducted in 1999, it was reported that Kyi PukSkyid phug functioned as a retreat center for solitary monks from Gelukpa monasteries connected to Trashi LhunpoBkra shis lhun po. However, according to Namchak WanggyelGnam lcags dbang rgyal (born Sheep Year, 1919), a local resident, Kyi PukSkyid phug was primarily used by monks from Kyi PukSkyid phug, a Drukpa Kagyü monastery (located in either PanamPa snam or GyeltséRgyal rtse in TsangGtsang), as a refuge for three-year retreats. Kyi PukSkyid phug was in regular use until 1959. In more recent years the site has been the object of very minimal pilgrimage. The rudimentary shrine that was still maintained inside Kyi PukSkyid phug in 1999 now lies neglected.

Site elements

Kyi PukSkyid phug

Kyi PukSkyid phug is constructed in the typical fashion of all-stone edifices in Upper Tibet. The roof appurtenances (corbels, bridging stones and sheathing) are 1 m to 1.5 m in length. The stone sheathing of the roof appears to have been covered in a layer of gravel and clay. There is now a sandy deposit covering the roof. There are two small, rebuilt ritual turrets (chok) on the west edge of the roofline, which may be an indication that this type of architectural element was known during the archaic cultural horizon, as the BönBon tradition maintains. The outer walls of Kyi PukSkyid phug have a sinuous plan, circumscribing rooms with irregular plans and rounded corners. The walls (around 70 cm thick) are robust and skillfully built. These walls have a random-rubble fabric, and are composed of blocks and slabs, 10 cm to 1 m in length. A blue-gray stone that has oxidized to a reddish brown color was used in construction. The seams in the walls contain traces of a mud-based mortar. There is much orange climax lichen growing on the north side of Kyi PukSkyid phug. The exterior of Kyi PukSkyid phug is around 4 m in height, including its prominent revetment. Some in situ boulders were incorporated in the revetment. There is an exterior wall buttress on the east side of Kyi PukSkyid phug.

On the rim of the summit, in the vicinity of Kyi PukSkyid phug, are the remains of a circumvallation, an architectural feature often associated with strongholds. Between this encircling wall and the edifice there is a circumambulatory passage. Kyi PukSkyid phug can be divided into three sections: southern courtyard, the south/forward wing and the north/rear wing of the edifice. In total, this building is approximately 10 m in length. Access to Kyi PukSkyid phug is via a south-facing entrance in the courtyard that appends the south side of the structure. At one time a couple of stone steps must have led up to this outer entrance. The freestanding walls of the courtyard are up to 2.5 m in height. On the west side of the courtyard there is a sheltered depression under the wall, which appears to be the remains of a latrine pit. A walled landing with a couple steps in the rear of the courtyard leads up to the entrance (approximately 1.8 m high) in the building itself.

The rooms of Kyi PukSkyid phug have a floor-to-ceiling height of 1.5 m to 2 m. There are still traces of the clay plaster that once covered the interior walls. The larger of the two rooms in the forward wing of Kyi PukSkyid phug has lost its stone roof. An attempt was made to rebuild the roof with wooden beams, bamboo, plastic sheeting and mud, but this has proven quite ineffective. The two anterior rooms comprised the living quarters of the meditators who used to reside at Kyi PukSkyid phug. The larger forward room contains a stone sleeping platform, two niches (Wangkhung) and a low stone shelf. The smaller forward room still has the benefit of its all-stone roof. More recently, this smaller room has been used for fuel storage. A short, buttressed interclose links the main forward room with the main rear room of Kyi PukSkyid phug. The entranceway between these two rooms is approximately 1.8 m in height, a relatively large portal in dokhang architecture. There are two rooms inside the rear wing, both of which possess an integral all-stone roof. The ceilings in these two rooms are fire-blackened and covered in heavy white and black organic deposits, indications that Kyi PukSkyid phug has stood for a very long time. The main room of the rear wing functioned as the chapel (lhakang) of Kyi PukSkyid phug. Inside, there is a stone altar, stone shelves and a niche. Adjoining the chapel is a smaller rear room, the protector chapel (gönkhang). The main protective god of Kyi PukSkyid phug is the tsenBtsan, Jakpa MelenJag pa me len. Other protector deities of the site include the tsenBtsan, Atsé GönpoA btse mgon po, and TarkarBrtar dkar, the yüllha or deity presiding over the locale.

Other structures

On the hilltop just south of Kyi PukSkyid phug there are walls with old plaques inscribed with prayers and mantras, which has been largely restored. Many of these plaques are of red sandstone, highly worn and carved with the mani mantra. There is also a chöten on the summit, built in the 1990s by a visiting lay Buddhist practitioner (ngakpa). These Buddhists structures obscure foundations, which appear to have belonged to the earlier fortress complex. Stones extracted from these older structures must have been used to construct the Buddhist monuments of the summit. On the east side of DzongserRdzong ser, on a level slope situated halfway between the summit and base of the hill, there are three ruins that have been reduced to their footings. These structures were built in a row, the largest of which is the middle specimen (7 m by 7 m). On the broad, lower north summit of DzongserRdzong ser there are the ruined bases of two chöten or tenkhar (shrines for indigenous and other types of protective deities) and a tumulus measuring 5 m across. It should be noted that, other than Kyi PukSkyid phug, the various structures of DzongserRdzong ser were not resurveyed in 2006.

Dangra Khyung Dzong (Dang ra khyung rdzong)

Basic site data

Site name: Dangra Khyung Dzong
English equivalent: Ocean Horned Eagle Fortress
Site number: A-5
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4790 m and 4880
Administrative location (township): Ombu
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: DDE1, CCE and HTCE
Survey date: September 1, 1994; June 30 and July 1, 1999; and October 4, 2002
Contemporary usage: Minimal Bön religious devotions.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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General site characteristics

Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong/Dangra Khyungchen DzongDwang ra khyung chen rdzong is located on the east shore of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho, the BönBon great sacred lake. The ancient fortress occupies two salient limestone outcrops at Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong, while a network of defensive walls is found nearby on KhyunglaKhyung la. The existence of a stone irrigation channel (G-3) bringing water to this locale helps to underscore the site’s significance to ancient settlement at Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho. On a number of earlier visits, the present author underestimated the scope of ruins located at Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong. In the BönBon literary tradition, Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong was the capital of the last king of Zhang ZhungZhang zhung, Likmi(k) GyaLig mi(g) rgya/Likmi(k)Lig mi(g) rhya.233 According to BönBon sources, King Likmi GyaLig mi rgya was ambushed and killed not far east of Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong by a military detachment of Tri SongdetsenKhri srong lde btsan, the king of Tibet. According to popular BönBon conceptions, Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong was one of the four great Zhang ZhungZhang zhung fortresses of the cardinal directions. It occupied the northern direction, while Rutok Senggé DzongRu thog seng ge rdzong was in the west, Serip Drukmo DzongSe rib ’brug mo rdzong in the south, and Mangyül Takmo DzongMang yul stag mo rdzong in the east.

Oral tradition

According to a well-established tradition among the Bönpo of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho, the fortress of King Likmi GyaLig mi rgya was located on the limestone formation of Dangra KhyungriDang ra khyung ri, the site of the main aggregation of ruins at Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong.

Site elements

KhyungriKhyung ri

KhyungriKhyung ri, the main nucleus of Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong, consists of the three levels of ruined residential structures built along the steep south summit of the limestone formation (31° 13.78΄ N. lat. / 86° 47.33΄ E. long. / 4790 m). These three levels, each made up of one or more buildings, embraced a total area of no less than 200 m². They are clearly the remains of a substantial installation. These ruins probably betoken the former existence of a significant fortress or palace, particularly in the archaic cultural context. The main access to the site is via a ledge that runs along the east side of the KhyungriKhyung ri. At one time, this ledge must have accommodated a buttressed stone walkway, as is found higher up the formation. All walls (65 cm to 75 cm thick) at KhyungriKhyung ri are of a random-rubble fabric and contain variable-length pieces of limestone (15 cm to 50 cm long). These walls must have been mortared, although no traces of the adhesive material are still visible. As virtually only footings have survived (and most of the rubble associated with the superstructures has fallen off the narrow formation), it is impossible to ascertain the design and height of the KhyungriKhyung ri edifices. Likewise, there are no clear indications as to what kind of roofs they possessed. In any case, many archaic cultural residential facilities on the east side of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho were constructed with all-stone corbelled roofs (see A-6, A-7, A-8, A-9, A-10, B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, B-5, B-6, B-7).

Upper level

The walls of the upper level are probably aligned in the compass points. The upper level measures 10 m (east-west) by 5.5 m (north-south). Most of it has been reduced to its dissolving footings. The most developed wall fragment remaining at KhyungriKhyung ri is found on the west side of the upper level. The exterior face of this wall fragment is 1.5 m high and its interior face is 30 cm in height, the difference in elevation being accounted for by a revetment. In other areas, along the base of the upper level, the revetment attains a maximum height of 1.8 m. Other tiny coherent segments of the overlying wall footings have survived. On the narrow summit of KhyungriKhyung ri, above the upper level, there is a small prayer flag mast. A couple bits of revetments also cling to the summit. Accordingly, some type of structure associated with the archaic installation must have stood here.

Middle level

In between the upper level and middle level of KhyungriKhyung ri there is a steep slope, 7 m long (with a vertical height of approximately 4 m). There are wall traces along the base of this slope to a height of 1 m. This slope must have supported a stairway and perhaps small, tiered residential structures as well. The walls of the middle level facility are aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 5.6 m (north-south) by 15.5 m (east-west). The most coherent wall fragment (70 cm high) is on the west side of the formation. On the east side of the middle level there are the remains of a structural extension reduced to its foundation (3 m by 5 m). It is situated 2 m higher than the main portion of the middle level.

Lower level

There are roughly 7 m vertical separating the middle level from the lower level. Along the natural limestone wall, dividing the two levels, there is masonry buttressing, the traces of a substantial stairway. The lower level structures are also aligned in the cardinal directions, and measure 6 m (north-south) by 10 m (east-west). The lower level has been reduced to fragmentary revetments and wall footings.

Götsang DrakRgod tshang brag

On the summit of a higher limestone formation called Götsang DrakRgod tshang brag there are what appear to be the poorly preserved footings of two small buildings (31°13.94΄ N. lat. / 86° 47.413΄ E. long. / 4880 m). These footings are composed of variable-length chunks of limestone, but they no longer exhibit any structural coherence. The upper structure consists of fragmentary footings, covering an area of 8.5 m by 7 m. Immediately below these footings are the faint vestiges of a smaller structure. Given its commanding views over the area, the ruins of Götsang DrakRgod tshang brag may represent the remains of a sentinel post that kept watch over the Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong environs. Alternatively, or in tandem, a religious edifice may have been established here.

KhyunglaKhyung la

KhyunglaKhyung la is the small flat-topped pass north of Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong. Intervening between KhyungriKhyung ri and Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong is another small pass, ShamalaSha ma la. KhyunglaKhyung la was fortified with a network of blue-gray, dry-mortar ramparts. These crumbling walls were probably erected as a frontline defense for Dangra Khyung DzongDang ra khyung rdzong, protecting its more vulnerable northern flank. The ramparts were designed and built to completely seal off the approach to KhyunglaKhyung la. The two main or twin ramparts begin 20 m west of the Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho circumambulatory trail (tsokor) and extend west for 55 m. They are separated from one another by a distance of 10 m to 14 m. The north rampart is the best preserved (up to 1 m high and 80 cm thick). Perhaps one or more small residential structures stood amid its protective embrace. Ruined defensive walls are also found against outcrops, north and west of the twin ramparts. West of the twin ramparts there is an interconnected defensive wall that meanders along the southern rim of the pass for 50 m. Most of this wall has been leveled, but a few sections still attain 1 m in height and 1 m in thickness.

Lhalung Druppuk (Lha lung sgrub phug)

Basic site data

Site name: Lhalung Druppuk
English equivalent: Divine Valley Religious Attainment Cave
Site number: B-94
Site typology: I.1a, I.2c
Elevation: 4740 m
Administrative location (township): Gyagok
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: CCE and HTWE
Survey date: July 1, 1999 and June 7, 2004
Contemporary usage: Meditation and light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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General site characteristics

Lhalung DruppukLha lung sgrub phug is located near the agricultural settlement of LhalungLha lung, on the east shore of the Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho. The site has spectacular views of this stunning BönBon holy lake. Lhalung DruppukLha lung sgrub phug, a cave of two chambers with a substantial masonry façade, is closely associated with the BönBon saint Shakgom Tsültrim GyeltsenBshag sgom tshul khrims rgyal mtshan. This figure belonged to the Zhang Zhung NyengyüZhang zhung snyan rgyud lineage and lived sometime before 1300 CE. The BönBon text Dzokpa Chenpo Yangtsé LongchenRdzogs pa chen po yang rtse klong chen records that Shakgom TsültrimBshag sgom tshul khrims meditated at a secret place in LhalungLha lung.234

Oral tradition

According to various elders who hail from the east shore of Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho, Lhalung DruppukLha lung sgrub phug was used by the BönBon adept Shakgom Tsültrim GyeltsenBshag sgom tshul khrims rgyal mtshan. Prehistoric and early historic Zhang ZhungZhang zhung saints such as Hripa GyerméHri pa gyer med and Mutsa GyerméDmu tsha gyer med are also supposed to have made use of Lhalung DruppukLha lung sgrub phug. Lhalung DruppukLha lung sgrub phug is said to have been in regular service until 1959. In recent years monks, from YubünG.yu bun Monastery have come to the cave for religious practice.

Site elements

The cave

The heavy soot and thick white mold covering much of the interior of the cave indicates that it has been occupied for a significant period of time. The east chamber was devoted to religious practice and is where the meditators slept. The sleeping platform was hewn out of the rock wall of the cave. There is also a stone and adobe bay in the east chamber that was used to enshrine sacrificial cakes (Torma). The west chamber was used for cooking and storage. It contains a rectangular stone and adobe hearth with openings for two pots, as well as a couple of entablatures that functioned as storage spaces. A prayer flag mast stands inside the walled courtyard in front of the cave façade. The small wooden door in the facade predates the modern period. Just to the east of Lhalung DruppukLha lung sgrub phug there is another cave house, which is also thought to be of ancient origins. It is now used by a local family for storage. In two fissures in the limestone cliff behind the caves there are a couple of counterclockwise swastikas painted in red ochre. These pictographs are of considerable age and seem to mark the ancient tenure of the site.

All-stone corbelled edifices

The antiquity of the Lhalung DruppukLha lung sgrub phug site is confirmed by the existence of two all-stone corbelled edifices, situated on a rock shelf just north of the caves. The larger south dokhang is divided by the remains of a partition wall into a south room and a north room. The outer wall (side facing Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho) of this ruined building is 2 m to 2.5 m in height. It contains the vestiges of two or three small windows. The opposite or rear wall was built as much as 2 m into the ground against the light-colored limestone formation. The long, narrow north room seems to possess the ambience of a sanctuary or chapel. There are a few in situ corbels resting on the walls of the north room, as well as two large niches in its walls. The south room is less well preserved. In front of the south dokhang a small terrace provides an external extension of the domestic environs. A few meters farther north along the same limestone shelf is the north dokhang, a ruined single room habitation with a semi-subterranean aspect. There are two large in situ corbels resting on the lakeside-facing wall of this building.

LhalungLha lung Village

Only one family permanently resides in LhalungLha lung, a satellite community of KyisumSkyid gsum village, located 2 km to the south.235 Agriculture is now limited to fields that straddle the tiny Lhalung ChuLha lung chu, but, as evidenced by the remains of terraces and walls, agriculture at one time extended far to the south along a series of naturally occurring terraces. These terraces have formed since the early Holocene as Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho shrunk in size. According to a local oral tradition, extensive agriculture took place in LhalungLha lung during the prehistoric Zhang ZhungZhang zhung period, but was subsequently curtailed due to a lack of water. Also at LhalungLha lung there is a boulder more than 1 m in height called PhabongkharngaPha bong ’khar rnga (Bell-Metal Drum Boulder). When this thin, rounded boulder is struck it emits a metallic sound. It is said to be a relic of ancient Zhang ZhungZhang zhung.

Trizhung (Khri gzhung)

Basic site data

Site name: Trizhung
English equivalent: Seat of the Pasture (?)
Site number: B-74
Site typology: I.2x
Elevation: 4750 m to 4790 m
Administrative location (township): A Zur
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: UTCE and UTAE
Survey date: July 18, 2000 and June 10, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: mani mantras carved into the formation.
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General site characteristics

TrizhungKhri gzhung is situated near the base of a towering limestone escarpment that rises above an uninhabited stretch of the Chu ChammarChu lcam dmar valley.236 With its high volume springs and sheltering limestone hill, TrizhungKhri gzhung was an ideal location for ancient settlement. Much of the surrounding area is comprised of vast plains, enhancing the habitational and defensive value of the site. Despite these natural endowments, TrizhungKhri gzhung has laid abandoned for a very long period of time. The residuum of the site is concentrated in a south-facing amphitheater and consists of a fairly dense agglomeration of poorly preserved ramparts and building foundations. All parts of the site are accessible along trails that were cut into the limestone formation, which obviated the need to descend to the valley below in order to access the various installations. A random-rubble (lightly mud-mortared?) texture of uncut variable-length pieces of limestone constitutes the basic wall type. The mani mantra has been carved in large letters at various places in the soft limestone formation, probably in an apparent attempt to place TrizhungKhri gzhung under the auspices of Buddhism.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, TrizhungKhri gzhung was an ancient MönMon settlement. One better educated official in A ZurA zur township expressly connected the site to the prehistoric BönBon of Zhang ZhungZhang zhung, and one octogenarian associated the site with the epoch of Ling GesarGling ge sar. Despite its ancient identity, TrizhungKhri gzhung is considered an auspicious locale.

Site elements

Amphitheatre and west rim

The heart of the site consists of an amphitheatre embraced by rocky limestone arms. Various rampart fragments crisscross the amphitheatre, covering about 900 m² in total. On the west rim of the amphitheater there are the remains of a substantial two-tiered building foundation aligned in the cardinal directions. It measures 6.5 m by 6 m with revetments up to 1.8 m in height. There is a long narrow cave below the west rim.

Outer west slopes

Coming within 2 m of the base of the steep rocky outer west slopes are the remains of a 190 m long curtain-wall, extending from the west rim to the outer west arm of the site. This wall gradually gains 20 m in elevation from east to west. Although much of this curtain-wall is leveled, certain segments still attain 1 m in height and 1 m in thickness. The curtain-wall is divided by a rocky spur into east (130 m long) and west (60 m) sections. This wall almost certainly functioned as a forward defensive bulwark for the site. Encompassing the entire breadth of the outer west arm are the remains of another foundation (6 m by 9 m). Its walls (70 cm to 90 cm thick) reach a maximum exterior height of 1.2 m, all of which is made up by a revetment. On the east side of this structure there is a freestanding wall fragment, 60 cm in height. At the base of the formation, west of the outer west arm, there is what appears to be a minor archaeological dispersion.

East rim

The west rim and east rim of TrizhungKhri gzhung are connected by a trail that traverses along the limestone formation. The foundation of a ruined habitational structure on the edge of the east rim (8 m by 8 m) overlooks the amphitheater. The forward revetment of this structure is 1.7 m height. On a more easterly point of the formation there are the remains of another structure (7.5 m by 3.5 m).

Shakgang Topo Doring (Shag gang mtho po rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Shakgang Topo Doring
English equivalent: Gravel-covered Prominence Long-stones
Site number: C-59
Site typology: I.1b, I.2d
Elevation: 4570 m (est.)
Administrative location (township): Lungkar
Administrative location (county): Drongpa
Survey expedition: CCE and TUE
Survey date: October 1, 1999 and September 5, 2005
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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Site elements

Outlying funerary structure

A funerary mound is situated 24 m north of the walled pillars of Shakgang Topo DoringShag gang mtho po rdo ring.237 This structure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 10.2 m (east-west) by 9.4 m (east-west). It is elevated about 70 cm above the surrounding well-drained rock-strewn terrain. This mound has double-course perimeter walls (70 cm to 90 cm thick). The tumulus is also divided into four parts by walls (50 cm to 70 cm thick) that form a cruciform pattern on top of the structure. These walls are composed of uncut sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of many different colors (10 cm to 30 cm long). These stones are flush with the ground surface or slightly project above it. The mound is covered in much rubble, obscuring its design characteristics.

Mertum Chukmo Doring (Mer btum phyug mo rdo ring)

Basic site data

Site name: Mertum Chukmo Doring
Site number: C-65
Site typology: II.1b
Elevation: 4740 m
Administrative location (county): Tsochen
Administrative location (county): Kyanghrang
Survey expedition: CPE1 and HTCE
Survey date: November 24, 1997 and June 18, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: mani stones.
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General site characteristics

Mertum Chukmo DoringMer btum phyug mo rdo ring is located on the outskirts of the pastoral village of Mertum ChukmoMer btum phyug mo.238 The terrain slopes gently down in an easterly direction. The ground is sandy with some turf and rock cover. The site consists of five pillars erected inside an enclosure. The presence of funerary structures (enclosures, bangso) in the proximate type II.1b sites of Omatsé Doring’O ma tshe rdo ring (C-117) and Mertum Pima DoringMer btum pis ma rdo ring (C-64), suggests that Mertum Chukmo DoringMer btum phyug mo rdo ring had such facilities as well. If so, all traces have disappeared with the development of Mertum ChukmoMer btum phyug mo village over the last two decades. The concentration of three sites of the same typology within a 10 km radius indicates that this was an important ancient funerary region in KyanghrangRkyang hrang.

Oral tradition

According to villagers of Mertum ChukmoMer btum phyug mo, Mertum Chukmo DoringMer btum phyug mo rdo ring spontaneously appeared with the emergence of existence. These sources state that the pillars are considered highly auspicious and help protect the village.

Site elements

Enclosure

The enclosure is highly fragmentary, obscured by rubble and slightly elevated above the surrounding terrain. Aligned in the cardinal directions, the enclosure measures 6.2 m (north-south) by 12.7 m (east-west). The perimeter walls are around 60 cm thick and contain stones primarily 15 cm to 40 cm in length. These stones of various colors are even with the ground surface or project as much as 15 cm above it.

Pillars

The five pillars of Mertum ChukmoMer btum phyug mo are made of a gray stone that has weathered to a reddish color. From south to north, these pillars have the following dimensions and characteristics:

Long-stone DR1: tabular, broken (35 cm [height] by 85 cm [basal girth]).
Long-stone DR2: four-sided (1.75 m by 1.45 m). Its central placement in the enclosure and large size indicate that this was the main pillar of the site.
Long-stone DR3: four-sided (1 m by 1 m).
Long-stone DR4: tabular (1 m by 1.1 m).
Long-stone DR5: irregularly shaped (85 cm by 1 m).

Pelmo Doring (Dpal mo rdo phur)

Basic site data

Site name: Pelmo Doring
English equivalent: [A Tak] Pelmo’s Stone Daggers
Alternative site name: Pelmo Takpur
English equivalent: [A Tak] Pelmo’s Weaving Stakes
Site number: C-67
Site typology: II.1b, II.2a, II.2b, II.2d
Elevation: 4570 m to 4590 m
Administrative location (township): Urmé
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: UTCE and TUE
Survey date: July 3, 2000 and October 7 and 8, 2005
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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General site characteristics

Pelmo DoringDpal mo rdo phur is located on the southwest side of the Uru Tso’U ru mtsho basin, about 2 km south of Luma KarmoLu ma dkar mo, a drokpa settlement and high volume springs.239 The site is bound in the south by a light-colored limestone range. The highest and nearest peak in this range is called ChakhrangLcags hrang (sp.?). This peak also appears to be known as DoringRdo ring. To the north of the site there is a huge marshy area fed by the springs of Luma KarmoLu ma dkar mo (White Springs). The broadest views from the site are in the east and north (where Uru Tso’U ru mtsho is visible). Pelmo DoringDpal mo rdo phur was founded on well-drained moderately sloping gravelly and grassy terrain. This important necropolis can be divided into three sectors: upper/south (four complexes of funerary enclosures), central (two pillar complexes and two large enclosures) and lower/north (two tumuli and two enclosures). The structures of Pelmo DoringDpal mo rdo phur (except for the pillars) are primarily constructed of uncut pieces of blue limestone of variable length (up to 80 cm long). Red limestone and white limestone are also represented in the various constructions. Many of the major elements of Pelmo DoringDpal mo rdo phur are aligned in the cardinal directions.

Oral tradition

According to one local myth, the pillars of Pelmo DoringDpal mo rdo phur were the stakes used to secure the backstrap loom of the epic heroine A Tak PelmoA stag dpal mo/A Tak LumoA stag klu mo/A Tak LhamoA stag lha mo.

Site elements

Central sector

South pillar complex enclosure

The south pillar complex enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 22.5 m (east-west) by 12 m (north-south). The north wall of the enclosure is shorter than the south wall, creating a gap of 2 m in the east wall. The double-course perimeter walls (around 60 cm thick) contain a single layer of flat stones, which are flush with the ground surface or which project above it to a maximum height of 20 cm.

South pillar complex pillars

Near the southwest corner of the enclosure, 60 cm from the inner edge of the south wall, there is a broken dark gray grained tabular pillar (1.3 m [height] by 1.4 m [basal girth]). The broken top of this pillar (Long-stone DR1) lies in close proximity to the rooted portion. It added another 60 cm to the overall height of the pillar. Local residents report that this break occurred before living memory. The broad sides of DR1 are oriented to the north and south. DR1 has weathered to a reddish color in many places. Roughly centered between the north and south walls of the enclosure there is a less massive light gray tabular pillar (1.5 m by 1 m). This pillar (Long-stone DR2) stands 30 cm from the inner edge of the west wall. The broad sides of DR2 are oriented to the east and west, an uncommon alignment. Given its orientation and relative placement in the enclosure perhaps it was re-erected in the past. DR2 is moderately inclined and sports orange climax lichen on its north and east sides. Some stones are piled around the base of this pillar. There are also four small, broken dark gray pillars that form a row along the west half of north wall of the enclosure. There is also a partly submerged dislodged pillar (1.3 m long) in close proximity to DR1. The eccentric positions of the two tall in situ pillars and the very large size of the enclosure may suggest that originally there were more standing stones than at present.

North pillar complex enclosure

The north pillar complex is situated 47 m south of the south pillar complex at about 5 m lower elevation (35.838΄ / 49΄ 981΄). The fragmentary enclosure is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 22 m (east-west) by 32 m (north-south). The enclosure walls are of the same construction as those of the north pillar complex, only narrower (around 45 cm thick).

North pillar complex pillars

There is a single standing pillar of four uneven faces inside the enclosure (1.6 m by 1.3 m). This dark gray grained pillar stands 2 m from the inner edge of the west wall and is in fairly close proximity to the northwest corner of the enclosure. This highly eroded pillar has weathered to a reddish color. In close proximity to the standing specimen there is a partly submerged uprooted pillar (1.5 m long) made of the same type of rock. The very large size of the enclosure suggests that it may have contained more than just two menhirs.

Large rectangular enclosure East

A large rectangular funerary enclosure is situated 50 m west of the north pillar complex (35.842΄ / 49.932΄). This enclosure is aligned in the compass points, and measures 35 m (east-west) by 19 m (east-west). This highly degraded structure possesses double-course walls of similar but perhaps cruder construction than the two enclosures housing the pillars. The interior of this enclosure is free of structural traces.

Large rectangular enclosure West

Another large rectangular structure of analogous design and construction is situated 11 m to the west of its counterpart (35.840΄ 49.916΄). This better-preserved enclosure is also aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 36 m (north-south) by 20 m (east-west). In the middle of the interior there are two or three highly fragmentary structures (around 3 m across), which form an east-west row. The interior structures seem to have double-course perimeter walls and were probably aligned in the cardinal direction. These structures may possibly be grave markers.

North sector

South tumulus

The south tumulus (bangso) is situated 30 m north of the north pillar complex (35.863΄ / 49.959΄). The south tumulus is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 12 m (east-west) by 10 m (north-south). This quadrate mound is around 1 m or less in height. Around its rim are traces of double-course walls. These walls appear to be of the same design and construction as the various enclosures of the site. There are also wall traces of the same type near the middle of the top tumulus. Between the south tumulus and north pillar complex there may be the remains of a minor superficial structure.

North tumulus

The north tumulus is situated 7 m north of the south tumulus (35.878΄ / 49.961΄). This enormous structure is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 47 m (north-south) by 27 m (east-west). It is 2 m to 4 m in height. The north tumulus is the largest manmade or anthropenically modified mound surveyed to date in Upper Tibet. It could not be determined if the north tumulus is fully an artificial mound or a natural feature that was modified through human agency. There are tiny double-course wall fragments near the south rim of the structure. These wall fragments run parallel and perpendicular to one another and are not aligned in the cardinal directions. Beginning on the north flank of the tumulus and continuing in a northerly direction for 6 m there is a double-course wall segment (40 cm thick).

Enclosures

There is an enclosure of the type found throughout the Pelmo DoringDpal mo rdo ring, situated 15.5 m west of the north tumulus (35.877΄ / 49.933΄). This square enclosure (14 m by 13 m) is roughly aligned in the cardinal directions. Its double-course perimeter walls are 60 cm to 70 cm in thickness. Another enclosure, which is bereft of its east wall, is situated 20 m west of the south tumulus (35.931΄ / 49.672΄). This square enclosure (10 m by 10.7 m) is generally aligned in the cardinal directions. It is of the style of enclosure construction familiar at the site. The stones of the perimeter walls project as much as 35 cm above ground level. Between these two well delineated square structures there are the remains of a smaller, more obscured enclosure. A small rectangular enclosure is also found east of Pelmo DoringDpal mo rdo phur before reaching Luma KarmoLu ma dkar mo.

South sector

Most of the funerary enclosures of the south sector have superficial perimeter walls (45 cm to 1 m thick) containing one layer of two or more stones laid abreast of one another. The stones of the walls are level with the ground surface or project above it to a maximum height of 30 cm. These enclosures have open interiors and are all situated at the same general elevation. There are also smaller enclosures with single-course perimeter walls, a few of which may have had interior structural features.

West complex

The west complex consists of seven small ovoid or sub-rectangular enclosures (2 m to 2.7 m across) arrayed in an arc around a main enclosure (26 m by 17 m) (35.782΄ / 49.883΄ / 4590 m). There may also have been an eighth satellite enclosure situated between the two most northerly specimens. The most northerly satellite enclosure appears to have been excavated: a heap of stones lie in a depression in the middle of the structure. The main enclosure is subdivided by walls into four or five quadrate cells of various sizes. The forward wall of the main enclosure is elevated about 1 m above the downhill slope. A gully bounds the west side of the west complex.

West central complex

The west central complex is located 43 m east of the west complex (35.764΄ / 49.911΄). It is dominated by a highly degraded enclosure that is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 22 m (east-west) by 7.5 m (north-south). The south wall of this enclosure is slightly depressed above the uphill slope in order to maintain a level interior This enclosure is subdivided into four cells of roughly equal size. The easternmost cell has been heavily damaged by a rivulet that flows over it in times of heavy precipitation.

East central complex

The east central complex is situated 50 m east of the west central complex and 52 m south of the south pillar complex (35.766΄ / 49.968΄). It is also dominated by a large enclosure that is generally aligned in the cardinal directions. This enclosure measures 38 m (east-west) by 15 m (north-south), and is subdivided into six cells of varying sizes. These six cells are not arrayed symmetrically. On the west side of the main enclosure there are two more enclosures situated at a slightly lower elevation. There is also a small enclosure on the northwest side of the main enclosure. A sub-rectangular single-course enclosure (2.3 m across) is situated 3 m west of the main enclosure.

East complex

The east complex is situated 23 m east of the east central complex (35.770΄ / 50.001΄). The dominant enclosure of the east sector measures 30 m (east-west) by 15 m (north-south). It is subdivided into two larger south cells and one smaller north cell. The southeast cell is set about 1 m below the uphill slope. An isolated enclosure fragment (2.5 m across) is located 8 m west of the main enclosure. A large boulder reposes in isolation just south of the main enclosure. It may have been transported to its present location as an integral feature of the east sector.

Doring Marmo (Rdo ring dmar mo)

Basic site data

Site name: Doring Marmo
English equivalent: Red Long-stones
Site number: C-73
Site typology: II.1x
Elevation: 4700 m
Administrative location (township): A Zur240
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: UTCE and UTAE
Survey date: July 18, 2000 and June 10, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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General site characteristics

Doring MarmoRdo ring dmar mo sits on a gently sloping gravelly bench that overlooks the Bok Tsangpo’Bog gtsang po.241 The site is closely bound in the north by a limestone formation. Views in other directions are quite open. In addition to the five standing stones of Doring MarmoRdo ring dmar mo, there are at least one dozen large contiguous, double-course quadrate funerary superstructures spread out over an area of approximately 2400 m².

Oral tradition

According to the not well articulated local lore, Doring MarmoRdo ring dmar mo was constructed by the ancient MönMon.

Site elements

Pillars

There are five pillars at the site that form a line, 8.7 m in length. Although there are no signs of the enclosing walls, the aspect of the pillars encourages the hypothesis that there once were. The pillars are dominated by an irregularly shaped tabular specimen, 1.5 meters in height and with a basal girth of 1.7 meters. This standing stone has two broad sides oriented north and south. The north side of the pillar has weathered to a reddish color while the south face is beige in color. The four lesser doring, to the north, range in height from 30 cm to 75 cm.

Enclosures

In close proximity to the pillars there is a well built double-course enclosure that measures 5.5 m (north-south) by 9 m (east-west). In close proximity are the vestiges of other small structures, including one with a 1 m high rocky mound in the middle of it. The main zone of enclosures begins 90 m west of the large pillar. The walls of these enclosures are made of variable length (15 cm to 50 cm long) chunks of limestone that are flush with the surface or raised above to a maximum height of 30 cm. Most of the walls are aligned in the cardinal directions. Among these remains, a typical enclosure measures 9 m (north-south) by 14 meters (east-west). At another river valley site, located several hundred meters to the west, there is a small group of quadrate enclosures.

Doring Chakra (Rdo ring lcags ra)

Basic site data

Site name: Doring Chakra
English equivalent: Walled long-stones
Site number: C-74
Site typology: I.2a, II.1b
Elevation: 4890 m
Administrative location (township): A Zur
Administrative location (county): Nyima
Survey expedition: UTCE242
Survey date: July 19, 2000
Contemporary usage: Heavy grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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Towo Marhrang (Tho bo dmar hrang)

Basic site data

Site name: Towo Marhrang
English equivalent: Red Bare Stone Registers
Site number: C-146
Site typology: II.1c
Elevation: 4500 m (est.)
Administrative location (township): Möntser
Administrative location (county): Gar
Survey expedition: CCE and THE
Survey date: October 23, 1999 and May 23, 2006
Contemporary usage: Limited religious activities.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Prayer flag mast.
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General site characteristics

Towo MarhrangTho bo dmar hrang is located approximately 3 km upstream of the famous far western Tibetan pilgrimage center of PretapuriPre ta pu ri. The PretapuriPre ta pu ri Buddhist monastery is clearly visible from the site, as part of sweeping views to the north. There are also long views to the south. Towo MarhrangTho bo dmar hrang is on a broad shelf situated above the right bank of the Langchen TsangpoGlang chen gtsang po (Sutlej river). The terrain is level, sandy and gravelly, and studded with drama brush. Towo MarhrangTho bo dmar hrang, a large array of pillars appended to an edifice (temple-tomb), is one of the most important archaic cultural sites in the Zhang ZhungZhang zhung region, known in BönBon sources as Jari TsukdenBya ri gtsug ldan.

Oral tradition

According to some local sources, Towo MarhrangTho bo dmar hrang was constructed by the ancient MönMon. The name of the region, MöntserMon ’tsher, translates as “Abandoned by the MönMon.” This appellation is derived from a local belief that in the distant past there were many MönMon residing here, but, at some point in time, they completely disappeared from the region. The monks of PretapuriPre ta pu ri note that the pillars found on the site may demarcate the extent and influence of a local earth dwelling spirit (sadak). This belief is inspired by earth piercing instruments (like the Purpa) used in rituals to control the sadak, which have as their parallel, the earth penetrating pillars. There is also a folktale, in circulation in the region, regarding Towo MarhrangTho bo dmar hrang: a long time ago a beer (chang) making operation in PretapuriPre ta pu ri ran out of yeast. Yeast was sent for from PurangSpu rang. En route from PurangSpu rang the horse transporting the yeast dropped dead at Towo MarhrangTho bo dmar hrang and was buried there. It is said that a saddle and the corpse of a horse, once unearthed from the site, were the subjects of this folktale. This reported discovery suggests that funerary ritual sacrifices of horses were carried out at this necropolis.

Site elements

Appended edifice

The edifice (temple-tomb) appended to the array of pillars is generally aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 17 m (north-south) by 10.5 m (east-west). This formidable structure is still 5 m to 6 m in height. Originally, this building may have even been taller. The coursed-rubble outer walls were made to a very high order of proficiency, and are around 70 cm in thickness. Some of the courses of stones are positioned diagonally to create a herringbone pattern. The walls of the edifice are primarily composed of chunks of a reddish calcareous rock, with thick seams between each course. These seams must have been filled with a mud- or clay-based mortar. The interior face of the outer walls and certain internal partition walls appear to have been mostly composed of brown sandstone slabs. Some of the sandstone rubble of the ruin may also have comprised the all-stone corbelled roof assembly. The stonework of the west and north walls (the two most intact sides) are interspersed with three courses of thin sandstone bond-stones (50 cm to 90 cm long).

Unfortunately, the temple-tomb edifice is far too fragmentary for an accurate assessment of its ground plan. It has disintegrated into a huge masonry mass in which few design details have survived. Most of the structure appears to have been subdivided by a longitudinal partition wall (around 70 cm thick) into west and east halves, each portion of which is further subdivided by walls into several compartments. These compartments appear to have been of various sizes. They probably functioned as burial chambers and perhaps for the conduct of funerary rituals as well. This is the only clear example of an edifice belonging to this monument typology that was subdivided by a wall longitudinally. Also, most appended edifices seem to house far fewer internal compartments than the structure at Towo MarhrangTho bo dmar hrang. There is a small prayer flag mast (darchok) and a fragment of an inscribed plaque on the high point of the edifice.

Pillar Array

The array of pillars is oriented in the cardinal directions, and measures 18.5 m (north-west) by 49 m (east-west). The array contains around 250 standing stones, a significant portion of which are broken. These in situ pillars represent less than 20 percent of the original number that stood in the concourse. These pillars currently come within 2 m to 4 m of the appended edifice. The pillars are between 10 cm and 80 cm in height, and are made of sandstone, white granite and other kinds of rocks. All the taller pillars are inclined due to the effect of gravity. There are also quite a few dislodged menhirs scattered around the array, the longest of which is 1.5 m. As is normal in this monument typology, the two broad faces of the tabular pillars face north and south.

There are fragments of double-course slab walls and perhaps single-course slab walls bordering the array. The individual slabs of these walls are up to 1.2 m in length, and were inserted into the ground edgewise. To the east of the array there are two fragmentary double-course slabs walls, which extend 8 m and 10 m east of the most easterly pillar. One of these slab walls is located east of the south side of the array, while the other one is situated 4.5 m north of its counterpart. An L-shaped slab-wall fragment (3 m and 5 m long) is also found 23 m east of the northeast corner of the pillar array. This structure may mark the easternmost extent of the slab-wall network of the site.

Funerary enclosures

Roughly 15 m west of the edifice there is an ovoid heaped-stone wall funerary enclosure (about 10 m across). Its walls are around 30 cm in height. There is also a smaller funerary structure situated halfway between this enclosure and the edifice. It consists of a dense dispersion of stones with no evidence of ordered walls.

Chupur Dopur (Chu phur rdo phur)

Basic site data

Site name: Chupur Dopur
English equivalent: Water Daggers Stone Daggers
Site number: C-149
Site typology: II.1c
Elevation: 4700 m
Administrative location (township): Rimar
Administrative location (county): Gertsé
Survey expedition: UTCE and UTAE
Survey date: July 26, 2000 and June 8, 2001
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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General site characteristics

The four complexes of pillars appended to edifices of Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur are situated on benches below an eponymous mountain.243 The site is located west of the TongtsoStong mtsho basin, but both the lake and the territorial deity (yüllha) mountain of GertséSger rtse, A Mar Rolpa KyadünA dmar rol pa rkya bdun (found west of TongtsoStong mtsho), are out of view. The terrain consists of thin, bare undulating earth with a light covering of gravel. As with a good number of the pillar complexes of Upper Tibet, there are no permanent habitations in the vicinity of the site. The preservation of the monument is probably due to its remote location and to the fairly high esteem and wonder it is held in by residents of GertséSger rtse. There are no prayer flags, mani stones or any other pre-modern or contemporary signs of religious activity at Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur. The pillars are mostly tabular in shape and are often inclined in a downhill or northerly direction. The unbroken stelae range in height from 30 cm to 75 cm (average height about 40 cm). Uprooted specimens, up to 1 m in length, are found scattered around the site. The stelae are uncut and are available in appropriate sizes and shapes on the flanks of nearby Mount Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur. As in many other sites with multiple pillars, the broad sides of the stelae face north to south and the thin edges are oriented east to west. Originally gray in color, many pillars have weathered to a dark reddish brown color. There are also some sandstone pillars at Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur.

The west complex is the largest of the four arrays of standing stones and appended edifices (temple-tombs) at Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur. It is situated on the west side of the site, squeezed between two gullies. The other three complexes (lower east, central east and upper east) are located approximately 90 meters northeast of the west complex on the far side of the east gully. The three east complexes form a line that runs transverse to the angle of the slope. The three east complex edifices, accompanying the concourses of stelae, form a row 35 m in length at the edge of the gully. These structures are not well aligned in the compass points, and they have been reduced to stony mounds with only traces of coherent wall segments still visible. The three arrays of standing stones of the east complexes have been heavily impacted by erosion and movement of the slope upon which they were erected.

Oral tradition

In the GertséSger rtse region there are four common oral traditions connected to the Doring of Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur:

They represent a monument that appeared with the emergence of existence.
They are where the GertséSger rtse territorial deity (yüllha) A Mar Rolpa KyadünA dmar rol pa rkya bdun/A Mar Rolpa KyadünA dmar rol pa skya bdun tied his dogs and wolves.244
They are a magical earth subduing and rain attracting instrument.
They are burial monuments built by the ancient MönMon/mönpaMon pa.

According to a well-respected former leader of GertséSger rtse, Könchok GyeltsenDkon mchog rgyal mtshan of the GertséSger rtse clan (born in the early 1920s), human bones have washed out from the gullies below the site. He is under the impression that Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phuris a MönMon funerary site and that under each of the standing stones there are the remains of a single individual. When he was a youth, Könchok GyeltsenDkon mchog rgyal mtshan’s contemporaries were prevented by local Tibetan authorities from digging in the vicinity of Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur, lest they disturb the integrity of the site. According to Ozang Drodong’O bzang gro gdong (born year of the Pig, circa 1923), in ancient times the local sacred mountain, A Mar Rolpa KyadünA dmar rol pa rkya bdun, belonged to the MönMon, who lived in the Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur vicinity. They erected the standing stones and other structures as their burial monuments. These MönMon practiced an unvirtuous (nakchok) religion. When the epic hero GesarGe sar, came to the area he wrested the site from A Mar Rolpa KyadünA dmar rol pa rkya bdun by destroying his headstone (wudo) on the summit of Chupur DopurChu phur rdo phur with a lightning strike. From that time, this mountain god became a virtuous Buddhist deity. According to a male HarshuHar shu clan informant (born year of the Tiger, circa 1927) (and other elders of the region), the religion of the ancient MönMon of GertséSger rtse was “black” BönBon.

Site elements

West complex

Appended edifice

The west complex appended edifice is situated 5 m west of the field of Doring and shares the same alignment. Due to extreme degradation of the structure, its external dimensions are difficult to appraise. Nevertheless, the bottom part of its central chamber is still intact, and measures 5.3 m (north-south) by 1.85 m (east-west). The walls composing the central chamber (up to 80 cm high) are made of alternating horizontal and herringbone coursed-rubble. There is some structural evidence to suggest that the walls of the west complex edifice were about 1.4 m in thickness. Variable-length (15 cm to 40 cm) stones were used in its construction.

Pillar array

The west complex array of standing stones is aligned in the cardinal directions, and measures 22 m (east-west) by 13 m (north-south). Although at least 50 percent of the pillars are missing; it would seem that there were originally approximately 35 rows of stones, each with about 35 pillars. These rows are spaced 25 cm to 55 cm apart. Individual stelae in each row are arrayed 20 cm to 40 cm from one another.

Lower east complex

Appended edifice

The dimensions of this highly degraded lower east complex appended edifice are no longer evident. The remains, a rocky tumulus, reach 1.8 m in height.

Pillar array

Upwards of 70 percent of the pillars in this most northerly of the three east complexes are no longer in situ. This array roughly measured 17 m (east-west) by 13 m (north-south). The stelae in each row are spaced 50 cm to 70 cm apart, and reach a maximum height of 65 cm. The south side of the concourse of standing stones is bounded by a 12 m long fragment of a double-course slab wall (20 cm to 35 cm thick). This wall is constructed of variable length slabs (10 cm to 65 cm long) set into the ground edgewise. These slabs are either flush with the surface or slightly project above it. About 4 m north of the lower east complex pillar array there is a small isolated group of standing stones.

Central east complex

Appended edifice

The central east complex edifice is situated 4 m south of the lower east complex edifice. It approximately measures 5.5 m (east to west) by 8 m (north-south). Coherent traces of the east and south walls are extant.

Pillar array

The original extent of the central east complex array of standing stones is unclear as only about 175 specimens are in situ. These pillars tend to be shorter than those of the lower east complex. Some of the standing stones reach right up to the appended edifice. The slope that they sit upon is uneven probably due to water-borne geomorphologic changes. The rows of standing stones are spaced 25 cm to 40 cm apart. Individual pillars in each row stand 20 cm to 40 cm from one another. A 5.5 m long single-course slab-wall fragment bounds the north side of the array.

Upper east complex

Appended edifice

The upper east complex edifice is situated 8 m north of the central east edifice. This structure measures 6 m (east-west) by 7.5 m (north-south), and has been reduced to a mound with only tiny sections of integral walls left.

Pillar array

The upper east complex pillar array is also heavily disturbed. Near the appended edifice, about three dozen stones are left standing, and on the east side of the concourse there are approximately 125 Doring in situ. The rows of pillars are spaced 40 cm to 60 cm apart. Individual standing stones in each row are arrayed 30 cm to 75 cm from one another. A slab-wall remnant bounds the east side of the array. There is also a slab-wall fragment (3.5 m long) that runs east-west through the middle of the concourse of standing stones.

Kyelung (Skye lung and LungsumLung gsum)

Basic site data

Site name: Kyelung and Lungsum
English equivalent: Growth Valley and Three Valleys
Site number: D-4
Site typology: I.1x, II.2d
Elevation: 4370 m to 4400 m
Administrative location (township): Damzhung
Administrative location (county): Damzhung
Survey expedition: CCE and HTWE
Survey date: May 23, 1999 and May 7, 2004
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: Three mani plaques.
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General site characteristics

KyelungSkye lung and LungsumLung gsum are located on shelves that form in front of the mouths of eponymous valleys.245 The site is situated on the foot of the Nyenchen TanglhaGnyan chen thang lha range and overlooks the Dam’Dam basin. This geographic situation is paralleled in a number of ceremonial and residential archaeological sites located in Damzhung’Dam gzhung. The shelves of KyelungSkye lung and LungsumLung gsum were carefully terraced as would befit an important site. The roots of long stone retaining walls demarcating each of these terraces are still visible. In addition to this terracing, the upper sector of the site hosts a diverse collection of structures. While there is at least one funerary mound among them (Funerary structure FS3), the identity of most of these structures could not be determined. The morphological complexity of the upper sector seems to indicate that it developed over a long period of time in both the archaic and lamaist eras. There are three crudely carved red sandstone mani plaques in the upper sector. The lower sector of KyelungSkye lung and LungsumLung gsum is comprised of a compact unit of what appears to be the remains of substantial residential structures. If indeed the lower sector was a residential site destroyed by the Jungarjun gar, Buddhist monuments would almost certainly have been founded in the vicinity prior to this event.

Oral tradition

According to local residents, the lower sector of KyelungSkye lung and LungsumLung gsum was a settlement, which was destroyed by the Jungarjun gar (early 18th century CE).

Site elements

Lower sector

The lower sector (70 m by 30 m) is an undulating zone of small mounds and depressions. The lower sector appears to consist of the footings of large buildings. Just two small, coherent double-course wall fragments could be discerned among the ruins. They measure 2 m by 60 cm and 1.5 m by 60 cm. The remains of the foundations are ostensibly rectilinear in form, as would be expected in edifices built with wooden roofs (a variety of small tree species grow in the sheltered valleys of Damzhung’Dam gzhung).

Upper sector

Funerary Structure FS1

Funerary structure FS1, twin mounds, are situated on the southern extremity of the site (31.941΄ / 06.303΄ / 4390 m). These twin mounds are separated from one another by a gap of about 1.5 m, and together cover an area of 17 m by 7 m. The two longer sides of the structures are oriented perpendicular to the angle of the slope. On their uphill flank they are around 1.5 m in height and on their downhill flank they are perhaps 3 m in height. Three vertical courses of masonry are found along the rim of the structure. This fragmentary stone structure demonstrates that the mounds were aligned in the cardinal directions. The morphological traits and extreme degradation of FS1 make it difficult to determine what type of ceremonial structure it represents. In keeping with the general character of large mounds in the Damzhung’Dam gzhung region, they are most likely burial tumuli.

Funerary Structure FS2

Funerary structure FS2 is an extremely eroded stone and earthen mound (31.947΄ / 06.281΄ / 4400 m). It has an uphill height of 1 m and a downhill height of at least 2 m. The identity of this highly dissolute structure is not clear.

Funerary Structure FS3

Funerary structure FS3 is a bare earth, turf-covered and brush-studded quadrate funerary mound (31.974΄ / 06.279΄ / 4400 m). This large tumulus is generally aligned in the cardinal directions and measures 15 m (north-south) by 17 m (east-west). It has an uphill height of 1.5 m and a downhill height of approximately 3.5 m. The top of FS3 is concave and is pockmarked by a small excavation less than 1 m deep.

Funerary Structure FS4

Funerary structure FS4 (19 m by 4 m) is a long and narrow structure of unknown function (31.987΄ / 06.322΄ / 4400 m). FS4 has an uphill height of around 1 m and a downhill height of around 2 m. In close proximity there is a small square masonry base. FS4 has morphological characteristics in keeping with that of a long mani wall, but its identity could not be ascertained.

Funerary Structure FS5

Funerary structure FS5 (6 m by 6.4 m) is a superficial masonry structure, which may represent the footings of a small building (31.992΄ / 06.343΄ / 4400 m). Its forward/south wall is 1 m in height. These walls are double-course and around 60 cm in thickness. Near the northern extremity of the upper sector are small footings which may have possibly supported a chöten.

Milhé Khordo (Mi lhas ’khor mdo)

Basic site data

Site name: Milhé Khordo
English equivalent: Human Enclosures Juncture (?)
Site number: D-19
Site typology: II.2b, II.2d
Elevation: 4400 m
Administrative location (township): Rawang
Administrative location (county): Rutok
Survey expedition: CCE and HTCE
Survey date: August 10, 1999 and June 3, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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General site characteristics

Milhé KhordoMi lhas ’khor mdo is located in the midst of a level sandy plain.246 The site consists of seven quadrate funerary enclosures that appear to be of the double-course wall type and one funerary mound (bangso). These funerary structures are aggregated in three groups. Due to the wholesale extraction of stones from the monuments in the 1990s, all superstructures are in an advanced state of degradation. Although there are reported to have been many examples of coherent walls, not one fragment is still in situ at Milhé KhordoMi lhas ’khor mdo. The dismantling of the funerary structures occurred here in order that local drokpa could build corrals and other pastoral structures.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Milhé KhordoMi lhas ’khor mdo was built by the ancient MönMon. Just north of the archaeological site there is a small mountain also called Milhé KhordoMi lhas ’khor mdo. It is said that in ancient times a woman slaughtered a sheep at this mountain. Perhaps this tale alludes to sacrificial funerary rites associated with the site.

Site elements

West sector

Funerary structure FS1 (14 m by 8 m). This funerary mound is elevated 1 m to 2 m above the surrounding plain.

Funerary structure FS8 (6 m by 11 m) is situated 11 m south of FS1.

East sector

Funerary structure FS2 (9 m by 6.5 m) is situated 270 m east of FS1. The main road runs within a few meters of FS2.

Funerary structure FS3 (12 m by 11 m) is situated approximately 50 m east of FS2.

Funerary structure FS4 (7 m by 8 m) is situated 8 m north of FS3. FS4 sits right at the edge of the main road.

North sector

Funerary structure FS5 (6.4 m by 8 m) is situated 100 m north of FS4.

Funerary structure FS6 (6 m by 4.6 m) is situated 4 m north of FS5.

Funerary structure FS7 (12 m by 10 m) is situated 23 m north of FS6.

Affiliated sites

What appears to be a funerary structure is situated in a side valley called Chötenbuk NakhaMchod rten sbug sna kha, a tributary of the KyéSkyes valley, which in turn, joins the RawangRa bang valley. This structure (4.5 m by 4.5 m) is situated about 20 m above the valley floor, on a northeast facing slope (33° 03.139΄ N. lat. / 80° 19.251΄ / 4420 m). It is highly degraded and no coherent wall segments remain. In the middle there is a depression, which may be a sign that it was excavated at one time. In the valley floor below this structure there are the faint traces of what may be another small funerary structure. Higher up on valley bottom there may yet be another small specimen (03.384΄ / 19.509΄).

Tsamé Gösa Möndur (Rtswa med god sa mon dur)

Basic site data

Site name: Tsamé Gösa Möndur
English equivalent: No Grass Place of Loss Mön Tombs
Alternative site name: Gyaplung Möndur
English equivalent: Back Valley Mön Tombs
Site number: E-3
Site typology: II.3
Elevation: 4520 m
Administrative location (township): Rawang
Administrative location (county): Rutok
Survey expedition: CCE and HTCE
Survey date: August 10, 1999 and June 3, 2002
Contemporary usage: Light grazing.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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General site characteristics

The seven cubic tombs of Tsamé Gösa MöndurRtswa med god sa mon dur are situated on the summit of a talus-cloaked ridge, which rises about 150 m above the Randrok TsoRwa ’brog mtsho basin.247 The tombs form a single east-west line along the narrow ridgeback and most of them sit atop small rock outcrops. The site directly overlooks the Randrok TsoRwa ’brog mtsho basin and has open views in all directions. The longest view is in the east. The ridgeline with the tombs separates the Randrok TsoRwa ’brog mtsho basin from the small tributary valley of GyaplungRgyab lung to the north. The cubic tombs of Tsamé Gösa MöndurRtswa med god sa mon dur are in relatively good condition, in that their integral form is discernable. The tombs are made of variable-length, thin slabs of rock found at the site. It takes about 20 of these slabs, laid on top of one another to reach a height of 1 m.

Oral tradition

According to local sources, Tsamé Gösa MöndurRtswa med god sa mon dur is a MönMon burial site.

Site elements

From east to west, the cubic tombs of Tsamé Gösa MöndurRtswa med god sa mon dur have the following dimensions and characteristics.

Funerary structure FS1: (1.8 m by 2.2 m by 50 cm [height]).
Funerary structure FS2: (3 m by 2.3 m by 1.2 m). The base of the central depository (reliquary) is intact (1 m by 50 cm by 50 cm [deep]). The central depository is partially filled with earth and stones.
Funerary structure FS3: (2.4 m by 2.8 m by 70 cm).
Funerary structure FS4: (3 m by 2.4 m by 1 m). Its central depository has been gutted.
Funerary structure FS5: 2.3 m by 2.4 m by 1. 2m). A small portion of its central depository is intact.
Funerary structure FS6: (2 m by 2 m by 60 cm). FS6 is situated roughly 100 m east of FS5.
Funerary structure FS7 (1.9 m by 2 m by 40 cm).
On the steep, south flanks of the ridge, below the funerary site, a lone animal petroglyph was documented. Dating to the prehistoric epoch, this animal composition resembling a butting yak was carved on a piece of talus.

Tamchok Ngangpa Do (Rta mchog ngang pa do)

Basic site data

Site name: Tamchok Ngangpa Do
English equivalent: Orange Excellent Horse Headland248
Site number: A-26
Site typology: I.1x
Elevation: 4780 m
Administrative location (township): Chinglung
Administrative location (county): Pelgön
Survey expeditions: DDE1 and TIB2008
Survey date: June 7, 1994 and November 7, 2008
Contemporary usage: None.
Identifiable Buddhist constructions: None.
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General site characteristics

The freestanding ancient residential site of Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do is situated atop a rock formation on the west side of the eponymous headland.249 These ruins constitute the most important ancient residential complex on the headland. They are found on one of two reddish pyramidal or conical limestone formations, which are likened to a horse’s ears. The headland of Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do is located in the middle of the north shore of NamtsoGnam mtsho. Its central location and the manner in which the headland juts prominently into the lake invests the site with a powerful geomantic status. Such highly exposed lakeside settings were prized by ancient builders all across Upper Tibet. Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do occupies a dramatic setting with NamtsoGnam mtsho surrounding it on three sides. The sacred mountain Nyenchen TanglhaGnyan chen thang lha stands on the opposite side of the lake. The freestanding residential complex is planted on the northwest horse’s ear (TachokRta chog), a mass of rock rising directly above the waters of NamtsoGnam mtsho to a height of about 50 m. This formation is offset from the backbone of the headland and receives good eastern and southern exposure. The northwest “horse’s ear” is separated from the southeast “horse’s ear” by a thin finger of NamtsoGnam mtsho. The steeply inclined (around 30º) summit of the northwest “horse’s ear” is covered in loose rocks and supports some scrub junipers (bama). Areas of the summit covered in juniper trees (trunks up to 25 cm in diameter) enjoy a more shaded and moister micro-environment. Underneath the trees is a layer of litter that strongly contrasts with the bare rock of adjoining areas. In addition to the summit site, there is a string of ancient cave shelters at Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do.

Oral tradition

According to drokpa of the north shore of NamtsoGnam mtsho, the ruins on top of the pyramidal formation at Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do are that of an important ancient BönBon temple or monastery.250 The similarly pronounced toponyms TachokRta mchog (excellent horse) and TachokRta chog (horse ear) are inseparably linked in the sacred geography of the headland.251 The horse referred to is a mythic racehorse or wind horse (lungta) associated with the sacred geography of Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do. Other anatomical features of this horse are not well articulated in local conceptions about Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do.

Site elements

Northwest Horse’s Ear Residential Complex

The design, construction and geographic aspect of the Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do “BönBon” ruins on the horse’s ear are reminiscent of Shawa DrakSha ba brag (A-3), a site located approximately 100 km to the west. These two sites featured small limestone block buildings perched on rocky summits that overlook lakes. The structures of each site are arranged in tiers to form compact residential units. Only a small handful of individuals are likely to have resided at either of these two sites. Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do and Shawa DrakSha ba brag (associated with the eighth century CE saint Nangzher LöpoSnang bzher lod po in BönBon literature) are among an elite group of permanent lakeside dwellings in the eastern JangtangByang thang. They appear to have been constituent parts of the archaic cultural horizon religious and possibly political infrastructure of the region. This region was almost certainly part of the proto-tribal country known in Tibetan literature as SumpaSum pa. Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do and Shawa DrakSha ba brag, by virtue of their unassailable positions, appear to have been august residences well insulated from external threats. These socially exclusive sites may have functioned as ritual centers and as the residences of priests and chieftains. Their identity as temples, palaces, and/or hermitages also fits the pattern of cultural usage established in the lamaist architecture of later historic times.

Given the BönBon historical lore connected to Shawa DrakSha ba brag, we might expect that Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do likewise was occupied during the eighth century CE. A much earlier foundation date, nevertheless, cannot be ruled out. The general cultural history of NamtsoGnam mtsho and epigraphic and pictographic evidence obtained from Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do (J-21) and other headlands of NamtsoGnam mtsho indicate that the site may have remained in the hands of archaic religious practitioners until as late as the 13th century CE. This is not to say, however, that Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do did not come under Buddhist religious and moral influences prior to this period. While the local Guru RinpochéGu ru rin po che myth connected to the headland is not likely to have much historical credence, the presence of Buddhist saints at NamtsoGnam mtsho beginning in the tenpa chidar is well documented in Tibetan literature. They include prominent personalities such as Galo RinpochéGwa lo rin po che (11th to 12th century CE), Gyelwa LorepaRgyal ba lo ras pa (died 1251 CE), MilarepaMi la ras pa (1040-1143 CE), Dopa Darma SherapDo pa dar ma shes rab (born 1228 CE), and RechungpaRas chung pa (1083-1161 CE) (for further information, see SemodoSe mo do, B-126). We might, therefore, speak in terms of a transitional period between circa 1000 AD and 1250 AD when archaic religious traditions gradually gave way to Buddhist doctrinal and institutional domination at sites such as Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do.

Access to the summit of the formation is gained through a narrow fissure on its east side. Old stone steps embedded in this fissure climb 3.5 m to a level passageway, which is approximately 4 m in length. The opposite or west end of this passageway overlooks NamtsoGnam mtsho. The passageway and fissure are no more than 1 m in width. Above the passageway the remains of a small parapet wall barricade an opening in the east side of the formation. Another wall fragment stands above this point. These two walls appear to have had a defensive function, sealing of a breach in the “horse’s ear” that was potentially vulnerable to attack. Reportedly, steps once continued up from the level passageway to the bottom end of the formation summit, but they are now completely missing. By using a few scant handholds it is still possible to ascend the vertical face of the passageway to the summit.

The summit of the northwest “horse’s ear” slopes steeply up in a westerly direction. The ruined residential complex is situated near the northwest rim of the summit. These diminutive structures face in a northeast direction. The lower edifice consists of just one room and the adjacent the upper edifice contained two rooms. The walls of both buildings are comprised of random-rubble uncut bluish limestone blocks of variable length (10 cm to 60 cm in length). In the seams there are traces of a clay-based mortar that is now heavily impacted. The walls are 45 cm to 55 cm thick, with small pieces of stone filling the interstitial spaces between the outer courses of stonework. Orange climax lichen grows on some stones and they have been subjected to considerable in situ weathering. It does not appear that the ruins have been disturbed in a long time. Both carcasses have been reduced to 1.6 m or less in height, and there is no remaining structural evidence for the roofs. The relatively large rooms and long straight walls of the structures suggest that the roofs were made of wood. However, it seems unlikely that locally available scrub juniper trees could have yielded pieces of wood long enough to use as roof timbers.

The forward/lower and rear/upper walls of the lower edifice measure 5.5 m in length while the two side walls are 4.6 m long. Most of the lower edifice has been leveled to its footings and revetment. The forward wall has a current maximum exterior height of 1.6 m and a maximum interior height of 60 cm, the difference being accounted for by the revetment that underpins the front of the building. Other freestanding wall segments attain only 40 cm in height.

The rear/upper wall of the upper edifice is 9.3 m in length and the side walls approximately 4 m long. Much of the rear wall of the upper edifice stands 60 cm to 80 cm in height on its exterior face and 80 cm to 1.3 m in height along its interior. This difference in elevation is largely accounted for by the slope gradient. The L-shaped upper edifice is divided into sections: west (3.2 m by 2.8 m) and east (6.1 m by 3.5 m). The smaller west section of the upper edifice is situated directly behind the lower edifice at a distance of 1.2 m. The corner of the wider east section is situated just 70 cm from the lower edifice. The L-shaped space created between the two edifices appears to have been an open passageway. The west section of the upper edifice appears to have been a single room. This open space is now sloping and engorged with rubble. The side and forward walls of the west section stand a maximum of 50 cm in height. The footings of the wall that divided the west and east sections of the upper edifice are largely intact. The east section of the upper edifice also appears to have been an unpartitioned space consonant with that of a single room. This open area is largely clear of rubble. The forward wall of the east section has a maximum exterior height of 1.2 m and a maximum interior height of 30 cm, the difference in elevation being accounted for by a fairly prominent revetment. The side walls of the east section have freestanding fragments attaining a maximum height of 50 cm.

Approximately 8 m higher than the upper edifice, on the very apex of the “horse’s ear,” are the remains of another ancient structure (4.8 m by 6.7 m). This platform-like apex structure consists of a less well developed revetment with few or no signs of a superstructure. The tallest revetment fragments are located on its southwest side and reach 1 m in height. The apex structure appears to have been divided into two parts. It is not certain if it was residential or ceremonial in nature, but the latter function seems much more likely. Small cairns line the apex structure illustrating how its sacred status has been maintained to the modern period despite the site’s BönBon connotations. It may be conjectured that the apex structure was a ritual venue. The loftiness and encompassing views from this monument may have imbued it with significant celestial symbolism related to the uranic deities and phenomena of BönBon religious traditions.

Outlying cave shelters

On the north end or base of the Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do headland is a group of a half dozen Buddhist retreat caves belonging to Nyingmapa sect meditators. These caves, like all others detailed in this survey, are found in the rocky backbone of the headland. While the current Buddhist occupied caves are likely to have been exploited over a long period of time, there is little extant structural evidence that can be attributed to the archaic cultural horizon. South of the Buddhist retreat caves there are a number of caves with the remains of ancient masonry fronts. According to local sources interviewed in the 1990s, this string of caves has an ancient BönBon identity. This is corroborated by the presence of BönBon inscriptions and iconic motifs in some of the caves. The first old rock shelters encountered traveling in a counterclockwise direction along the west side of the headland are two small caves with the vestiges of masonry façades. A little south of these two caves there is a rock slide above which is an opening to what appears to have been another anthropogenically modified cave shelter.

Further south along the headland is an overhang with just the footings (70 cm thick) of a masonry façade. This cave is situated opposite the “horse’s ears.” There are the remains of another rock shelter opposite the two “horse’s ears”. The remnants of a wall heaped to a height of 3 m barricade a small cave. Integral fragments of this wall have survived despite much geomorphologic change to the site.

Continuing along the west side of the headland there is a cave with red ochre inscriptions,252 a high ceiling and a massively constructed masonry façade wall. The façade is 11 m in length, around 70 cm thick and has a maximum height of 1.7 m. Running perpendicular to the interior of the façade are the vestiges of two partition walls, 2 m and 1.7 m in length. The heavy construction of this masonry front is congruent with the traits of archaic cultural heritage cave shelters throughout the JangtangByang thang, but reoccupation by Buddhist masters in a later period cannot be ruled out.

Continuing in a counterclockwise direction around the Tamchok Ngangpa DoRta mchog ngang pa do headland are twin caves separated by a distance of about 3 m (49.983΄ / 40.386΄). Both of these caves were enclosed by a massive barrier wall 10.4 m in length. This wall has been reduced to its footings. The west cave contains beige and red ochre pictographs. A long and narrow cave further along the headland also appears to have had a façade (50.006΄ / 40.421΄).

A large east-facing rock overhang on the headland hosts the remains of what is believed to have been a BönBon religious center (50.016΄ / 40.470΄). This seems to be corroborated by the presence of BönBon polychromic motifs (painted circa 900–1250 CE) on the cliff face. A network of freestanding walls stretches for 15 m under the shelter of the overhang. These fragmentary but well built walls were part of several different rooms. The walls are up to 1.9 m in height and bits of mud plaster still cling to them. This site was transformed into a pastoral camp sometime in the past. The construction of corral walls appears to have been at least partly responsible for the extreme degradation of original structural remains.

2. Tables of the Names and Locations of All Archaic Monuments and Rock Art Sites Documented to Date

Questions concerning the accuracy of site names

Site names represent the monument itself and/or the topograph on which it is situated. The names provided are those in current usage in local drokpa communities, and, in most cases, probably bear little resemblance to the original appellations assigned the various archaic monuments. An inspection of the site names reveals that the majority are toponymic and belong to localized vernacular traditions. The identification of site names was, in nearly all cases, accomplished with the aid of local informants. In the absence of literary references, the accuracy of such designations in a historical sense is difficult to corroborate. An indeterminate proportion of site names likely represent conceptions that are not well rooted in historical tradition, let alone representative of the original denomination.

When the individual elements/words making up names could be reasonably established, the spellings given can be seen as reliable and reflect standard Tibetan orthography. When the individual elements of names could not be established with any degree of certainty, the spellings presented must be seen as provisional. These provisional spellings reflect local pronunciation and were often obtained in written form from informants. Provisional spellings are of two possible variations: 1) word elements that have no known etymology, and 2) corrupted spellings or vernacularisms of words with a standardized orthography. There are also cases where the identity of a word element is in question, due to the ambiguity of the toponymic information obtained. In the tables, uncertain spellings and site names with questionable word elements are designated: (?).

English equivalents

In the following tables of sites, English equivalents of the Tibetan word elements are provided wherever appropriate. The rendering of names into English, however, should not be viewed as a translation (the conveyance of precise semantic values) per se. Without a clear etymological context, based on local tradition (legends, myths, history, etc.), the signification of toponyms cannot be determined with any degree of certainty. In fact, the meaning of place names may vary greatly from the sum of their individual word elements. In some cases, informants could be queried on the significance of place names and the oral traditions associated with them. The information thus received has been used to properly select the English equivalents of the Tibetan word elements. Where there is doubt surrounding the accuracy of the English equivalents provided, they are designated: (?).

I.1. Residential Structures Occupying Summits253

I.1a: All-stone corbelled buildings
I.1b: Edifices built with timbers
I.1c: Solitary rampart networks
I.1x: Indeterminate subtype254

Type	Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
I.1a	A-1	Dzongser	Yellow Fortress	Shentsa
I.1x	A-2	Dzongnak	Black Fortress	Shentsa
I.1a?255	A-3	Shawa Drak	Deer Rock	Shentsa
I.1x	A-4	Ombu Dzong/ Yumdruk Tsen Dzong	Turquoise Dragon Fortress of the Tsen	Nyima
I.1x	A-5	Dangra Khyung Dzong	Horned Eagle Fortress of Dang ra	Nyima
I.1a	A-6	Gyampé Dzong	Fortress of the Cliff Shelter	Nyima
I.1a	A-7	Arpo Dzong		Nyima
I.1x	A-8	Drak Dongwu Tsé Dzong/Dragchungwu Tsé	Rock Face Peak Fortress/Small Rock Formation Peak Fortress	Nyima
I.1a	A-9	Gyangpé Tsuk Dzong	Acme Fortress of Walls	Nyima
I.1a	A-10	Chuktso Drokpo Dzong	Wealthy Camp Ravine Fortress	Nyima
I.1x	A-11	Tsenrak		Nyima
I.1a?	A-12	Serdzö Dzong	Yellow Treasury Fortress	Nyima
I.1a?	A-13	Zhingchen Mönkhar	Great Farm Mön Castle	Gegyé
I.1a?	A-14	Shanglü Podrang Mönkhar	Shang lutsen Palace Mön Castle	Gegyé
I.1b	A-15	Nyachu Dzongkar	Fish River White Fortress	Rutok
I.1b	A-16	Khurang Khargok		Rutok
I.1b	A-17	Rutok Shanpé Khar/ Dzongri	Rutok Butcher’s Castle / Fortress Mountain	Rutok
I.1a?	A-18	Drakdong	Rock Formation Face	Rutok
I.1a	A-19	Lokpuk Khar	Lightning Cave Castle	Rutok
I.1x	A-20	Hangdel Dzong		Nyima
I.1b	A-21	Drarong Mön Dzong	Dra256 Gorge Mön Fortress	Drongpa
I.1b	A-22	Zhingkhar Khargok	Castle Ruins Farm Castle	Gar
I.1a	A-23	Apa Drekar Pungpa Mönkhar	Father White dré Heap Mön Castle	Gar
I.1x	A-24	Muti		Purang
I.1x	A-25	Dragu Tara	tragu’s Horse Corral	Damzhung
I.1a?	A-26	Tamchok Ngangpa Do	Orange Excellent Horse Headland	Pelgön
I.1x	A-27	Kyeri Trowo Topgyel Khar257	Kyeri Trowo Topgyel Khar (Kye Mountain Trowo Topgyel’s Castle)	Nakchu
I.1x	A-28	Shamdong Drakkhar	Basal Hole White Rock Formation Castle	Nakchu
I.1c	A-29	Bidza Maktapsa (?)	Bidza Battleground	Gertsé
I.1a?	A-30	Mönkhar Sernak	Yellow and Black Mön Castle	Gegyé
I.1b	A-31	Pangar Zhungkhang Gok258	Ruined Houses of Mighty Hero Pasture	Gegyé
I.1x	A-32	Sharo Möndur	Deer Corpse Mön Tombs (?)	Gegyé
I.1b	A-33	Kapren Gyanggok		Rutok
I.1b	A-34	Tserlung Kharnak	Tser Valley Black Castle	Rutok
I.1b	A-35	Drak Puk	Rock Formation Cave	Rutok
I.1b	A-36	Tsama		Rutok
I.1x	A-37	Mikpa Kharru	Lizard Castle Division	Rutok
I.1x	A-38	Melong Mön Khar	Mirror Mön Castle	Rutok
I.1x	A-39	Dinglep Ngönpo	Blue Flattened Eminence	Rutok
I.1b	A-40	Chukhargyam	Water Castle Cliff Shelter	Rutok
I.1x	A-41	Ching Serpo (?)	Yellow Felt (?)	Gar
I.1b	A-42	Chonggok Mönkhar	Ruined Agate Mön Castle (?)	Gar
I.1b	A-43	Malung Khar		Gar
I.1x	A-44	Agok Khar		Gar
I.1x	A-45	Khyunglung Ngül Khar	Horned Eagle Valley Silver Castle	Purang
I.1a?	A-46	Gang Tisé Bön Khar	Bön Castle of Gang Tisé	Purang
I.1x	A-47	Lumo Podrang Möndo	Female Water Spirits Palace Mön Stones	Gegyé
I.1c	A-48	Nam Dzong	Sky Fortress	Drongpa
I.1a	A-49	Dzong Pipi		Drongpa
I.1c	A-50	Takzik Nordzong	Tiger Leopard Jewel Fortress	Drongpa
I.1a, I.1b	A-51	Wangchuk Gönpo Khar	Castle of Wangchuk Gonpo	Drongpa
I.1x	A-52	Kharchen/Mapang Pömo Khar	Great Castle	Purang
I.1b	A-53	Gya Nyima Khar	Big Sun Castle (?)	Tsamda
I.1a	A-54	Jomo Rirang Khar	Mistress Mountain Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-55	Drakchak Khongkha		Tsamda
I.1b	A-56	Kharngön	Blue Castle	Tsamda
I.1b	A-57	Naktsuk Khar	Black Acme Castle	Tsamda
I.1b	A-58	Hala Khar (West)		Tsamda
I.1b	A-59	Hala Khar (East)		Tsamda
I.1b	A-60	Gyülgül Khar	Quivering Intestines Castle	Tsamda
I.1b	A-61	Kaling Khar		Tsamda
I.1b	A-62	Tsarang		Tsamda
I.1b	A-63	Zhayé Khar		Tsamda
I.1b	A-64	Chumurti Khargok	Water Springs Ruined Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-65	Pemoché		Gar
I.1x	A-66	Kharlung Khargok	Castle Valley Ruined Castle	Gar
I.1c	A-67	Lungpa Rakpa Khar	Tawny Valley Castle	Gar
I.1b	A-68	Gyammuk Khar	Purplish Brown Cliff Shelter Castle	Gar
I.1b	A-69	Purok Khar	Crow Castle	Gar
I.1x	A-70	Dungkar Khargok	White Conch Ruined Castle	Rutok
I.1a	A-71	Saten Khar	Hard and Steady Castle	Rutok
I.1a	A-72	Kyungmo Drakkhar	Female Chough Rock Formation Castle	Rutok
I.1c	A-73	Lhünburtsé Dzong	Hill Summit Fortress	Nyima
I.1x	A-74	Domra	Spider Enclosure Fortress (?)	Nyima
I.1x	A-75	Jiu Kyé (?)	Little Bird Tea Urn (?)	Nyima
I.1c	A-76	Nakra Drakseng Dzong	Black Expanse Lion Rock Fortress	Nyima
I.1b	A-77	Bera Puk (?)		Tsamda
I.1x	A-78	Drakla Dzong	Rock Hill Fortress	Ngamring
I.1a	A-79	Tochu Khar	Lofty River Castle	Drongpa
I.1b	A-80	Nakra Dzong	Black Expanse Fortress	Purang
I.1b	A-81	Takla Khar	Tiger Hill Castle	Purang
I.1x	A-82	Jiu Khar	Little Bird Castle	Purang
I.1x	A-83	Wangdrak Puk	Power Rock Formation Cave	Tsamda
I.1x	A-84	Posa Khargok (?)		Rutok
I.1b	A-85	Kharru Khargok	Castle Division Ruined Castle	Rutok
I.1x	A-86	Kharpoché	Great Castle	Rutok
I.1x	A-87	Sherang Kharlung		Rutok
I.1c	A-88	Yilung	Lynx Valley	Rutok
I.1a	A-89	Gekhö259 mkhar lung	Demon Conqueror Castle Valley	Rutok
I.1b	A-90	Chulung Okma Khar	Lower Water Valley Castle	Rutok
I.1c	A-91	Marlung (?)		Rutok
I.1a	A-92	Luring Nakha	Long Springs Prow	Rutok
I.1x	A-93	Khaser Ramo Gyamo Khar	Yellow Mouth Black Markings Female Goat Castle	Rutok
I.1x	A-94	Deu Nakgu Khar	Black Hill Castle	Rutok
I.1x	A-95	Tönkha Lungkhar (?)		Rutok
I.1x	A-96	Gülring (?)		Drongpa
I.1c	A-97	Drakgu Seldrön	Bright Lamp Rock Formation	Pelgön
I.1b	A-98	Gartsang Khar		Gar
I.1x	A-99	Tang Khartsé		Tsamda
I.1x	A-100	Zarang Khartsé		Tsamda
I.1a	A-101	Pia Khar (?)		Tsamda
I.1a	A-102	Balu Khar (Puling)	Dwarf’s Castle	Tsamda
I.1b	A-103	Kardung Khar	Conch White Castle	Purang
I.1b	A-104	Bargyi Khar		Rutok
I.1x	A-105	Ribong Kharru	Rabbit Castle Division	Rutok
I.1x	A-106	Belpa Khar	Frog Castle	Rutok
I.1b	A-107	Kyidzong	Happiness Fortress	Rutok
I.1a	A-108	Dongmar	Red Face	Rutok
I.1x	A-109	Kharkar	White Castle	Rutok
I.1b	A-110	Dosham Möngyi Khar/ Dosham Möngyikhar	Lower Rock Castle of the Mön/ Lower Rock Castle of the Mön	Tsamda
I.1b	A-111	Dosham Möngyi Yül/ Dosham Möngyiyül	Rocks Below Village of the Mön	Tsamda
I.1x	A-112	Lung Puk	Spiritual Transmission Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-113	Cholo Puk (?)		Tsamda
I.1x	A-114	Khartak	Upper Aspect Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-115	Rakhashak Möngyi Khar		Tsamda
I.1b	A-116	Jangtang Khar/Kharpoché	Great Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-117	Khar Marpo	Red Castle	Tsamda
I.1b	A-118	Sharlang Khar		Tsamda
I.1b	A-119	Markar Juru Khar/Samdrup Khyung Dzong	White Butter Coral Castle	Tsamda
I.1b	A-120	Tsenlhé Khar/Drakkar Khar	Castle of the Lha and Tsen / White Rock Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-121	Mani Tang Khar	Mani Plain Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-122	Kölkhar (?)		Tsamda
I.1c	A-123	Kamsang Mönkhar	Dry Plain Mön Castle	Gertsé
I.1x	A-124	Khargok Dorjé Yudrönma	Dorjé Yudrönma260 Ruined Castle	Rutok
I.1a	A-125	Kolok Khargok		Rutok
I.1b	A-126	Serzhung Khargok	Golden Pasture Ruined Castle	Rutok
I.1x	A-127	Kharnak	Black Castle	Rutok
I.1b	A-128	Jekar Khargok	White Sands Ruined Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-129	Wutsé Khar	Acme Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-130	Chuti Khar261	Water Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-131	Riwa Mönkhar		Tsamda
I.1x	A-132	Rinti Gangkhar		Tsamda
I.1b	A-133	Pukkhar	Cave Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-134	Balu Khar (Tsarang)	Dwarf’s Castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-135	Ronglha Gyeltsen Mönkhang	Valley God Victory Banner Mön House	Saga
I.1b	A-136	Kharchung	Little Castle	Tsamda
I.1c	A-137	Dziden Chungwa	Lesser Scent Block	Gar
I.1c	A-138	Arong Mönkhar		Gar
I.1b	A-139	Shangtsé Bönkhar	Shangtsé Bön castle	Tsamda
I.1x	A-140	Shiri Mönkhar		Tsamda
I.1x	A-141	Rula Khar	Horde Hill Castle	Tsamda
I.1	A-142	Kharlung	Castle Valley	Gegyé

I.2 Residential Structures in All Other Locations

I.2a: All-stone corbelled structures
I.2b: Other freestanding building types
I.2c: Buildings integrating caves and escarpments in their construction
I.2x: Indeterminate subtype262

Type	Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
I.2a	B-1	Bam Göntak	Bam Upper Aspect monastery	Nyima
I.2a	B-2	Gönpo Namsum263	Group of Three Protectors	Nyima
I.2a	B-3	Göntak Takgo	Upper Aspect monastery High Above	Nyima
I.2a	B-4	Yungdrung Draktsé/Lhalung Gönpa	Swastika Rock Formation Peak / Divine Valley monastery	Nyima
I.2a	B-5	Lhalung Drak Kar	Divine Valley White Rock	Nyima
I.2a	B-6	Chuktso Drokpo Gönpo	Wealthy District Ravine monastery	Nyima
I.2a	B-7	Rakye Drak264	[Goat] Horn Growth Rock Formation	Nyima
I.2a	B-8	Mönlam Dzong	Prayer Fortress	Nyima
I.2a	B-9	Gyang Drak	Famous Walls	Purang
I.2a	B-10	Serlung	Yellow Valley	Purang
I.2a	B-11	Podo Gongma	Upper Incense Headland	Tsochen
I.2a	B-12	Podo Sharma	Incense Headland East	Tsochen
I.2a	B-13	Dodrilbu/Namtso Kharel/	Bell Headland / Celestial Lake Mouth Cleft	Tsochen
I.2a	B-14	Domar Khangro	Red Rock House Ruins	Tsochen
I.2a	B-15	Zhapjé (?)265		Drongpa
I.2a	B-16	Lemar Jang (big peninsula)		Drongpa
I.2a	B-17	Setrap Tsamkhang266	Sé Armor Meditation House	Drongpa
I.2a	B-18	Tamchok Khabap Bön Gönpa	Excellent Horse Fountain Bön monastery	Drongpa
I.2a	B-19	Takrong Tsamkhang	Tiger Gorge Meditation Houses	Drongpa
I.2a	B-20	Zhapkar Druppuk	Religious Attainment Cave of Zhapkar267	Purang
I.2a	B-21	Menla Podrang (South)	Medicine Buddha Palace	Purang
I.2a	B-22	Nyenpori Dzong/Nyangpo Ri Dzong	Mighty Mountain Castle	Purang
I.2a	B-23	Jomo Rirang	Mistress Mountain	Tsamda
I.2a	B-24	Chilbu Gönpa	Cottage monastery	Tsamda
I.2a	B-25	Riu Gönpa	Little Mountain monastery	Rutok
I.2a	B-26	Dzuntrül Puk	Cave of Miracles	Nyima
I.2a	B-27	Pukchen	Great Cave	Nyima
I.2a	B-28	Kyarang (?)		Nyima
I.2a	B-29	Takchen	Great Tiger	Nyima
I.2a	B-30	Chukgu Chusum	Nine Retreat Houses Thirteen	Drongpa
I.2a	B-31	Zimpuk	Abode Cave	Drongpa
I.2a	B-32	Yachü Drakpuk (?)		Drongpa
I.2a	B-33	Lungtsen Puk	Prophecy Cave	Purang
I.2a	B-34	Dechö Gönpa	Buddhist Division Monastery	Rutok
I.2a	B-35	Lhalung	Divine Valley	Rutok
I.2a	B-36	Gekhö Kharlung	Demon Conqueror Castle Valley	Rutok
I.2a	B-37	Gönpé Do	Island of the Monastery	Rutok
I.2a	B-38	Taser Gok	Yellow Margin Ruins	Rutok
I.2a, I.2b	B-39	Khangpa Margok	Ruined Red Houses	Tsochen
I.2a, I.2b	B-40	Drakgam Dzong	Rock Formation Chest Fortress	Shentsa
I.2a	B-41	Menla Podrang (North)	Medicine Buddha Palace	Purang
I.2a	B-42	Awang		Purang
I.2a	B-43	Sinpo Dzong	Fortress of the sinpo268	Rutok
I.2a	B-44	Trandra		Rutok
I.2a	B-45	Dongmar Dokhang	Red Face Stone Houses	Rutok
I.2a	B-46	Dzomo Lungra Trawo		Rutok
I.2a	B-47	Purbu Gyangmar	Ritual Dagger Red Walls	Pelgön
I.2a?	B-48	Khangpé Kyé		Pelgön
I.2a	B-49	Zicha Mönkhang (?)		Gegyé
I.2a	B-50	Sara (?)		Rutok
I.2x	B-51	Doring269	Long-stones	Nyima
I.2x	B-52	Gondö Drakkhung	Fulfillment Cave	Nyima
I.2x	B-53	Dokhargo	Castle Portal Headland	Shentsa
I.2x	B-54	Bongchen270	Great Boulder	Nyima
I.2x	B-55	Bam Khang Trok	Bam Ruined Houses	Nyima
I.2a	B-56	Ombu Ogkhang	Ombu Subterranean Houses	Nyima
I.2b	B-57	Darchen Khang Trok	Great Flag Ruined Houses (?)	Nyima
I.2x	B-58	Margyam (Gönpa Nakrok)	Red Escarpment	Nyima
I.2x	B-59	Ommo		Nyima
I.2x	B-60	Sokpo	Sogdians / mongolians	Nyima
I.2x	B-61	Dzara Kargyam Möndo	Clay Pot White Cliff Shelter Mön Stones	Gegyé
I.2x	B-62	Dopo Rak	Tawny Hill (?)	Rutok
I.2x	B-63	Zaza (?)		Rutok
I.2x	B-64	Burkar	White Hill	Tsochen
I.2a?	B-65	Sha Do	Deer Headland	Damzhung
I.2x	B-66	Doring	Long Headland	Damzhung
I.2x	B-67	Nyingdo	Heart Headland	Damzhung
I.2x	B-68	Ganglung Lhatsé	Mountain Country Divine Peak	Nyima
I.2x	B-69	Lemar Jang (small peninsula)		Drongpa
I.2x	B-70	Samdo Marri	Meditation Headland Red Mountain	Drongpa
I.2x	B-71	Khokra	Ruins Zone	Rutok
I.2x	B-72	Zhing Khagong	Upper Fields	Gar
I.2x	B-73	Chöten Khongseng Chen271		Purang
I.2x	B-74	Trizhung	Seat of the Pasture (?)	Nyima
I.2b	B-75	Goktsé Khangmar (?)		Rutok
I.2x	B-76	Sinmo Dzong/ Sokcham Khang	Sinmo Fortress / House of the Sok Lady	Drongpa
I.2b	B-77	Manam Khar (West)		Tsamda
I.2x	B-78	Jiu Singpé Khar	Little Bird Fortress of the Singpa272	Purang
I.2b	B-79	Yüllung	Valley Habitation	Rutok
I.2b	B-80	Lung Ngak (?)		Rutok
I.2b	B-81	Dechö Kelmön Yül	Buddhist Division Kel Mön273 Country	Rutok
I.2x	B-82	Doring Khangro	Long-stones Ruined Habitations	Drongpa
I.2b	B-83	Puling Yültong	Abandoned Village of Puling	Tsamda
I.2x	B-84	Tokmé Deubur		Damzhung
I.2x	B-85	Jangru Ding	Northern Division Tableland	Damzhung
I.2x	B-86	Kyangtang	Onager Plain	Damzhung
I.2b	B-87	Bumo Lhakhang/ Pönmo Lhakhang/Namré Pön Lhakhang	Woman’s Temple / Female Leader’s Temple / Leader’s Temple of the Firmament	Gegyé
I.2x	B-88	Bar Mönkhar		Tsamda
I.2c	B-89	Gyerru Tsodo	Bön Community Lake Headland	Pelgön
I.2c	B-90	Drak Tuwoché	Great Powerful Rock Formation	Nyima
I.2c	B-91	Nékün Zang	All Good Holy Place	Nyima
I.2c	B-92	Amnak	Black Rock Formation	Nyima
I.2c	B-93	Godak	Portal Master	Nyima
I.2c	B-94	Lhalung Druppuk274	Divine Valley Religious Attainment Cave	Nyima
I.2c	B-95	Dzong Karpo (Dangra)	White Fortress	Nyima
I.2c	B-96	Mamik Drak Kar (South)		Gertsé
I.2c	B-97	Chupuk	Water Cave	Purang
I.2c	B-98	Takrong	Tiger Gorge	Drongpa
I.2c	B-99	Jado	Bird Headland	Pelgön
I.2c	B-100	Tongdröl Drak	Liberation by Sight Rock Formation	Tsochen
I.2c	B-101	Lhakhang Marchak275	Red-Colored Temple	Drongpa
I.2c	B-102	Pranglam	Narrow Passageway	Drongpa
I.2c	B-103	Shawa Dong Lhakhang	Deer Face Temple	Drongpa
I.2c	B-104	Kyi Puk Samten Ling	Happiness Cave Meditation monastery	Nyima
I.2c	B-105	Takdrak Khung	Tiger Grotto	Nyima
I.2c	B-106	Lhalung Drakkar Sangwé Né	Divine Valley White Rock Secret Holy Place	Nyima
I.2c	B-107	Dzong Karpo (Gertsé)	White Fortress	Gertsé
I.2c	B-108	Drak Khorgang	Circle Rock Hill Spur	Gertsé
I.2c	B-109	Mamik Drak Kar (North)	Mamik White Rock Formation	Gertsé
I.2c	B-110	Tsaktik (?)		Gegyé
I.2c	B-111	Chukhargyam Druppuk	Water Castle Religious Attainment Cave	Rutok
I.2c	B-112	Gurgyam Gönpa	Divine Tent Cliff Shelter Monastery	Gar
I.2c	B-113	Shendra	Crystal Likeness	Purang
I.2c	B-114	Bönpo Puk	Bönpo Cave	Purang
I.2c	B-115	Apuk	[Holy Letter] A Cave	Purang
I.2c	B-116	Shötram Puk	Shötram’s Cave276	Nyima
I.2c	B-117	Khyunglung Yülmé	Horned Eagle Valley Lower Village	Tsamda
I.2c	B-118	Kyidrom Gönpa	Frame of Happiness Monastery (?)	Shentsa
I.2c	B-119	Garsöl Drakpuk		Shentsa
I.2c	B-120	Gönro Marding/ Chakgo Drak	Soaring Red Derelict Monastery / Iron Portal Formation	Shentsa
I.2c	B-121	Pangtra Dzong Kar	Glistening Meadow White Fortress	Tsamda
I.2c	B-122	Gyamchung Pukpa	Small Rock Shelter Cave	Gar
I.2x	B-123	Ombu Zhang Zhung Gönpa	Ombu Zhang Zhung monastery	Nyima
I.2c	B-124	Tara Marding	Soaring Red Horse Corral	Shentsa
I.2a	B-125	Mönbu	Son of the Mön (?)	Tsamda
I.2c	B-126	Semodo South / Sinmodo South / Nangdo South	Island of the sinmo / Inner Island	Pelgön
I.2c	B-127	Semodo West /Sinmodo West /Nangdo West	Island of the sinmo / Inner Island	Pelgön
I.2a	B-128	Dotaga East /Tsolinggi DoEast	Horse Saddle Island / Island of the Lake	Drongpa
I.2a	B-129	Dotaga South /Tsolinggi Do South	Horse Saddle Island / Island of the Lake	Drongpa
I.2a	B-130	Dodrilbu	Bell Island	Drongpa
I.2a	B-131	Tsodo	Island Lake	Drongpa
I.2a	B-132	Doser	Yellow Island	Purang
I.2a	B-133	Domuk Tsamkhang	Purplish Island Meditation House	Purang
I.2x	B-134	Draklung Lhoma	Rock Formation Valley South	Shentsa
I.2c	B-135	Dopuk	Stone Cave	Gar
1.2a	B-136	Pukpa Gön	Cave monastery	Nyima

II.1 Stelae and Accompanying Structures

II.1a: Isolated Pillars

Site number	site name	English Equivalent	County
C-1	Sertsok Doring	Yellow Assembly Long-stones	Rutok
C-2	Lonpo Doring	Minister Long-stone	Nyima
C-3	Lekhampa Doring		Nyima
C-4	Sharsha Doring		Gertsé
C-5	Senkhor Jangma Doring/Senkhor Jangma Doring	Sé Circle North Long-stones / Lion Circle North Long-stones	Gertsé
C-6	Luktuk Prang	Sheep Brush Against Narrow Passage	Nyima
C-7	Doring Pünsum	Three Brothers Long-stones	Pelgön
C-8	Dopur	Stone Ritual Dagger	Gegyé
C-9	Naktsok Doring	Black Assembly Long-stones	Gegyé
C-10	Sipra Doring	Shady Zone Long-stone	Gegyé
C-11	Sana Marri Doring	Variegated Earth Red Mountain Long-stones	Drongpa
C-12	Doring Tsotra	Bright Lake Long-stones	Drongpa
C-13	Gyaplung Doring	Back Valley Long-stones	Purang
C-14	Marchö Doring	Butter Offering Long-stone	Tsamda
C-15	Sakti Doring		Tsamda
C-16	Luma Archung Doring (?)		Gar
C-17	Droklhé Doring		Drongpa
C-18	Tekyer (?)		Gegyé
C-19	Garshok Doring	Strong Wings Long-stones (?)	Saga
C-20	Laktsang Doring	Cupped Hands Long-stone (?)	Saga
C-21	Drangchungwa Bam Doring (?)		Saga
C-22	Nakhama Doring (?)		Drongpa
C-23	Doring Gyaplung	Rear Valley Long-stones	Drongpa
C-24	Kyao Doring (?)		Purang
C-25	Chönkhor Doring	Dharma Wheel Long-stone	Purang
C-26	Langchen Chewa	Elephant Tusk	Purang
C-27	Doring Lung Doring	Long-stones Valley Long-stones	Purang
C-28	Dzatsok Doring (?)		Rutok
C-29	A Ongtso Doring		Gegyé
C-30	Drakgo Doring	Rock Portal Long-stones	Gertsé
C-31	Khorbuk Doring	Innermost Circle Long-stone	Drongpa
C-32	Horduk Doring	Mongolian Poison Long-stone (?)	Drongpa
C-33	Lhalung Doring	Divine Valley Long-stones	Drongpa
C-34	Gokdeu Doring	Garlic Hill Long-stone (?)	Tsochen
C-35	Langchen Dopur	Elephant Stone Ritual Dagger	Purang
C-36	Domilang	Standing Man Stone	Pelgön
C-37	Ngoring	Long Verdure (?)	Pelgön
C-38	Doring277	Long-stones	Shentsa
C-39	Dralung Doring	Dra Valley Long-stone	Tsamda
C-40	Dowa Sumpa	The Three Stones	Purang
C-41	Donak Doring	Black Rock Long-stones	Tsochen
C-42	Trachap Doring		Gertsé
C-43	Drankhor Do	Tent Camp Rock	Gegyé
C-44	Gyungnak Tsuk Doring		Gegyé
C-166	Doring	Long-stone	Tsamda
C-169	Mönbu Doring	Son of the Mön Long-stone (?)	Tsamda
C-170	Zangdong Möndo	Copper Face Mön Stones	Drongpa

II.1b: Pillars Erected Within a Quadrate Enclosure

Site number	Site name	Translation of Site name	County
C-45	Kyadzong Doring (?)		Nyima
C-46	Doring	Long-stones	Nyima
C-47	Pelung Doring (?)		Tsochen
C-48	Mönra Yarké278	Above the Foot of the Mountain MönEnclosures	Nyima
C-49	Mönré Doring	Long-stones of MönEnclosure	Nyima
C-50	Lamlung Doring	Road Valley Long-stones	Nyima
C-51	Denchu Doring		Gertsé
C-52	Manjang Doring (?)279		Gertsé
C-53	Zhingchen Möndo	Great Farm Mön Stones	Gegyé
C-54	Shang Doring		Gegyé
C-55	Khangmar Doring	Red Houses Long-stones	Gegyé
C-56	Ango Doring		Gegyé
C-57	Yitsé Khar Doring	Beautiful Peak Castle Long-stones	Gegyé
C-58	Chokpo Doring (?)		Drongpa
C-59	Shakgang Topo Doring	Gravel-Covered Prominence Long-stones	Drongpa
C-60	Pegya Doring (?)		Drongpa
C-61	Senggé Doring	Lion Long-stones	Gegyé
C-62	Chupuk Doring	Water Cave Long-stones	Purang
C-63	Loro Doring (?)		Drongpa
C-64	Mertum Pima Doring		Tsochen
C-65	Mertum Chukmo Doring		Tsochen
C-66	Mayo Doring		Shentsa
C-67	Pelmo Dopur/ Pelmo Takpur	Stone Daggers of [A Tak] Pelmo280 / Weaving Stakes of [A Tak] Pelmo	Nyima
C-68	Tsarkam Jangma Doring (?)		Nyima
C-69	Dungtsé Doring	Conch Peak Long-stones	Nyima
C-70	A Chen Doring		Nyima
C-71	Nyashing Doring (?)		Nyima
C-72	Ra Serkhok Doring	Yellow Goat Carcass Long-stone	Nyima
C-73	Doring Marmo	Red Long-stones	Nyima
C-74	Doring Chakra	Fenced Long-stones	Nyima
C-75	Sakte Doring		Gertsé
C-76	Namalung Doring	Grasslands Valley Long-stones	Gegyé
C-77	Doring Karmo	White Long-stones	Gegyé
C-78	Membar Doring	Flaming Long-stone	Gegyé
C-79	Mönlam Doring	Prayer Long-stones	Gegyé
C-80	Zhinglung Doring	Farm Valley Long-stones	Gegyé
C-81	Khamchen Doring	Great Realm Long-stone (?)	Gegyé
C-82	Beltsa Gyangtrok Doring	Wool Salt Ruins Long-stone	Saga
C-83	Gurchen Doring	Great Tent Long-stones	Drongpa
C-84	Khusé Doring (?)		Drongpa
C-85	Jangdé Doring	Northern Division Long-stones	Drongpa
C-86	Tara Doring (Baryang)	Horse Corral Long-stones	Drongpa
C-87	A Serchung Doring		Drongpa
C-88	Drama Nakgu Doring	Black Drama Long-stones	Drongpa
C-89	Ukpa Lung Doring	Owl Valley Long-stones	Drongpa
C-90	Nangchu Doring	Inner River Long-stones (?)	Gegyé
C-91	Naklhé Doring	Black Corral Long-stones	Gegyé
C-92	Lumö Tanak Doring	Black Horse of the Female Water Spirits Long-stones	Gegyé
C-93	Shapak Doring (?)		Gegyé
C-94	Tangra Doring	Plains Long-stones (?)	Rutok
C-95	Nakkhung Doring	Black Fissure Long-stones	Rutok
C-96	Doring Karnak	Black and White long-stones	Gegyé
C-97	Mokyok Doring (?)		Gertsé
C-98	Bültang Doring	Soda Plain Long-stones	Gertsé
C-99	Nakpo Doring	Black Long-stone	Nyima
C-100	Ngönmo Doring	Blue Long-stones	Nyima
C-101	Zhalung Doring (?)		Nyima
C-102	Sanyel Doring	Sleeping Earth Long-stone	Nyima
C-103	Yanglung Doring	Good Fortune Valley Long-stones	Nyima
C-104	Nyönpa Lhé Doring	Crazy Corral Long-stones	Tsamda
C-105	Drukmö Doring	Long-stones of Drukmo281	Drongpa
C-106	Shamzha Doring (?)		Drongpa
C-107	Doring Raktsuk	Tawny Top Long-stones	Drongpa
C-108	Marbuk Doring	Red Nook Long-stones	Drongpa
C-109	Takpur Doring	Weaving Stakes Long-stones	Drongpa
C-110	Yachü Doring	Chrysoplenium carnosum Long-stones	Drongpa
C-111	Gyatengbur Doring (West)	Wide High Hill Long-stones	Purang
C-112	Khyiu Durtrö	Little Dog Cemetery	Gar
C-113	Doring Nakkha	Black Plain Long-stones	Rutok
C-114	Zhingsa Doring	Farm Fields Long-stones	Gertsé
C-115	Jamri Doring	Future Buddha (Jampa) Mountain Long-stone	Tsochen
C-116	Tratsang Doring	Hawk Nest Long-stones	Tsochen
C-117	Omatsé Doring	Milk Long-life Long-stones	Tsochen
C-118	Tsengo Doring	tsen282 Door Long-stones	Tsochen
C-119	Nyungkar Doring	Mustard Seed Long-stone	Shentsa
C-120	Nyenta Doring	Horse of the nyen283 Long-stones	Gertsé
C-121	Chunak Doring	Black Water Long-stones	Gar
C-122	Rinchen Chundé Doring	Jewel Water Runoff Long-stones (?)	Purang
C-123	Tara Doring (Purang)	Horse Corral Long-stone	Purang
C-124	Sharma Doring	Long-stones East	Purang
C-125	Pelmo Takpur	Weaving Stakes of [A Tak] Pelmo	Tsonyi
C-126	Chepuchung Möndora (?)		Pelgön
C-127	Gyachen Möndora		Pelgön
C-128	Doring (North)	Long-stones	Pelgön
C-129	Gyamngön	Blue Escarpment	Tsonyi
C-130	Sokpo	Sogdian / Mongolian	Tsonyi
C-131	Dröwo Doring (?)		Tsochen
C-132	Dolhé	Stone Corral	Tsochen
C-133	Domilang	Standing Man Stone	Tsochen
C-134	Drakbuk Doring	Rock Nook Long-stones	Gertsé
C-135	Kanyin Doring (?)		Gegyé
C-136	Nyerma Gyam Doring	Furrowed Cliff Shelter Long-stone	Gegyé
C-165	Tsoksum Doring	Three Assemblies Long-stones	Drongpa
C-167	Rokhung	Graves	Gertsé
C-171	Dolang Nyidrik	Two Standing Stones in a Row	Nyima
C-172	Lukdo Möndur Khung	Sheep Rock Tombs of the Mön	Nyima
C-173	Jori Doring	Master Mountain Long-stones	Drongpa

II.1c: Quadrangular arrays of pillars appended to edifices

Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
C-137	Tago Doksa	Tago’s Hitching Place	Nyima
C-138	Serlep Möndo	Yellow Flat Mön Stones	Gertsé
C-139	Ludü Möndo	ludü284 Mön Stones	Gegyé
C-140	Drongpa Pöngyang Shik	Drongpa Ward Broken Walls	Gegyé
C-141	Pamo Drekyer285	Bride Carried Away by Demons	Rutok
C-142	Jangdong Gongkha		Gar
C-143	Yül Khambu286		Drongpa
C-144	Khangmar Möndur	Red House Mön Tombs	Drongpa
C-145	Shasha Pelkhang	Deer Meat House of [A Tak] Pel [Mo]	Gegyé
C-146	Towo Marhrang287	Red Bare Stone Registers	Gar
C-147	Sumbuk Doring	Innermost Juncture Long-stones	Nyima
C-148	Kyang Tsedo Gyangro	Onager Grass Confluence Ruins	Shentsa
C-149	Chupur Dopur	Water Daggers Stone Daggers	Gertsé
C-150	Möndur Lhé	Mön Tomb Enclosures	Gertsé
C-151	Samik Möndur	Earth Eye Mön Tombs	Gertsé
C-152	Namgyi Kawa	Pillars of the Sky	Gegyé
C-153	Tsari Lung Möndur	Salt Mountain Valley Mön Tombs	Gegyé
C-154	Kekar Möndur		Gegyé
C-155	Kyungmö Mönra	Female Chough Mön Enclosures	Nyima
C-156	Ngönmo Möndur	Blue Mön Tombs	Nyima
C-157	Gangchen Doring	Big Mountain Long-stones	Saga
C-158	Paktuk	Thick Hide	Gertsé
C-159	Na Nakpo (?)		Gertsé
C-160	Khangmar Dzashak	Red House Talus-Blanketed	Gertsé
C-161	Kyiser	Golden Happiness	Gertsé
C-162	Doring (south)	Long-stones	Pelgön
C-163	Tsendo	tsen Stones	Gertsé
C-164	Jiri Buk (?)		Saga
C-168	Drarong Möndur	Dra Gorge Mön Tombs	Drongpa

II.2 Superficial Structures (Primarily Funerary Superstructures)

Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
D-1	Sipra288	Shady Zone	Damzhung
D-2	Sernya289	Golden Fish	Damzhung
D-3	Amchok290	Ear	Damzhung
D-4	Kyelung and Lungsum291	Growth Valley and Three Valleys	Damzhung
D-5	Taklung292	Tiger Valley	Shentsa
D-6	Chöten Gyawa293	One Hundred Stupas	Shentsa
D-7	Lukdo294	Sheep Headland	Pelgön
D-8	Mönra (Nyilung)295	Mön Enclosures (Sun Valley)	Tsochen
D-9	Langri Drokmar	Elephant Mountain Red Pasture	Tsochen
D-10	Mönra (Taktong Lhoma)	Mön Enclosures	Tsochen
D-11	Mönpé Durkhung	Tombs of the Mönpa	Nyima
D-12	Khokro	Ruins	Nyima
D-13	Tsira Möndur (?)		Nyima
D-14	Drak Karnak Ding	White Rock Formation Black Eminence	Nyima
D-15	Darchung	Small Flag (?)	Nyima
D-16	Tsakha Mönkhang	Salt Plain Mön Houses	Gegyé
D-17	Randrok Pranggo	Horn Pasture Narrow Passage Portal	Rutok
D-18	Domri Nakha (?)296	Bear Mountain Blue Sheep Plain (?)	Nyima
D-19	Milhé Khordo297	Human Habitation Juncture (?)	Rutok
D-20	Lukdo Punglé	Sheep Rock Meadow Corral	Shentsa
D-21	Nyala Ngoril (?)		Nyima
D-22	Chaptok (?)		Nyima
D-23	Dramchak (?)		Nyima
D-24	Mönra Yarké	Above the Foot of the Mountain Mön Enclosures	Nyima
D 25	Götsang	Vulture’s Nest	Nyima
D-26	Luma Karmo	White Springs	Nyima
D-27	Khargong	Bell Metal Egg (?)	Drongpa
D-28	Troklam	Delapidated Way	Gertsé
D-29	Guru Rinpoché Druppuk Mönro	Mön Graves of Guru Rinpoché’s Religious Attainment Cave	Gertsé
D-30	Sakté		Gertsé
D-31	Dora Kyakyok (?)		Gertsé
D-32	Dzokdong (?)		Gertsé
D-33	Rigyel	Monarch Mountain	Gertsé
D-34	Drabuk	drama Nook	Gertsé
D-35	Mencham Karmo	White Lady	Gegyé
D-36	Gokra	?	Rutok
D-37	Draklung Nubma	Rock Valley West	Rutok
D-38	Chukhargyam Möndur	Water Castle Rock Shelter Mön Tombs	Rutok
D-39	Tajang298	Northern Edge	Gar
D-40	Ormo Gang		Gegyé
D-41	Drak Tsangpo	Rock Formation River	Purang
D-42	Purang Khyöl		Purang
D-43	Driten Möndur (?)		Gar
D-44	Burkar Zhung	White Hill Pasture	Gegyé
D-45	Nakra Möndur	Black Expanse Mön Tombs	Gegyé
D-46	Tsapo Deumbur	Salt Hill	Gegyé
D-47	Drakratar Möndur	Freed Goat Rock Formation Mön Tombs	Rutok
D-48	Deumbur Nakri Möndur	Black Mountain Hill Mön Tombs	Rutok
D-49	Rindzin Möndur	Mountain Holder Mön Tombs	Gegyé
D-50	Rirung Möndur		Gegyé
D-51	Jorkhok (?)	Diseased Ruins (?)	Gertsé
D-52	Sergam Möndur	Yellow Chest Mön Tombs	Gertsé
D-53	Luma Drak Möndur	Rock Springs Mön Tombs	Nyima
D-54	Nyenmar	Red Nyen	Nyima
D-55	Chöser Möndur		Nyima
D-56	Nelé	(A kind of eagle)	Nyima
D-57	Nakra Drakseng Möndur	Black Expanse Lion Rock Mön Tombs	Nyima
D-58	Beltsa Gyangtrok	Wool Salt Ruins	Saga
D-59	Gyamnak Mönkhang	Black Cliff Shelter Mön Houses	Saga
D-60	Nyerma Gyam Möndo	Furrowed Cliff Shelter Mön Stones	Purang
D-61	Jiu Möndo	Small Bird Mön Stones	Purang
D-62	Dripra Möndur	Contamination Enclosures Mön Tombs	Purang
D-63	Sechung (?)		Gar
D-64	Dingdum	Round Eminence	Tsamda
D-65	Ser Riri	Yellow Markings (?)	Gar
D-66	Keltra Möndur		Rutok
D-67	Name unknown		Rutok
D-68	Name unknown		Rutok
D-69	Mandep Nupma	Red Slope West	Gegyé
D-70	Dramé Dzuk		Drongpa
D-71	Tratsang Möndur	Hawk’s Nest Mön Tombs	Tsochen
D-72	Nara Möndur	Prow Expanse Mön Tombs	Tsochen
D-73	Ronggo Möndur	Gorge Head Mön Tombs	Gertsé
D-74	Karkhuk	White Niche	Nakchu
D-75	Gönro	Ruined Monastery	Nakchu
D-76	Ronglung	Gorge Country	Nakchu
D-77	Gyeltsen Tönpo	Victory Banner Heights	Amdo
D-78	Darchen	Great Flag (?)	Amdo
D-79	Marrong	Red Gorge	Pelgön
D-80	Laro and Khenbuk		Pelgön
D-81	Migön Chönyi	Human Protector Essential Nature	Pelgön
D-82	Gokri	Garlic Mountain (?)	Pelgön
D-83	Serlung	Golden Valley	Shentsa
D-84	Tsemda	Arrow Peak	Shentsa
D-85	Trachen	Very Beautiful	Shentsa
D-86	Sangkhar	Incense Brazier	Pelgön
D-87	Sholopuk		Shentsa
D-88	Darlung	Flag Valley (?)	Shentsa
D-89	Dringak	Contamination Stoppage	Nyima
D-90	Naser Tang	Golden Blue Sheep Plain (?)	Tsamda
D-91	Tsokgi Möndur	Mön Tombs of Filth	Rutok
D-92	Gyamgya	Big Cliff Shelter	Rutok
D-93	Dorjé Dzong	Adamantine Fortress	Rutok
D-94	Tsakam	Dried Salt	Rutok
D-95	Trandra Möndur		Rutok
D-96	Drak Nakpo	Black Rock	Rutok
D-97	Gyangro Nadong	Prow Face Ruins	Nakchu
D-98	Zhunmé Do (?)		Nakchu
D-99	Deuruk	Hills Side by Side	Damzhung
D-100	Nya	Fish	Damzhung
D-101	Nedé	Holy District	Damzhung
D-102	Genmo Deumbur	Old Women Hill	Damzhung
D-103	Chumik Do Latsé	Springs Confluence Cairn	Damzhung
D-104	Shongdo Ra (?)		Shentsa
D-105	Tara Mönra and Gyado Mönra	Horse Corral Mön Enclosures	Nyima
D-106	Belmo Möndur (?)		Gertsé
D-107	Bumtor Chok Möndur	Excellent Offering Sculptures Shrine Mön Tombs (?)	Gertsé
D-108	Trachap Möndur		Gertsé
D-109	Salung Möndur	Earth Valley Mön Tombs	Gertsé
D-110	Gakchen (?)		Drongpa
D-111	Shakdé Möndur	Gravel Sector Mön Tombs	Gertsé
D-112	Demchok Möndur	Demchok299 Mön Tombs	Gar
D-113	Kolok		Rutok
D-114	Rakder		Rutok
D-115	Draktsuk	Rock Formation Crown	Rutok
D-116	Nakgyam	Black Cliff Shelter	Drongpa
D-117	Tsanyer Marmbur Mönkhang		Gegyé
D-118	Chutiku Mönkhang (?)		Gegyé
D-119	Doring Barma	Middle Long-stone	Gertsé
D-120	Radra Khordo Möndur		Gertsé
D-121	Dungri Rachung Möndur	Conch Mountain Small Enclosures Mön Tombs	Gertsé
D-122	Ritil Tsuk Möndur	Base of the Mountain Crown Ornament Mön Tombs	Gertsé
D-123	Pöri Möndur	Fragrant Mountain Mön Tombs	Gertsé
D-124	Kyipzhung	Rock Shelter Pasture	Nyima
D-125	Tsitsi Mönré Tangka (?)		Nyima
D-126	Chepu Mönra (?)		Shentsa
D-127	Semodo/ Sinmodo/ Nangdo	Island of the sinmo / Inner Island	Pelgön
D-128	Khandok (?)		Drongpa
D-129	Tsodo Möndur	Lake Island Mön Tombs	Drongpa
D-130	Gyamngönpo Möndur	Blue Rock Shelter Mön Tomb	Gertsé
D-131	Name Unknown		Drongpa
D-132	Omlung	Tamarisk Valley	Rutok

II.3 Cubic Mountaintop Tombs

Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
E-1	Mönpa Nakpo	Black Mön pa	Gegyé
E-2	Ri Raser Möndur	Yellow Goat Mountain Mön Tombs	Rutok
E-3	Tsamé Gösa Möndur	No Grass Place of Loss Mön Tombs	Rutok
E-4	Trotung Möndur	Trotung300 Mön Tombs	Gegyé
E-5	Dotradum Möndur	Round Variegated Rock Mön Tombs	Gegyé
E-6	Rigyel Möndur	Monarch Mountain Mön Tombs	Gertsé
E-7	Gelhé Gokar Möndur	White Head Virtuous Fold Mön Tombs	Gertsé
E-8	Tanu Möndur	Horse Teat Mön Tombs	Gertsé
E-9	Namalung Mönkhang	Grasslands Valley Mön House	Gegyé
E-10	Trashi Darlung		Drongpa
E-11	Endritsé Möndur (?)		Gar
E-12	Drönchung (?)		Gegyé
E-13	Nyukri	Pen Mountain	Gegyé
E-14	Drakrel Chok	Rock Hood Battlement	Gegyé
E-15	Gomkhor	Meditation Circle	Gegyé
E-16	Gyamchung Möndur	Small Cliff Shelter Mön Tombs	Rutok
E-17	Milam Khyilam	Human Path Dog Path	Gertsé
E-18	Denjangri Mukpo Dong	Northern Purplish Mountainous Face (?)	Gertsé
E-19	Tsuk Serra	Top Yellow Expanse	Gertsé
E-20	Gyaruk Möndur (?)		Nyima
E-21	Dzari Rakpa	Tawny Talus Mountain	Purang
E-22	Cheri Teldzong	Powder Mountain Dust Fortress	Drongpa
E-23	Paktuk	Thick Hide	Gertsé
E-24	Yadra Trik	Slate Tents in Rows	Gertsé
E-25	Tagen Gyamnari	Old Horse Rock Shelter Prow	Gertsé
E-26	Tremo Khar	Female Ape Castle (?)	Purang
E-27	Rübel Mukpo	Purplish Turtle	Purang
E-28	Tsokgi Möndur	Mön Tombs of Filth	Rutok
E-29	Shankhorwa	Eastern World (?)	Gegyé
E-30	Alhé Möndur		Gegyé
E-31	Yitsé Khar	Delight Peak Castle	Gegyé
E-32	Selhé Mönkhang (?)	Enclosure of the sé Mön Houses	Gertsé

II.4 Shrines, Minor Stone Constructions and Miscellaneous Structures

Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	county
F-1	Pangar Zhungkhang Gok	Mighty Hero Pasture Ruined Houses	Gegyé
F-2	Guru Bumpa		Purang
F-3	Khyinak Rong	Black Dog Gorge	Gegyé

III. Agricultural Structures

Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
G-1	bam		Nyima
G-2	Darchung	Small Flag (?)	Nyima
G-3	Lungön	Blue Spring	Nyima

IV. Earthworks

Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
H-1	Drukmö Trayé	Erected Tent of Drukmo	Damzhung
H-2	Kyangrak Khagok	Bottom Side of the Tawny Onager	Damzhung
H-3	Yarlang		Damzhung
H-4	Drilam	Female Yak Path	Damzhung

V.1 Petroglyphs

Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
I-1	Randrok Trang	Horn Pasture Narrow Passage	Rutok
I-2	Rigyel	Monarch Mountain	Gertsé
I-3	Kapren Pungri		Rutok
I-4	Gongra (?)		Rutok
I-5	Gokra	?	Rutok
I-6	Drakdong	Rock Formation Face	Rutok
I-7	Khampa Racho		Rutok
I-8	Draklung Nubma	Rock Valley West	Rutok
I-9	Driuchu Tang (?)		Rutok
I-10	Chulung	Water Valley	Rutok
I-11	Sergam	Golden Chest	Tsamda
I-12	Baolé (?)		Rutok
I-13	Ngorgyam (?)		Gegyé
I-14	Trugu Yarka	Child’s Summer Plain (?)	Rutok
I-15	Gyaling	Wide Realm	Nyima
I-16	Shaksang	Confession Purification	Nyima
I-17	Dzongchen	Great Fortress	Rutok
I-18	Sherang Kharlung		Rutok
I-19	Nowa Yangdo (?)		Rutok
I-20	Chötenbuk Nakha	Stupa Nook Prow	Rutok
I-21	Tengtsé Tsamkhang	Lofty Peak Meditation House	Rutok
I-22	Tari Drakpuk	Horse Mountain Cave	Gertsé
I-23	Kyao Lekhang (?)		Gegyé
I-24	Drakgyam	Rock Formation Cliff Shelter	Gar
I-25	Draktsuk	Rock Formation Crown	Rutok
I-26	Nawolung	Male Blue Sheep Valley	Rutok
I-27	Gyaplung (West)	Rear Valley	Rutok
I-28	Takhampa Ri	Edge of Brown Mountain	Rutok
I-29	Ngosok (?)		Rutok
I-30	Sherang Nekha Sharma		Rutok
I-31	Gyella Ding	Soaring Victory Pass (?)	Tsamda
I-32	Kyildrum (?)		Gegyé

V.2 Pictographs

Site number	Site name	English Equivalent	County
J-1	Trashi Dochung	Small Auspicious Headland	Damzhung
J-2	Trashi Dochen	Big Auspicious Headland	Damzhung
J-3	Khyigen Gakpa Do	Barking Old Dog Headland	Pelgön
J-4	Rama Do	Female Goat Headland	Pelgön
J-5	Tongshong Puk	One Thousand Capacity Cave	Pelgön
J-6	Riknga Do	Five Diadems Crown Headland	Pelgön
J-7	Chedo		Pelgön
J-8	Lhakhang Marchak	Red-colored Temple	Tsochen
J-9	Drakkhung Dzepo	Beautiful Grotto	Nyima
J-10	Tamkachen	With Seals	Tsamda
J-11	Namyang Puk	Celestial Good Fortune Cave	Shentsa
J-12	Lhari Druppuk	Divine Drawings Religious Attainment Cave	Shentsa
J-13	Shollo Puk (?)		Shentsa
J-14	Loppön Puk	Loppön’s Cave301	Shentsa
J-15	Kyidrom Godru Zhi	Happiness Chest Square Door	Shentsa
J-16	Garsöl Drakpuk		Shentsa
J-17	Otsel Puk (?)		Shentsa
J-18	Chukhargyam Druppuk	Water Castle Cliff Shelter Religious Practice Cave	Rutok
J-19	Lhandré Puk	Cave of the Lha and Dré302	Shentsa
J-20	Pranglam	Narrow Passage	Drongpa

Map Index

Overview map of Upper Tibetan pre-Buddhist archaeological sites
Upper Tibet Regional Series
Highlighted Areas Series
Typological maps
Gang TiséGangs ti se
Dangra YutsoDang ra g.yu mtsho
Tibet Autonomous Region administrative map
Map of Inner Asia

Map Index

Highlighted Areas Series (HAS)

Upper Tibet Regional Series (UTRS)

A1	UTRS VIII
A2	UTRS VIII
A3	UTRS IX
A4	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A5	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A6	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A7	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A8	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A9	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A10	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A11	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A12	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A13	UTRS II	HAS A2
A14	UTRS VI	HAS A2
A15	UTRS I
A16	UTRS I	HAS A1
A17	UTRS I	HAS A1
A18	UTRS I	HAS A1
A19	UTRS I	HAS A1
A20	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A21	UTRS VII
A22	UTRS V	HAS C1
A23	UTRS V	HAS C1
A24	UTRS X	HAS C4
A25	UTRS IX	HAS D5
A26	UTRS IX	HAS D5
A27	UTRS IX
A28	UTRS IX
A29	UTRS III	HAS A3
A30	UTRS II	HAS A2
A31	UTRS I
A32	UTRS V
A33	UTRS I
A34	UTRS I	HAS A1
A35	UTRS I	HAS A1
A36	UTRS I	HAS A1
A37	UTRS I	HAS A1
A38	UTRS I
A39	UTRS I
A40	UTRS I	HAS A1
A41	UTRS V	HAS C1
A42	UTRS V	HAS C1
A43	UTRS V	HAS C1
A44	UTRS V	HAS C1
A45	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
A46	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
A47	UTRS VI & X
A48	UTRS XI	HAS C5
A49	UTRS XI	HAS C5
A50	UTRS XI	HAS C5
A51	UTRS XI	HAS C5
A52	UTRS X	HAS C4
A53	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
A54	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
A55	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
A56	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
A57	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
A58	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
A59	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
A60	UTRS V & X	HAS C2
A61	UTRS V & X	HAS C2
A62	UTRS V	HAS C2
A63	UTRS V	HAS C1
A64	UTRS V	HAS C1
A65	UTRS V	HAS C1
A66	UTRS V	HAS C1
A67	UTRS V	HAS C1
A68	UTRS I	HAS C1
A69	UTRS I
A70	UTRS I	HAS A1
A71	UTRS I	HAS A1
A72	UTRS I	HAS A1
A73	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
A74	UTRS VIII
A75	UTRS VIII
A76	UTRS VIII
A77	UTRS V	HAS C2
A78	UTRS XIII
A79	UTRS XI	HAS C6
A80	UTRS X
A81	UTRS X	HAS C4
A82	UTRS X	HAS C4
A83	UTRS V	HAS C2
A84	UTRS I	HAS A1
A85	UTRS I	HAS A1
A86	UTRS I	HAS A1
A87	UTRS I	HAS A1
A88	UTRS I	HAS A1
A89	UTRS I	HAS A1
A90	UTRS I	HAS A1
A91	UTRS I	HAS A1
A92	UTRS I	HAS A1
A93	UTRS I	HAS A1
A94	UTRS I	HAS A1
A95	UTRS I	HAS A1
A96	UTRS VI	HAS D1
A97	UTRS IX
A98	UTRS I
A99	UTRS V	HAS C2
A100	UTRS V	HAS C2
A101	UTRS V	HAS C2
A102	UTRS V	HAS C2
A103	UTRS X	HAS C4
A104	UTRS I	HAS A1
A105	UTRS I	HAS A1
A106	UTRS I	HAS A1
A107	UTRS I	HAS A1
A108	UTRS I	HAS A1
A109	UTRS I	HAS A1
A110	UTRS V	HAS C2
A111	UTRS V	HAS C2
A112	UTRS V	HAS C1
A113	UTRS V	HAS C1
A114	UTRS V	HAS C1
A115	UTRS V	HAS C1
A116	UTRS V	HAS C1
A117	UTRS V	HAS C1
A118	UTRS V	HAS C1
A119	UTRS V	HAS C2
A120	UTRS V	HAS C2
A121	UTRS V	HAS C2
A122	UTRS V	HAS C2
A123	UTRS III & VII	HAS A3
A124	UTRS I
A125	UTRS I
A126	UTRS I
A127	UTRS I	HAS A1
A128	UTRS V	HAS C2
A129	UTRS V	HAS C2
A130	UTRS V	HAS C2
A131	UTRS V	HAS C2
A132	UTRS V	HAS C2
A133	UTRS V	HAS C2
A134	UTRS V	HAS C2
A135	UTRS XIII
A136	UTRS V	HAS C2
A137	UTRS V
A138	UTRS V
A139	UTRS V	HAS C1
A140	UTRS V	HAS C1
A141	UTRS V	HAS C2
A142	UTRS V	HAS A2
B1	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B2	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B3	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B4	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B5	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B6	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B7	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B8	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B9	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
B10	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
B11	UTRS VII	HAS D3
B12	UTRS VII	HAS D3
B13	UTRS VII	HAS D3
B14	UTRS VII	HAS D3
B15	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B16	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B17	UTRS XI	HAS C5
B18	UTRS X
B19	UTRS XI	HAS C5
B20	UTRS VI & X	HAS C4
B21	UTRS VI & X	HAS C4
B22	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
B23	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
B24	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
B25	UTRS II
B26	UTRS VIII
B27	UTRS VIII
B28	UTRS VIII
B29	UTRS VIII
B30	UTRS XI	HAS C6
B31	UTRS XI	HAS C6
B32	UTRS XI	HAS C5
B33	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
B34	UTRS I	HAS A1
B35	UTRS I	HAS A1
B36	UTRS I	HAS A1
B37	UTRS I	HAS A1
B38	UTRS I	HAS A1
B39	UTRS VII & XI
B40	UTRS IX
B41	UTRS VI & X	HAS C4
B42	UTRS VI & X	HAS C4
B43	UTRS I	HAS A1
B44	UTRS I	HAS A1
B45	UTRS I	HAS A1
B46	UTRS I
B47	UTRS IX
B48	UTRS IX	HAS D5
B49	UTRS VI	HAS A2
B50	UTRS I	HAS A1
B51	UTRS VIII
B52	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B53	UTRS VIII
B54	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B55	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B56	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B57	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B58	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B59	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B60	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B61	UTRS VI	HAS A2
B62	UTRS I
B63	UTRS I	HAS A1
B64	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B65	UTRS IX	HAS D5
B66	UTRS IX	HAS D5
B67	UTRS IX	HAS D5
B68	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B69	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B70	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B71	UTRS I
B72	UTRS V	HAS C1
B73	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
B74	UTRS VII
B75	UTRS I	HAS A1
B76	UTRS XI	HAS C6
B77	UTRS V	HAS C2
B78	UTRS X	HAS C4
B79	UTRS I	HAS A1
B80	UTRS I	HAS A1
B81	UTRS I	HAS A1
B82	UTRS VI
B83	UTRS V	HAS C2
B84	UTRS IX
B85	UTRS IX
B86	UTRS IX
B87	UTRS VI	HAS D1
B88	UTRS V	HAS C2
B89	UTRS IX
B90	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B91	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B92	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B93	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B94	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B95	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B96	UTRS VI	HAS A3
B97	UTRS X	HAS C4
B98	UTRS XI	HAS C5
B99	UTRS IX	HAS D5
B100	UTRS VII	HAS D3
B101	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B102	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B103	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B104	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B105	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B106	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B107	UTRS III	HAS A3
B108	UTRS VI & VII	HAS A3
B109	UTRS VI	HAS A3
B110	UTRS VI	HAS A2
B111	UTRS I	HAS A1
B112	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
B113	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
B114	UTRS X	HAS C4
B115	UTRS VI & X	HAS C4
B116	UTRS VIII
B117	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
B118	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
B119	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
B120	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
B121	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
B122	UTRS V
B123	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
B124	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
B125	UTRS V	HAS C2
B126	UTRS IX	HAS D5
B127	UTRS IX	HAS D5
B128	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B129	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B130	UTRS VII	HAS D2
B131	UTRS VI	HAS D1
B132	UTRS X	HAS C4
B133	UTRS X	HAS C4
B134	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
B135	UTRS V
B136	UTRS VIII
C1	UTRS I	HAS A1
C2	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C3	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C4	UTRS VI & VII	HAS A3
C5	UTRS VI	HAS D1
C6	UTRS VIII
C7	UTRS IX
C8	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C9	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C10	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C11	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C12	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C13	UTRS X
C14	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
C15	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
C16	UTRS I	HAS C1
C17	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C18	UTRS II
C19	UTRS XIII
C20	UTRS XI & XII	HAS C6
C21	UTRS XI & XII	HAS C6
C22	UTRS XI	HAS C6
C23	UTRS XI	HAS C6
C24	UTRS X	HAS C4
C25	UTRS X	HAS C4
C26	UTRS VI & X	HAS C4
C27	UTRS X	HAS C4
C28	UTRS II	HAS A2
C29	UTRS II	HAS A2
C30	UTRS VI
C31	UTRS VI
C32	UTRS VI	HAS D1
C33	UTRS VII & XI
C34	UTRS VII
C35	UTRS X	HAS C4
C36	UTRS IX
C37	UTRS IX
C38	UTRS IX
C39	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
C40	UTRS X	HAS C4
C41	UTRS VII
C42	UTRS VII
C43	UTRS VI	HAS D1
C44	UTRS VI
C45	UTRS VIII
C46	UTRS VIII
C47	UTRS VII
C48	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C49	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C50	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C51	UTRS III	HAS A3
C52	UTRS II
C53	UTRS II	HAS A2
C54	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C55	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C56	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C57	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C58	UTRS VII	HAS D2
C59	UTRS VII	HAS D2
C60	UTRS VI & VII	HAS D2
C61	UTRS VI	HAS D1
C62	UTRS X	HAS C4
C63	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C64	UTRS VII
C65	UTRS VII
C66	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
C67	UTRS VIII
C68	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C69	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C70	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C71	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C72	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C73	UTRS VII
C74	UTRS III
C75	UTRS III	HAS A3
C76	UTRS II
C77	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C78	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C79	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C80	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C81	UTRS I
C82	UTRS XIII
C83	UTRS XI	HAS C6
C84	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C85	UTRS XI	HAS C6
C86	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C87	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C88	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C89	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C90	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C91	UTRS II	HAS A2
C92	UTRS II	HAS A2
C93	UTRS II	HAS A2
C94	UTRS I	HAS A1
C95	UTRS I	HAS A1
C96	UTRS II	HAS A2
C97	UTRS VI
C98	UTRS VI	HAS A3
C99	UTRS VIII
C100	UTRS VIII
C101	UTRS VIII
C102	UTRS VIII
C103	UTRS VIII
C104	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
C105	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C106	UTRS XI	HAS C6
C107	UTRS XI	HAS C6
C108	UTRS XI	HAS C6
C109	UTRS XI	HAS C6
C110	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C111	UTRS X	HAS C4
C112	UTRS I	HAS C1
C113	UTRS II	HAS A2
C114	UTRS VI	HAS D1
C115	UTRS VII & XI
C116	UTRS VII & XI
C117	UTRS VII
C118	UTRS VII
C119	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
C120	UTRS III
C121	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
C122	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
C123	UTRS X	HAS C3
C124	UTRS X	HAS C4
C125	UTRS IV
C126	UTRS IX
C127	UTRS IX
C128	UTRS IX
C129	UTRS IV
C130	UTRS IV
C131	UTRS VII
C132	UTRS VII
C133	UTRS VII
C134	UTRS VII	HAS A3
C135	UTRS VI
C136	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C137	UTRS VIII
C138	UTRS VII	HAS A3
C139	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C140	UTRS V
C141	UTRS I	HAS A1
C142	UTRS V & X
C143	UTRS VI	HAS D2
C144	UTRS VI
C145	UTRS II
C146	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
C147	UTRS VIII
C148	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
C149	UTRS III	HAS A3
C150	UTRS VI	HAS D1
C151	UTRS II
C152	UTRS VI	HAS A2
C153	UTRS II	HAS A2
C154	UTRS II
C155	UTRS IV
C156	UTRS VIII
C157	UTRS XI & XII	HAS C6
C158	UTRS II
C159	UTRS VI
C160	UTRS VII
C161	UTRS II
C162	UTRS IX
C163	UTRS VII
C164	UTRS XIII
C165	UTRS VII & XI
C166	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
C167	UTRS III	HAS A3
C168	UTRS VII
C169	UTRS V	HAS C2
C170	UTRS XI	HAS C5
C171	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
C172	UTRS VII	HAS D3
C173	UTRS XI	HAS C5
D1	UTRS IX	HAS D5
D2	UTRS IX	HAS D5
D3	UTRS IX	HAS D5
D4	UTRS IX
D5	UTRS VIII
D6	UTRS VIII
D7	UTRS IX	HAS D5
D8	UTRS VII	HAS D3
D9	UTRS VII	HAS D3
D10	UTRS VII	HAS D3
D11	UTRS VIII
D12	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D13	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D14	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D15	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D16	UTRS II
D17	UTRS I	HAS A1
D18	UTRS VII	HAS D3
D19	UTRS I	HAS A1
D20	UTRS VIII
D21	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D22	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D23	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D24	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D25	UTRS VII
D26	UTRS VII	HAS D3
D27	UTRS III
D28	UTRS III	HAS A3
D29	UTRS III	HAS A3
D30	UTRS III	HAS A3
D31	UTRS VI & VII	HAS A3
D32	UTRS VI	HAS D1
D33	UTRS II
D34	UTRS II
D35	UTRS VI	HAS A2
D36	UTRS I	HAS A1
D37	UTRS I
D38	UTRS I	HAS A1
D39	UTRS V	HAS C1
D40	UTRS VI	HAS A2
D41	UTRS X	HAS C4
D42	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
D43	UTRS V
D44	UTRS VI	HAS A2
D45	UTRS VI	HAS A2
D46	UTRS II	HAS A2
D47	UTRS II
D48	UTRS II
D49	UTRS II	HAS A2
D50	UTRS II
D51	UTRS VI
D52	UTRS III & VII	HAS A3
D53	UTRS VIII
D54	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D55	UTRS VIII
D56	UTRS VIII
D57	UTRS VIII
D58	UTRS XIII
D59	UTRS XI & XII	HAS C6
D60	UTRS X
D61	UTRS VI & X	HAS C4
D62	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
D63	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
D64	UTRS V	HAS C2
D65	UTRS I
D66	UTRS I	HAS A1
D67	UTRS I
D68	UTRS II	HAS A2
D69	UTRS II
D70	UTRS VI	HAS D1
D71	UTRS VII & XI
D72	UTRS VII
D73	UTRS VII
D74	UTRS IX
D75	UTRS IX
D76	UTRS IX
D77	UTRS IX
D78	UTRS IX
D79	UTRS IX
D80	UTRS IX
D81	UTRS IX
D82	UTRS IX
D83	UTRS IX
D84	UTRS IX	HAS D4
D85	UTRS IX
D86	UTRS IX
D87	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
D88	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
D89	UTRS III
D90	UTRS V	HAS C2
D91	UTRS I	HAS A1
D92	UTRS I	HAS A1
D93	UTRS I	HAS A1
D94	UTRS I	HAS A1
D95	UTRS I	HAS A1
D96	UTRS I	HAS A1
D97	UTRS IX
D98	UTRS IX
D99	UTRS IX
D100	UTRS IX
D101	UTRS IX
D102	UTRS IX
D103	UTRS IX
D104	UTRS IX
D105	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
D106	UTRS VII
D107	UTRS VII	HAS A3
D108	UTRS VII
D109	UTRS VII
D110	UTRS VI & VII
D111	UTRS VII
D112	UTRS I
D113	UTRS I
D114	UTRS I	HAS A1
D115	UTRS I	HAS A1
D116	UTRS XI
D117	UTRS VI
D118	UTRS VI
D119	UTRS VI	HAS D1
D120	UTRS VI	HAS D1
D121	UTRS III & VII	HAS A3
D122	UTRS VII	HAS A3
D123	UTRS III & VII	HAS A3
D124	UTRS VII
D125	UTRS VIII
D126	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
D127	UTRS IX	HAS D5
D128	UTRS VII	HAS D2
D129	UTRS VI	HAS D1
D130	UTRS II
D131	UTRS X
D132	UTRS I	HAS A1
E1	UTRS VI	HAS A2
E2	UTRS I	HAS A1
E3	UTRS I	HAS A1
E4	UTRS VI	HAS A2
E5	UTRS VI
E6	UTRS II
E7	UTRS III	HAS A3
E8	UTRS II
E9	UTRS VI
E10	UTRS XI	HAS C6
E11	UTRS V
E12	UTRS VI	HAS A2
E13	UTRS VI	HAS A2
E14	UTRS VI	HAS A2
E15	UTRS VI	HAS A2
E16	UTRS I	HAS A1
E17	UTRS VI
E18	UTRS II
E19	UTRS VI
E20	UTRS IV
E21	UTRS X	HAS C4
E22	UTRS VI	HAS D1
E23	UTRS II
E24	UTRS II
E25	UTRS II
E26	UTRS V & X	HAS C4
E27	UTRS X	HAS C4
E28	UTRS I	HAS A1
E29	UTRS VI
E30	UTRS V
E31	UTRS VI	HAS A2
E32	UTRS II
F1	UTRS I
F2	UTRS X	HAS C4
F3	UTRS VI	HAS A2
G1	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
G2	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
G3	UTRS VIII	HAS B1
H1	UTRS IX
H2	UTRS IX
H3	UTRS IX
H4	UTRS IX
I1	UTRS I	HAS A1
I2	UTRS II
I3	UTRS I
I4	UTRS I
I5	UTRS I	HAS A1
I6	UTRS I	HAS A1
I7	UTRS I
I8	UTRS I
I9	UTRS I
I10	UTRS I
I11	UTRS V	HAS C2
I12	UTRS II
I13	UTRS II
I14	UTRS II
I15	UTRS IV
I16	UTRS VIII
I17	UTRS I	HAS A1
I18	UTRS I	HAS A1
I19	UTRS I	HAS A1
I20	UTRS I	HAS A1
I21	UTRS II	HAS A2
I22	UTRS III
I23	UTRS VI	HAS A2
I24	UTRS I
I25	UTRS I	HAS A1
I26	UTRS I	HAS A1
I27	UTRS I	HAS A1
I28	UTRS I	HAS A1
I29	UTRS I	HAS A1
I30	UTRS I	HAS A1
I31	UTRS V	HAS C2
I32	UTRS II	HAS A2
J1	UTRS IX	HAS D5
J2	UTRS IX	HAS D5
J3	UTRS IX	HAS D5
J4	UTRS IX	HAS D5
J5	UTRS IX	HAS D5
J6	UTRS IX	HAS D5
J7	UTRS IX	HAS D5
J8	UTRS VII	HAS D2
J9	UTRS VII
J10	UTRS V & X	HAS C3
J11	UTRS IX
J12	UTRS IX
J13	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
J14	UTRS IX	HAS D4
J15	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
J16	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
J17	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
J18	UTRS I	HAS A1
J19	UTRS VIII	HAS D4
J20	UTRS VII	HAS D2
J21	UTRS IX	HAS D5

Bibliography

The bibliography is found in THLʼs bibliographic database under the category of Bellezza Bibliography.

Glossary

Note: The glossary is organized into sections according to the main language of each entry. The first section contains Tibetan words organized in Tibetan alphabetical order. To jump to the entries that begin with a particular Tibetan root letter, click on that letter below. Columns of information for all entries are listed in this order: THL Extended Wylie transliteration of the term, THL Phonetic rendering of the term, and the type of term. To view the glossary sorted by any one of these rubrics, click on the corresponding label (such as “Phonetics”) at the top of its column.

Ka | Kha | Ga | Nga | Ca | Cha | Ja | Nya | Ta | Tha | Da | Na | Pa | Pha | Ba | Ma | Tsa | Tsha | Dza | Zha | Za | ’a | Ya | Ra | La | Sha | Sa | Ha | A | Sanskrit | Chinese | Other

Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
Ka
ka gling	Kaling	Place
ka gling mkhar	Kaling Khar	Place
ka nyin	Kanyin	Place
ka nyin rdo ring	Kanyin Doring	Place
ka li	Kali	Place
karma kun dga’	Karma Künga	Person
karma bka’ brgyud	Karma Kagyü	Organization
karma chos ’phel	Karma Chömpel	Person
karma pa	Karmapa	Person
karma pa mkhyen no	Karmapa Khyenno	Term
karma tshul khrims	Karma Tsültrim	Person
karma rig ’dzin	Karma Rindzin	Person
kar ru	Karru	Place
kun dga’ don grub	Künga Döndrup	Person
kun tu bzang po	Küntu Zangpo	Buddhist deity
kun ’dul	Kündül	Person
kun bzang rnam grol thub bstan lung rtogs bstan ’dzin	Künzang Namdröl Tupten Lungtok Tendzin	Person
ko chung	Kochung	Place
ko sde la	Kodé La	Place
ko ron	Korön	Place
ko logs	Kolok	Place
ko logs chu	Kolok Chu	Place
ko logs mkhar	Kolog Khar	Place
ko logs mkhar gog	Kolok Khargok	Place
kong chen	Kongchen	Place
kong chen chu	Kongchen Chu	Place
kol	Köl	Place
kol mkhar	Kölkhar	Place
kol ba’i bla ma	Kölwé Lama	Person
kya rdzong rdo ring	Kyadzong Doring	Place
kya rang	Kyarang	Place
kyum grang	Kyumdrang	Buddhist deity
kye ri khro bo stobs rgyal mkhar	Kyeri Trowo Topgyel Khar	Place
krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang	Trunggö Bö Rikpa Petrün Khang	Publisher
klad kor	lekor	Term
klu	lu	Term
klu khang	lukhang	Term
klu khang chung	Lukhang Chung	Place
klu khang che	Lukhang Ché	Place
klu mkhar	Lumkhar	Place
klu bdud	ludü	Term
klu bdud thang lha	Ludü Tanglha	Buddhist deity
klu bdud rdo je	Ludü Dorjé	Buddhist deity
klu bdud mon rdo	Ludü Möndo	Place
klu mo	lumo	Term
klu mo pho brang mon rdo	Lumo Podrang Möndo	Place
klu mo’i rta nag rdo ring	Lumö Tanak Doring	Place
klu btsan	lutsen	Term
klu btsan phyug mo	Lutsen Chukmo	Water deity
klong brgyad	Long Gyé	Textual Group
dkar mkhar	Karkhar	Place
dkar khug	Karkhuk	Place
dkar chag	karchak	Term
dkar dung	Kardung	Place
dkar dung khyung rdzong dkar mo	Kardung Khyungdzong Karmo	Place
dkar dung mkhar	Kardung Khar	Place
dkar ’ded chu	Kandé Chu	Place
dkar ’ded chu	Kandé Chu	River
dkar ru grub dbang	Karru Drupwang	Person
dkar ru grub dbang bstan ’dzin rin chen	Karru Drupwang Tendzin Rinchen	Author
dkar ru lha mtsho	Karru Lhatso	Lake
dkon mchog rgya mtsho	Könchok Gyatso	Person
dkon mchog rgyal mtshan	Könchok Gyeltsen	Person
dkon mchog tshe ring	Könchok Tsering	Person
dkon mchog gsum	Könchok Sum	Term
dkyil ’khor	kyinkhor	Term
dkyil sgrum	Kyildrum	Place
bka’	ka	Term
bka’ brgyud pa	Kagyüpa	Organization
bka’ gnyan po	ka nyenpo	Term
bka’ brten	Katen	Textual Group
bka’ gtsigs rdo ring	katsik doring	Term
bka’ btsan po	Katsenpo	Place
bkra chen	Trachen	Place
bkra rnam	Tranam	Person
bkra bzang	Trazang	Monastery
bkra bzang dgon pa	Trazang Gönpa	Monastery
bkra ri gnam mtsho	Trari Namtso	Lake
bkra shis mgon	Trashi Gön	Monastery
bkra shis sgang	Trashi Gang	Place
bkra shis sgang dgon pa	Trashi Gang Gönpa	Place
bkra shis dar lung	Trashi Darlung	Place
bkra shis do	Trashi Do	Place
bkra shis do chung	Trashi Dochung	Place
bkra shis do chen	Trashi Dochen	Place
bkra shis don grub	Trashi Döndrup	Person
bkra shis smon lam	Trashi Mönlam	Person
bkra shis rin chen	Trashi Rinchen	Person
bkra shis lhun po	Trashi Lhünpo	Place
bkra shis bsod nams	Trashi Sönam	Person
rkang gling	kangling	Term
rkang bstugs	Kangtsuk	Editor
rked dkar mon dur	Kekar Möndur	Place
rkyang	kyang	Term
rkyang rgyug ri	Kyanggyuk Ri	Place
rkyang thang	Kyangtang	Place
rkyang bum rdzong	Kyangbum Dzong	Place
rkyang rtswa mdo gyang ro	Kyang Tsedo Gyangro	Place
rkyang rag kha gog	Kyangrak Khagok	Place
rkyang hrang	Kyanghrang	Place
skab rag	Kaprak	Place
skabs ren gyang gog	Kapren Gyanggok	Place
skabs ren spungs ri	Kapren Pungri	Place
skam srang	Kamsang	Place
skam srang mon mkhar	Kamsang Mönkhar	Place
skal	Kel	Ethnicity
skal khra	Keltra	Place
skal khra mon dur	Keltra Möndur	Place
skal mon	Kel Mön	Ethnicity
skal bzang chos grags	Kalzang Chödrak	Author
skal bzang sri chod	Kelzang Sichö	Person
skal bsang sri chod	Kelsang Sichö	Author
sku gdung	kudung	Term
sku srung	kusung	Term
ske ring mtsho	Kering Tso	Lake
sked dmar	Kemar	Place
skor lam	korlam	Term
skya’o klu khang	Kyao Lukhang	Monastery
skya’o rdo ring	Kyao Doring	Place
skya’o lha khang	Kyao Lekhang	Place
skyid sgrom dgon pa	Kyidrom Gönpa	Place
skyid sgrom sgo gru bzhi	Kyidrom Godru Zhi	Place
skyid thang	Kyitang	Place
skyid phug	Kyi Puk	Place
skyid phug bsam gtan gling	Kyi Puk Samten Ling	Place
skyid sbug do	Kyidbuk Do	Place
skyid rdzong	Kyidzong	Place
skyid gsum	Kyisum	Place
skyid gsum bla brang	Kyisum Ladrang	Monastery
skyid gser	Kyiser	Place
skyibs gzhung	Kyipzhung	Place
skyi’u mtshams pa rin po che	Kyiu Tsampa Rinpoché	Person
skyung ka	kyungka	Term
skyung ka	Kyungka	Mountain
skyung mo brag	Kyungmo Drak	Mountain
skyung mo brag mkhar	Kyungmo Drakkhar	Place
skyung mo mtsho	Kyungmo Tso	Lake
skyung mo’i mon ra	Kyungmö Mönra	Place
skye lung	Kyelung	Place
skyed lag	Kyelak	Place
skyes	Kyé	Place
bskal mon	Kel Mön	Organization
Back to the Top
Kha
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
kha btags	khatak	Term
kha dam pa	Khadampa	Organization
kha ’dogs	Khandok	Place
kha shing	khashing	Term
kha ser	Khaser	Place
kha ser ra mo rgya mo mkhar	Khaser Ramo Gyamo Khar	Place
khag gi lo rgyus rags tsam	Khakgi Logyü Raktsam	Article
khang gog	Khanggok	Place
khang grang	Khangdrang	Place
khang pa	khangpa	Term
khang pa dmar gog	Khangpa Margok	Place
khang pa’i skyed	Khangpé Kyé	Place
khang dmar	Khangmar	Monastery
khang dmar dgon pa	Khangmar Gönpa	Monastery
khang dmar chu	Khangmar Chu	River
khang dmar rdo ring	Khangmar Doring	Place
khang dmar mon dur	Khangmar Möndur	Place
khang dmar rdza shag	Khangmar Dzashak	Place
kham	kham	Term
kham pa rwa co	Khampa Racho	Place
khams	Kham	Place
khams chen rdo ring	Khamchen Doring	Place
khams pa	Khampa	Ethnicity
khal khang	Khelkhang	Place
khu nu	Khunu	Place
khu rang mkhar gog	Khurang Khargok	Place
khu se rdo ring	Khusé Doring	Place
khul pa	Khülpa	Place
khog ra	Khokra	Place
khog ro	Khokro	Place
khyi rgan gag pa do	Khyigen Gakpa Do	Place
khyi mchong la	Khyichong La	Place
khyi nag rong	Khyinak Rong	Place
khyi’u dur khrod	Khyiu Durtrö	Place
khyung	Khyung	Place
khyung	khyung	Term
khyung dkar sman ri ba slob dpon bstan ’dzin rnam dag	Khyungkar Menriwa Loppön Tendzin Namdak	Author
khyung chen spungs pa'i ri	Khyungchen Pungpé Ri	Place
khyung sprul nam mkha’ ’jigs med rdo rje	Kyungtrül Namkha Jikmé Dorjé	Person
khyung sprul rin po che	Kyungtrül Rinpoché	Person
khyung phug	Khyungpuk	Place
khyung tshang	Khyungtsang	Place
khyung ri	Khyungri	Mountain
khyung la	Khyungla	Place
khyung lung	Khyunglung	Place
khyung lung mkhar rtse	Khyunglung Khartsé	Place
khyung lung dngul mkhar	Khyunglung Ngül Khar	Place
khyung lung yul smad	Khyunglung Yülmé	Place
khyed lag	Khyelak	Place
khye’u chung	Khyeu Chung	Buddhist deity
khye’u chung mkha’ lding	Khyeuchung Khading	Person
khra chab	Trachap	Place
khra chab rdo ring	Trachap Doring	Place
khra chab mon dur	Trachap Möndur	Place
khra ’dra	Trandra	Place
khra ’dra chu	Trandra Chu	River
khra ’dra mon dur	Trandra Möndur	Place
khra phug	Trapuk	Place
khra tshang	Tratsang	Place
khra tshang rdo ring	Tratsang Doring	Place
khra tshang mon dur	Tratsang Möndur	Place
khra lang	Tralang	Place
khri sde	Tridé	Place
khri sdems	Tridem	Person
khri ’bar gtsug phud	Trimbar Tsukpü	Person
khri tsho	Tritso	Lake
khri tsho gtsang po	Tritso Tsangpo	River
khri gzhung	Trizhung	Place
khri gzhung chu	Trizhung Chu	River
khri srong	Tri Song	Person
khri srong lde btsan	Tri Songdetsen	Person
khre chu	Trechu	River
khre mdo	Tredo	Place
khro thung	Trotung	Place
khro thung	Trotung	Person
khro thung mon dur	Trotung Möndur	Place
khro bo stobs rgyal	Trowo Topgyel	Person
khro bo dbang chen	Trowo Wangchen	Text
khrog lam	Troklam	Place
khrog shar ma	Troksharma	Place
mkhan sbug	Khenbuk	Place
mkhan rab	Khenrap	Person
mkhar	khar	Term
mkhar dkar	Kharkar	Place
mkhar gog rdo rje g.yu sgron ma	Khargok Dorjé Yudrönma	Place
mkhar gong	khargong	Term
mkhar sngon	Kharngön	Place
mkhar sngon dgon pa	Kharngön Gönpa	Monastery
mkhar chung	Kharchung	Place
mkhar chen	Kharchen	Place
mkhar ltag	Khartak	Place
mkhar stod	Khartö	Place
mkhar gdong	Khardong	Place
mkhar gdong	Khardong	Buddhist deity
mkhar nag	Kharnak	Place
mkhar po che	Kharpoché	Place
mkhar bar ma	Khar Barma	Place
mkhar dmar po	Khar Marpo	Place
mkhar rtse	Khartsé	Place
mkhar rtse phyi dbang rnam rgyal	Khartsé Chiwang Namgyel	Place
mkhar rtse mtsho	Khartsé Tso	Place
mkhar ’og ma	Khar Okma	Place
mkhar ru mkhar gog	Kharru Khargok	Place
mkhar lung	Kharlung	Place
mkhar lung mkhar gog	Kharlung Khargok	Place
mkhar lung mgon khang	Kharlung Gönkhang	Place
mkhar lung chu	Kharlung Chu	River
mkhas mchog rdo rje	Khechok Dorjé	Person
mkhas pa rdo rje	Khepa Dorjé	Person
’khar rgyug	khargyuk	Term
’khar sgong	Khargong	Place
’khor chags dgon pa’i lo rgyus deb gter dngul sku mched gsum gyi sngon byung gtam	Khorchak Gönpé Logyü Depter Ngül Kumché Sumgi Ngönjung Tam	Text
’khor chen	Khorchen	Place
’khor sbug	Khorbuk	Place
’khor sbug rdo ring	Khorbuk Doring	Place
’khor lo	khorlo	Term
’khyags rdo rang	Khyak Dorang	Place
’khyil	khyil	Term
’khyol	khyöl	Term
Back to the Top
Ga
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
ga shwa ri mum	gashwa rimum	Term
gan ga chu	Ganga Chu	River
gang ga chu	Gangga Chu	River
gangs dkar	Gangkar	Mountain
gangs dkar ti se	Gangkar Tisé	Place
gangs chen	Gangchen	Place
gangs chen rdo ring	Gangchen Doring	Place
gangs gnyan rta sgo	Gangnyen Tago	Place
gangs ti se	Gang Tisé	Mountain
gangs ti se’i bon mkhar	Gang Tisé Bön Khar	Place
gangs ti se’i lo rgyus	Gang Tisé Logyü	Article
gangs dang lha yi rgyal po	Gang Dang Lha Yi Gyelpo	Non-buddhist deity
gangs mtsho’i nye ’khor gyi dgon pa khag	Gangtsö Nyenkhorgi Gönpa Khak	Article
gangs ra	Gangra	Place
gangs ri	gang ri	Term
gangs ri ba	gang riwa	Mountain
gangs ri ba chos dbyings rdo rje	Gang Riwa Chöying Dorjé	Author
gangs ri mtsho gsum	Gangri Tsosum	Place
gangs ri lha btsan	Gangri Lhatsen	Mountain deity
gangs ri lha btsan pho brang	Gangri Lhatsen Podrang	Place
gangs rin po che	Gang Rinpoché	Mountain
gangs lung	Ganglung	Place
gangs lung lha rtse	Ganglung Lhatsé	Place
gangs lha dkar po	Ganglha Karpo	Mountain deity
gad gi byi ba mkhar	Gegi Jiwa Khar	Place
ga’u dpal ’byor	Gau Penjor	Person
gi ri	Giri	Place
gi ri mkhar	Giri Khar	Place
gu ge	Gugé	Place
gu ge tshe ring rgyal po	Gugé Tsering Gyelpo	Person
gu ge tshe ring rgyal po	Gugé Tsering Gyelpo	Author
gu ge tshe ring rgyal po’i ched rtsom phyogs bsgrigs	Gugé Tsering Gyelpö Chetsom Choktrik	Text
gu ge lho smad	Gugé	Place
gur gyam	Gurgyam	Place
gur gyam dgon pa	Gurgyam Gönpa	Place
gu ru sgrub chu	Guru Drupchu	Place
gu ru rnon rtse	Guru Nöntsé	Person
gu ru dbu zhwa dmag ra	Guru Wuzha Makra	Place
gu ru ’bum pa	Guru Bumpa	Place
gu ru rin po che	Guru Rinpoché	Person
gu ru rin po che	Guru Rinpoché	Author
gu ru rin po che sgrub phug mon ro	Guru Rinpoché Druppuk Mönro	Place
gu ru rin po che ches gsung pa’i rgyal brngan lha bsang	Guru Rinpoché Sungpé Gyelngen Lhasang	Text
gu ru lha khang	Guru Lhakhang	Place
gung rgyud mtsho	Gunggyü Tso	Lake
gur dkar	Gurkar	Person
gur chung	Gurchung	Place
gur chen rdo ring	Gurchen Doring	Place
gur nag	Gurnak	Person
gur ser	Gurser	Person
ge khod	Gekhö	Mountain deity
ge khod mkhar	Gekhö Khar	Place
ge khod mkhar lung	Gekhö Kharlung	Place
ge khod gnyan lung	Gekhö Nyenlung	Place
ge khod gnyan lung	Gekhö Nyenlung	Mountain deity
ge khod smad cha	Gekhö Mecha	Text
ge sar	Gesar	Person
ge sar bsang khang	Gesar Sangkhang	Place
gog rtse khang dmar	Goktsé Khangmar	Place
gong khyung dngul mtsho	Gongkhyung Ngül Tso	Lake
gong rgyud mtsho	Gonggyü Tso	Lake
gong ra	Gongra	Place
gyang	gyang	Term
gyang grags	Gyang Drak	Place
gyang pa’i gtsug rdzong	Gyangpé Tsuk Dzong	Place
gyang ro sna gdong	Gyangro Nadong	Place
gyad	gyé	Term
gyad sngon po	Gyé Ngönpo	Place
gyam rgya	Gyamgya	Place
gyam sngon	Gyamngön	Place
gyam sngon po	Gyamngönpo	Place
gyam sngon po mon dur	Gyamngönpo Möndur	Place
gyam chung	Gyamchung	Place
gyam chung phug pa	Gyamchung Pukpa	Place
gyam chung mon dur	Gyamchung Möndur	Place
gyam nag	Gyamnak	Place
gyam nag mon khang	Gyamnak Mönkhang	Place
gyam pa’i rdzong	Gyampé Dzong	Place
gyam brag phug	Gyamdrak Puk	Place
gyam mug mkhar	Gyammuk Khar	Place
gyam smug	Gyammuk	Place
gyam smug mkhar	Gyammuk Khar	Place
do gi phug	dogi puk	Term
gyung	Gyung	Mountain
gyung nag gtsug	Gyungnak Tsuk	Place
gyung nag gtsug rdo ring	Gyungnak Tsuk Doring	Place
gyen	gyen	Term
gyer ru mtsho do	Gyerru Tsodo	Place
gra	Dra	Place
gra sbug	Drabuk	Place
gra ma	drama	Term
gra ma nag gu rdo ring	Drama Nakgu Doring	Place
gra ma’i rdzugs	Dramé Dzuk	Place
gra rong mon ’dur	Drarong Möndur	Place
gra rong mon rdzong	Drarong Mön Dzong	Place
gra lung rdo ring	Dralung Doring	Place
gra lung mon 'dur	Dralung Möndur	Place
grang chung ba bam rdo ring	Drangchungwa Bam Doring	Place
grab ye tshwa kha	Drapyé Tsakha	Place
gram phyag	Dramchak	Place
gri gug	driguk	Term
gri bo	driwo	Term
grib ’gag	Dringak	Place
grib ra mon dur	Dripra Möndur	Place
gri’u chu thang	Driuchu Tang	Place
grub thob	druptop	Term
grub dbang bkra shis rgyal mtshan	Drupwang Trashi Gyeltsen	Person
grub dbang gong mi’i byin gyis brlabs ba’i gnas	Drupwang Gongmi Jingi Lapwé Né	Text
gro ba	Drowa	Place
grog lhas rdo ring	Droklhé Doring	Place
grong dkar	Drongkar	Place
grong dkar chu	Drongkar Chu	River
grong tsho	drongtso	Term
gros bo rdo ring	Dröwo Doring	Place
gla ro	Laro	Place
glang chu gling	Langchu Ling	Place
glang chung	Langchung	Mountain
glang che	Langché	Mountain
glang chen kha ’babs	Langchen Khabap	River
glang chen mche ba	Langchen Chewa	Place
glang chen rdo phur	Langchen Dopur	Place
glang chen phug	Langchen Puk	Place
glang chen brag khung	Langchen Drakkhung	Place
glang chen gtsang po	Langchen Tsangpo	River
glang dar ma	Langdarma	Person
glang bo che	Langboché	Mountain deity
glang ma	langma	Term
glang ri ’brog dmar	Langri Drokmar	Place
gling ge sar	Ling Gesar	Person
gling bzhi	lingzhi	Term
gling yul	Lingyül	Place
glo bo	Lowo	Place
glog phug mkhar	Lokpuk Khar	Place
dga’ chos dgon pa	Gachö Gönpa	Monastery
dga’ ldan pho brang	Ganden Podrang	Term
dga’ ldan pho brang srid gzhung	Ganden Podrang Sizhung	Term
dga’ ldan tshe dbang	Ganden Tsewang	Person
dga’ ldan tshe dbang mkhar	Ganden Tsewang Khar	Place
dga’ ldan lha rtse	Ganden Lhatsé	Place
dga’ yul	gayül	Term
dgun sa	Günsa	Place
dgun sa	günsa	Term
dge rgyas	Gegyé	Place
dge rgyas lho ma	Gegyé Lhoma	Place
dge ’dun	gendün	Term
dge ’dun chos ’phel	Gendün Chömpel	Author
dge ’dun chos ’phel gyi gsung rtsom. rgyal khams rig pas bskor ba’i gtam rgyud gser gyi thang ma	Gendün Chömpelgi Sungtsom: Gyelkham Rikpé Korwé Tamgyü Sergi Tangma	Text
dge lugs pa	Gelukpa	Organization
dge lhas mgo dkar mon dur	Gelhé Gokar Möndur	Place
dgon gnyer	gönnyer	Term
dgon ltag ltag mgo	Göntak Takgo	Place
dgon pa	gönpa	Term
dgon pa nag rog	Gönpa Nakrok	Place
dgon pa’i do	Gönpé Do	Place
dgon ro	Gönro	Place
dgon ro dmar lding	Gönro Marding	Place
dgos ’dod brag khung	Gondö Drakkhung	Place
dgra bcom	drachom	Term
mgar gtsang mkhar	Gartsang Khar	Place
mgul ring	Gülring	Place
mgo gnyis	Gonyis	Mountain
mgo phug mtsho	Gopuk Tso	Lake
mgo sbug	Gobuk	Place
mgon khang	gönkhang	Term
mgon snang	Gönnang	Person
mgon po	Gönpo	Buddhist deity
mgon po rnam gsum	Gönpo Namsum	Place
mgon po phug	Gönpo Puk	Place
’gag chen	Gakchen	Place
’gag chen chu	Gakchen Chu	River
rgan mo rde’u ’bur	Genmo Deumbur	Place
rgo mo	Gomo	Place
rgod tshang	Götsang	Place
rgod tshang stod	Götsang Tö	Place
rgod tshang pa	Götsangpa	Person
rgod tshang brag	Götsang Drak	Place
rgod tshang smad	Götsang Mé	Place
rgon pa	gönpa	Term
gwa lo phug	Galo Puk	Place
gwa lo rin po che	Galo Rinpoché	Person
dpal chen rgwa lo tsa ba	Pelchen Ga Lotsawa	Person
rgya gling	Gyaling	Place
rgya sgog	Gyagok	Place
rgya chung	Gyachung	Place
rgya chung mon rdo ra	Gyachung Möndora	Place
rgya chen	Gyachen	Place
rgya chen mon rdo ra	Gyachen Möndora	Place
rgya nyi ma	Gya Nyima	Place
rgya nyi ma mkhar	Gya Nyima Khar	Place
rgya steng ’bur rdo ring	Gyatengbur Doring	Place
rgya rdo	Gyado	Place
rgya rdo mon ra	Gyado Mönra	Place
rgya nag lcags ri	gyanak chakri	Term
rgya dpon	Gyapön	Clan
rgya sbug	Gyabuk	Place
rgya smug	Gyamuk	Place
rgya mtsho	Gyatso	Place
rgya ri	Gyari	Place
rgya rug	Gyaruk	Place
rgya rug mon dur	Gyaruk Möndur	Place
rgya ro brag dkar	Gyaro Drakkar	Mountain
rgya lam	gyalam	Term
rgyang brag	Gyangdrak	Place
rgyab ra	Gyapra	Place
rgyab ri	Gyapri	Term
rgyab lung	Gyaplung	Place
rgyab lung rdo ring	Gyaplung Doring	Place
rgyab lung mon dur	Gyaplung Möndur	Place
rgyal ba gar gyi dbang phyug	Gyelwa Gargi Wangchuk	Person
rgyal ba rgod tshang pa	Gyelwa Götsangpa	Person
rgyal ba byams pa	Gyelwa Jampa	Buddhist deity
rgyal ba byams pa lha khang	Gyelwa Jampa Lhakhang	Place
rgyal ba lo ras pa	Gyelwa Lorepa	Person
rgyal ba lo ras pa phug	Gyelwa Lorepa Puk	Place
rgyal ba gshen	Gyelwa Shen	Person
rgyal ba gshen rab	Gyelwa Shenrap	Person
rgyal rtse	Gyeltsé	Place
rgyal tsha	Gyeltsa	Person
rgyal tsha rdzong	Gyeltsa Dzong	Place
rgyal tsha rong dmar	Gyeltsa Rongmar	Place
rgyal mtshan mthon po	Gyeltsen Tönpo	Place
rgyal mtshan mthon po	Gyeltsen Tönpo	Place
rgyal la lding	Gyella Ding	Place
rgyul ’gul	Gyülgül	River
rgyul ’gul mkhar	Gyülgül Khar	Place
rgyungs rkyang	Gyungkyang	Place
rgyud lang	Gyülang	Place
sgar	Gar	Place
sgar gtsang po	Gar Tsangpo	River
sgar gshog	Garshok	Place
sgar gshog rdo ring	Garshok Doring	Place
sgar gsol brag phug	Garsöl Drakpuk	Place
sger rtse	Gertsé	Place
sger rtse	Gertsé	Clan
sgo gyam	Gogyam	Place
sgo thang gangs ri	Gotang Gangri	Place
sgo bdag	Godak	Place
sgo nub	Gonup	Monastery
sgo po rnam gsum	Gopo Nam Sum	Place
sgo mang mtsho	Gomang Tso	Lake
sgo dzi to be	Godzi Tobé	Person
sgog rde’u rdo ring	Gokdeu Doring	Place
sgog ra	Gokra	Place
sgog ri	Gokri	Place
sgom khang	gomkhang	Term
sgom ’khor	Gomkhor	Place
sgra bla’i rgyal mo	Dralé Gyelmo	Non-buddhist deity
sgra bla’i rgyal mo stag ri rong	Dralé Gyelmo	Non-buddhist deity
sgrub phug	druppuk	Term
sgrol ma	Drölma	Buddhist deity
brgya sde	Gyadé	Place
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Nga
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
nga	nga	Term
ngag khang	Ngakkhang	Place
ngag dbang karma	Ngawang Karma	Person
ngag dbang mchog ldan	Ngawang Chokden	Person
ngang pa	nangpa	Term
ngang la ring mtsho	Ngangla Ringtso	Lake
ngam ring	Ngamring	Place
ngo grub btsan ’dzin	Ngödrup Tendzin	Person
ngo dmar lha btsan	Ngomar Lhatsen	Mountain deity
dngul chu yon tan	Ngülchu Yönten	Person
dngos grub rdo rje	Ngödrup Dorjé	Person
dngos g.yu	ngöyu	Term
dngos g.yu bcu dpon	ngöyu chupön	Term
mnga’ bdag	Ngadak	Mountain deity
mnga’ ris	Ngari	Place
mnga’ ris skor gsum	Ngari Korsum	Place
mnga’ ris chos ’byung gangs ljongs mdzes rgyan	Ngari Chömjung Gangjong Dzegyen	Text
rnga mong	Ngamong	Place
rngo ro skor mched	Ngoro Korché	Place
snga mos	Ngamö	Place
sngags pa	ngakpa	Term
sngo rang	Ngorang	Place
sngo ring	Ngoring	Place
sngo sog	Ngosok	Place
sngon chu	Ngönchu	Place
sngon gdong	Ngöndong	Place
sngon mo	Ngönmo	Mountain
sngon mo rdo ring	Ngönmo Doring	Place
sngon mo mon dur	Ngönmo Möndur	Place
sngor gyam	Ngorgyam	Place
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Ca
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
cang la btags	Changla Tak	Place
cang la btags phug	Changla Takpuk	Place
gcen po spa rgyal tsha sha dkar	Chenpo Pagyel Tsasha Khar	Person
lcags sgang	Chakgang	Place
lcags sgo bra	Chakgo Dra	Place
lcags sgo brag	Chakgo Drak	Place
lcags sgo brag lung	Chaksgo Draklung	Place
lcags khang	Chakkhang	Place
lcags thag gtsang po	Chaktak Tsangpo	River
lcags rde’u	Chakdeu	Mountain
lcags ra	Chakra	Place
lcags hrang	Chakhrang	Mountain
lce do	Chedo	Place
lcog	chok	Term
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Cha
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
cha	cha	Term
chang	chang	Term
chad phu chung mon rdo ra	Chepuchung Möndora	Place
chad phu mon rdo ra	Chepu Möndora	Place
chad phu mon ra	Chepu Mönra	Place
chabs thog	Chaptok	Place
chu dkar gtsang po	Chukar Tsangpo	River
chu mkhar gyam	Chukhargyam	Place
chu mkhar gyam sgrub phug	Chukhargyam Druppuk	Place
chu mkhar gyam mon dur	Chukhargyam Möndur	Place
chu ’khor rdo ring	Chunkhor Doring	Place
chu lcam rgyal mo	Chucham Gyelmo	Mountain deity
chu lcam rgyal mo	Chucham Gyelmo	Non-buddhist deity
chu lcam dmar	Chu Chammar	Place
chu sti mkhar	Chuti Khar	Place
chu thig’u mon khang	Chutiku Mönkhang	Place
chu thig’u mon khang	Chutik Mönkhang	Place
chu nag	Chunak	Place
chu nag rdo ring	Chunak Doring	Place
chu phug	Chupuk	Place
chu phug rdo ring	Chupuk Doring	Place
chu phur rdo phur	Chupur Dopur	Place
chu sbug	Chubuk	River
chu mig mdo la btsas	Chumik Do Latsé	Place
chu mig shar la’i la	Chumik Sharlé La	Place
chu mur ti	Chu Murti	Place
chu mur ti mkhar gog	Chumurti Khargok	Place
chu lung	Chulung	Place
chu lung gong ma	Chulung Gongma	Place
chu lung stod ma	Chulung Töma	Place
chu lung ’og ma	Chulung Okma	Place
chu lho	Chulho	Place
chu lung ’og ma mkhar	Chulung Okma Khar	Place
chu shig	Chushik	Place
chu gsum	Chusum	Place
chu gsum mkhar gog	Chusum Khargok	Place
chu gser	Chuser	Place
chu gser dgon pa	Chuser Gönpa	Monastery
cho lo phug	Cholo Puk	Place
chos kyi dbang phyug	Chökyi Wangchuk	Person
chos sku	Chöku	Term
chos sku	Chöku	Monastery
chos sku ’phags pa	Chöku Pakpa	Person
chos ’khor	Chönkhor	Place
chos ’khor rdo ring	Chönkhor Doring	Place
chos gos	chögö	Term
chos ngag	Chöngak	Author
chos rje ’dzam gling grags pa	Chöjé Dzamling Drakpa	Person
chos phug	Chöpuk	Place
chos lung	Chölung	Place
chos lung phug	Chölung Puk	Place
chos lung o rgyan bsam gtan gling	Chölung Orgyen Samten Ling	Place
mchong gog mon mkhar	Chonggok Mönkhar	Place
mchod rten	chöten	Term
mchod rten khong seng can	Chöten Khongseng Chen	Place
mchod rten gi ri	Chöten Giri	Place
mchod rten dgu pa	Chöten Gupa	Place
mchod rten brgya ba	Chöten Gyawa	Place
mchod rten brgya ba	Chöten Gyawa	Place
mchod rten chen po	Chöten Chenpo	Place
mchod rten bdun bu	Chöten Dünbu	Place
mchod rten sbug sna kha	Chötenbuk Nakha	Place
’chi med	Chimé	Person
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Ja
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
ja dkar gtsang po	Jakar Tsangpo	River
jag pa me len	Jakpa Melen	Buddhist deity
jan gso nam pa’i ’chi	jenso nampé chi	Term
jing ger rgya zing	Jingger Gyazing	Person
jo khang	Jokhang	Place
jo bo ti bzang po	Jowoti Zangpo	Buddhist deity
jo mo	Jomo	Person
jo mo rgyal	Jomo Gyel	Person
jo mo spun gsum	Jomo Pünsum	Person
jo mo ri rang	Jomo Rirang	Mountain deity
jo mo ri rang mkhar	Jomo Rirang Khar	Place
jo mo ri rong	Jomo Rirong	Place
jo mo lha khang	Jomo Lhakhang	Place
jo ri	Jori	Mountain deity
jo ri rdo ring	Jori Doring	Place
jo ri btsan khang	Jori Tsenkhang	Place
jun gar la btsas	Jungar Latsé	Place
’jam po	jampo	Term
’ja’ lus sku	jalü ku	Term
’ja’ lus pa	jalü pa	Term
’jigs bral ye shes rdo rje	Jikdrel Yeshé Dorjé	Person
’jigs med snyan grags	Jikmé Nyendrak	Person
rje btsun mi la ras pa	Jetsün Milarepa	Person
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Nya
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
nya	Nya	Place
nya chu	Nyachu	River
nya chu rdzong dkar	Nyachu Dzongkar	Place
nya ba gtsang po	Nyawa Tsangpo	River
nya bo gtsang po	Nyawo Tsangpo	River
nya brag	Nyadrak	Place
nya gtsang po	Nya Tsangpo	Place
nyang	Nyang	Place
nyang ral chos ’byung	Nyangrel Chönjung	Text
nyal sa	nyelsa	Term
nyi skyin	Nyikyin	Place
nyi tho	Nyito	Place
nyi ma	Nyima	Place
nyi ma mgon	Nyima Gön	Person
nyi ma lung	Nyima Lung	Place
nyi gzhung	Nyizhuk	Place
nyi zla	nyida	Term
nyi ’od g.yen dmar rgyal khams	Nyiö Yenmar Gyelkham	Place
nyi lung	Nyilung	Place
nyi lung	nylung	Place
nyu gu mthon po	Nyugu Tönpo	Mountain
nyung dkar	Nyungkar	Place
nyung dkar rdo ring	Nyungkar Doring	Place
gnyan	nyen	Term
gnyan chen thang lha	Nyenchen Tanglha	Mountain deity
gnyan chen thang lha dang gnam mtsho phyug mo’i gnas bshad mdzub mo ri ston	Nyenchen Tanglha Dang Namtso Chukmö Neshé Dzubmo Ritön	Text
gnyan rta	Nyenta	Place
gnyan rta rdo ring	Nyenta Doring	Place
gnyan po ri rdzong	Nyenpori Dzong	Place
gnyan dmar	Nyenmar	Place
gnyan lung	Nyenlung	Place
gnya’ khri btsan po	Nyatri Tsenpo	Person
gnyer ma gyam	Nyerma Gyam	Place
gnyer ma gyam rdo ring	Nyerma Gyam Doring	Place
gnyer ma gyam mon rdo	Nyerma Gyam Möndo	Place
rnya la sngo ril	Nyala Ngoril	Place
rnya shing rdo ring	Nyashing Doring	Place
rnying ma	Nyingma	Organization
rnying ma pa	Nyingmapa	Organization
snyan rgyud	Nyengyü	Term
snyan rong	Nyenrong	Place
snying ’khrod	Nyintrö	Place
snying lcags rgyal	Nyingchak Gyel	Person
snying do	Nyingdo	Place
snying drung	Nyingdrung	Place
snying ri	Nyingri	Mountain
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Ta
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
ti	ti	Term
ti rgya mur	Tigyamur	Place
ti yag	Tiyak	Place
ti se	Tisé	Mountain
ti se dkar chag	Tisé Karchak	Text
ti se gangs kyi shel phug	Tisé Ganggi Shelpuk	Place
ting	ting	Term
ting mur	Tingmur	Place
tre ston phun tshogs grags pa	Tretön Püntsok Drakpa	Person
gti	ti	Term
gter ston	Tertön	Term
gtor ma	Torma	Term
rta khyung gnam gyi ka ba	Takhyung Namgi Kawa	Mountain
rta rgan gyam sna ri	Tagen Gyamnari	Place
rta rgo	Tago	Mountain
rta rgo ngo dmar lha btsan	Tago Ngömar Lhatsen	Mountain deity
rta rgo ’dogs sa	Tago Doksa	Place
rta rgyug sa	tagyuk sa	Term
rta sgo	Tago	Place
rta chog	Tachok	Place
rta mchog	Tachok	Place
rta mchog kha ’bab bon dgon pa	Tamchok Khabap Bön Gönpa	Place
rta mchog kha ’babs	Tamchok Khabap	River
rta mchog ngang pa do	Tamchok Ngangpa Do	Place
rta mchog gtsang po	Tamchok Tsangpo	River
rta ’dogs	tandok	Term
rta nu mon dur	Tanu Möndur	Place
rta dmar lding	Tamar Ding	Place
rta ra	Tara	Place
rta ra	Tara	Monastery
rta ra dgon pa	Tara Gönpa	Monastery
rta ra rdo ring	Tara Doring	Place
rta ra mon ra	Tara Mönra	Place
rta ra dmar lding	Tara Marding	Place
rta rabs mtsho	Tarap Tso	Lake
rta ri brag phug	Tari Drakpuk	Place
rtan chen la	Tenchen La	Mountain
rting stong	Tingtong	Place
rten mkhar	tenkhar	Term
rtogs ldan dad shes	Tokden Deshé	Person
rta rgo	Tago	Place
stag gyang phug	Takgyang Puk	Place
stag chen	Takchen	Place
stag chen gnam sgo	Takchen Namgo	Place
stag stong lho ma	Taktong Lhoma	Place
stag sna gling	Takna Ling	Place
stag sna dbal rdzong	Takna Weldzong	Place
stag sna gzi brjid	Takna Ziji	Person
stag sna rong	Takna Rong	Place
stag brag khung	Takdrak Khung	Place
stag mo ris bkra stag lha mkhar	Takmo Ritra Taklha Khar	Place
stag rtse	taktsé	Place
stag rtse bya ni	Taktsé Jani	Place
stag gzig	Takzik	Place
stag gzig nor gyi rgyal po	Takzig Norgi Gyelpo	Person
stag gzig nor rdzong	Takzik Nordzong	Place
stag ri khra bo	Takri Trawo	Mountain deity
stag ri rong	Tak Rirong	Place
stag rong	Takrong	Place
stag rong mtshams khang	Takrong Tsamkhang	Place
stag la mkhar	Takla Khar	Place
stag la me ’bar	Takla Membar	Non-buddhist deity
stag lung	Taklung	Place
stag lung rtse sprul	Taklung Tsetrül	Person
stag lha mkhar	Taklha Khar	Place
stang	Tang	Place
stang mkhar rtse	Tang Khartsé	Place
stang rgyung	Tanggyung	Mountain deity
stang rgyung	Tanggyung	Mountain deity
stang rgyung zom khra	Tanggyung Zomtra	Mountain
stang ’phags pa	Tang Pakpa	Monastery
sti	ti	Term
sti ri	Tiri	Place
steng ’phags pa mthong ba don ldan dgon	Teng Pakpa Tongwa Dönden Gön	Monastery
steng rtse	Tengtsé	Place
steng rtse mtshams khang	Tengtsé Tsamkhang	Place
stong rgyung mthu chen	Tonggyung Tuchen	Person
stong sde	tongdé	Term
stong mtsho	Tongtso	River
stong shong phug	Tongshong Puk	Place
stod	Tö	Place
stod kyi rgyung po spun gsum	Tökyi Gyungpo Pünsum	Place
stod skad	Töké	Term
stod mnga’ ris kyi dgon sde’i lo rgyus dag gsal mthong ba’i me long	Tö Ngarikyi Göndé Logyü Daksel Tongwé Melong	Text
stod mnga’ ris shang rtse dgon gi lo rgyus mdor sdus	Tö Ngari Shangtsé Göngi Logyü Dordü	Text
ston pa	Tönpa	Person
ston pa gshen rab	Tönpa Shenrap	Person
stobs chen	Topchen	Place
brtar dkar	Tarkar	Buddhist deity
brten ma	Tenma	Term
bstan rgyal	Tsengyel	Person
bstan pa snga dar	tenpa ngadar	Time range
bstan pa phyi dar	tenpa chidar	Term
bstan pa’i nyi ma	Tenpé Nyima	Publisher
bstan phyi dar	ten chidar	Term
bstan ma	Tenma	Term
bstan ma bcu gnyis	Tenma Chunyi	Mountain deity
bstan ’dzin rnam rgyal	Tendzin Namgyel	Author
bstan ’dzin dbang grags	Tendzin Wangdrak	Author
bstan ’dzin tshul khrims	Tendzin Tsültrim	Person
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Tha
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
thang	Tang	Place
thang dkar chu lung dkar mo	Tangkar Chulung Karmo	Buddhist deity
thang stong rgyal po	Tangtong Gyelpo	Person
thang ra rdo ring	Tangra Doring	Place
thang lha	Tanglha	Place
thab tshang	taptsang	Term
tham ka can	Tamkachen	Place
thar lcang	Tarchang	Place
thar ma	Tarma	Place
thar ma gtsang po	Tarma Tsangpo	River
thu lum	tulum	Term
thes skyer	Tekyer	Place
tho	to	Term
tho bo dmar hrang	Towo Marhrang	Place
thog lcags	tokchak	Term
thogs med rde’u ’bur	Tokmé Deubur	Place
thogs med bla brang	Tokmé Lhadrang	Monastery
thon kun dga’ rin chen	Tön Künga Rinchen	Person
thon mi nyi ma ’od zer	Tönmi Nyima Özer	Person
mtha’ kham pa ri	Takhampa Ri	Place
mtha’ byang	Tajang	Place
mtha’ ser gog	Taser Gok	Place
mtho chu	Tochu	Place
mtho chu mkhar	Tochu Khar	Place
mtho lding	Toding	Monastery
mtho lding dgon pa	Toding Gönpa	Monastery
mtho mo	Tomo	Place
mtho ris skas	Tori Ké	Place
mthon kha lung	Tönkha Lung	Place
mthon kha lung mkhar	Tönkha Lungkhar	Place
mthon ra	Tönra	Place
mthon ra rdzong	Tönra Dzong	Place
mthon lo mkhar	Tönlo Khar	Place
mthon lo pha la	Tönlo Pala	Person
’thag phur rdo ring	Takpur Doring	Place
’thag ma	takma	Term
’thag ri rked	Takriké	Place
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Da
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
da dben rol pa skya bdun	Dawen Rolpa Kyadün	Mountain deity
da rog mtsho	Daroktso	Lake
dang chung stod ma	Dangchung Töma	Place
dang ra	Dangra	Lake
dang ra khyung rdzong	Dangra Khyung Dzong	Place
dang ra khyung ri	Dangra Khyungri	Mountain
dang ra g.yu mtsho	Dangra Yutso	Lake
dngas dkar chu	Ngekar Chu	River
dngas chu	Ngechu	River
’dam	Dam	Place
dam pa ’bum rje	Dampa Bumjé	Person
dar rgyas gling	Dargyé Ling	Place
dar lcog	darchok	Term
dar chung	Darchung	Place
dar chen	Darchen	Place
dar chen khang khrog	Darchen Khang Trok	Place
dar ma	Darma	Place
dar lung	Darlung	Place
dar lung gyang ro	Darlung Gyangro	Place
dung dkar	Dungkar	Place
dung dkar mkhar gog	Dungkar Khargok	Place
dung dkar mkhar gdong	Dungkar Khardong	Place
dung dkar chu	Dungkar Chu	River
dung dkar	Dungkar	Place
dung skyong dkar mo	Dungkyong Karmo	Buddhist deity
dung khyi	Dungkhyi	Place
dung mkhar mkhar gog	Dungkhar Khargok	Place
dung chen	dungchen	Term
dung rtse rdo ring	Dungtsé Doring	Place
dung ri ra chung	Dungri Rachung	Place
dung ri ra chung mon dur	Dungri Rachung Möndur	Place
dung ri ra chung mon ’dur	Dungri Rachung Möndur	Place
dung ri ra chen	Dungri Rachen	Place
dung ru	Dungru	Place
dus bag	Dubak	Place
do dkyil sbug	Dokyilbuk	Place
do mkhar sgo	Dokhargo	Place
do rta sga	Dotaga	Place
do dril bu	Dodrilbu	Place
do pa dar ma shes rab	Dopa Darma Sherap	Person
do pa dar shes	Dopa Darshé	Person
do po rag	Dopo Rak	Place
do smug	Domuk	Place
do smug mtshams khang	Domuk Tsamkhang	Place
do ring	Doring	Place
do ser	Doser	Place
don grub phun tshogs	Döndrup Püntsok	Person
don grub lha rgyal	Döndrup Lhagyel	Person
dom ri gna’ kha	Domri Nakha	Place
dol po	Dolpo	Place
dwang ra khyung chen rdzong	Dangra Khyungchen Dzong	Place
dran pa nag kha	Dranpa Nakkha	Place
dran pa nam mkha’	Drenpa Namkha	Person
dri brtan mon dur	Driten Möndur	Place
dri bon po	dri bönpo	Term
drin sa	drinsa	Place
drung kho	Drungkho	Place
drung mu khri rtse	Drungmu Tritsé	Place
dregs pa	Drekpa	Term
gdan chu	Denchu	Monastery
gdo gsham mon gyi mkhar	Dosham Möngyikhar	Place
gdo gsham mon gyi yul	Dosham Möngyiyül	Place
gdung rten	dungten	Term
gdong po	Dongpo	Place
gdong po gong ma	Dongpo Gongma	Place
gdong po chu	Dongpo Chu	River
gdong po ’og ma	Dongpo Okma	Place
gdong spo	Dongpo	Place
gdong spo chu	Dongpo Chu	River
gdong spo gtsang po	Dongpo Tsangpo	River
gdong dmar	Dongmar	Place
gdong dmar rdo khang	Dongmar Dokhang	Place
bdud	dü	Term
bdud klu btsan	Dü Lutsen	Person
bdud ’joms rin po che	Düjom Rinpoché	Person
bdud bya	düja	Term
bdud mtsho	dütso	Term
bde mchog	Demchok	Place
bde mchog mon dur	Demchok Möndur	Place
mda’ ba	Dawa	Place
mda’ ba mkhar rtse	Dawa Khartsé	Place
mda’ ba chu	Dawa Chu	River
mda’ ba rdzong	Dawa Dzong	Place
mda’ babs	Dabap	Place
mdung chags mtsho	Dungchak Tso	Lake
mdung mtsho	Dungtso	Lake
mdun chu	Dunchu	Monastery
mdo khams	Dokham	Place
mdo gsham	Dosham	Place
mdo gsham mug mkhar	Dosham Mukkhar	Monastery
mdo gsham mon gyi mkhar	Dosham Möngyi Khar	Place
mdo gsham mon gyi yul	Dosham Möngyi Yül	Place
mdongs po	Dongpo	Place
’dam	Dam	Place
’dam gzhung	Damzhung	Place
’du kang	dukang	Term
’dur khrod	durtrö	Term
’dur gshen	durshen	Term
’du khang	dükhang	Term
’dus sde	düdé	Term
’dre	dré	Term
’dre ’khyer	Drenkhyer	Place
rde’u rgya rug	Deu Gyaruk	Place
rde’u nag gu mkhar	Deu Nakgu Khar	Place
rde’u po	Deupo	Place
rde’u ’bur nag ri	Deumbur Nakri	Place
rde’u ’bur nag ri mon dur	Deumbur Nakri Möndur	Place
rde’u rug	Deuruk	Place
rdo sku	Doku	Place
rdo khang	dokhang	Term
rdo khra zlum mon dur	Dotradum Möndur	Place
rdo rje	dorjé	Person
rdo rje gling	Dorjé Ling	Place
rdo rje rgya gram	Dorjé Gyadram	Term
rdo rje chen mo	Dorjé Chenmo	Place
rdo rje ’bar ba	Dorjé Barwa	Buddhist deity
rdo rje rdzong	Dorjé Dzong	Place
rdo rje g.yu sgron ma	Dorjé Yudrönma	Buddhist deity
rdo rje g.yu sgron ma mkhar	Dorjé Yudrönma Khar	Place
do rta sga	Dotaga	Place
rdo nag	Donak	Place
rdo nag rdo ring	Donak Doring	Place
rdo po rta sga	Dopo Taga	Place
rdo phug	Dopuk	Place
rdo phur	Dopur	Place
rdo ba gsum pa	Dowa Sumpa	Place
rdo mi lang	Domilang	Place
rdo dmar	Domar	Place
rdo dmar khang ro	Domar Khangro	Place
rdo dmar gtsang po	Domar Tsangpo	River
rdo rtsub	Dotsup	Place
rdo tshang nag kha	Dotsang Nakkha	Place
rdo ra skya skyog	Dora Kyakyok	Place
rdo rang	dorang	Term
rdo ring	Doring	Place
rdo ring	doring	Term
rdo ring dkar nag	Doring Karnak	Place
rdo ring dkar mo	Doring Karmo	Place
rdo ring khang ro	Doring Khangro	Place
rdo ring rgyab lung	Doring Gyaplung	Place
rdo ring lcags ra	Doring Chakra	Place
rdo ring nag kha	Doring Nakkha	Place
rdo ring spun gsum	Doring Pünsum	Place
rdo ring phur rgyung	Doring Purgyung	Mountain
rdo ring bar ma	Doring Barma	Place
rdo ring byang ma	Doring Jangma	Place
rdo ring dmar mo	Doring Marmo	Place
rdo ring mtsho bkra	Doring Tsotra	Place
rdo ring rag gtsug	Doring Raktsuk	Place
rdo ring lung	Doring Lung	Place
rdo ring lung rdo ring	Doring Lung Doring	Place
rdo ring lung rdo ring	Doring Lung Doring	Place
rdo ring lho ma	Doring Lhoma	Place
rdo lang gnyis sgrig	Dolang Nyidrik	Place
rdo gsham mon gyi mkhar	Dosham Möngyi Khar	Place
rdo gsham mon gyi yul	Dosham Möngyi Yül	Place
rdo ser po	Do Serpo	Place
rdo lhas	Dolhé	Place
rdor sna	Dorna	Place
ldan chu mon rdo	Denchu Doring	Place
ldan byang ri smug po gdong	Denjangri Mukpo Dong	Place
ldems	Dem	Person
ldong bo	Dongwo	Place
sdings zlum	Dingdum	Place
sdings leb sngon po	Dinglep Ngönpo	Place
sde	dé	Term
sde chos	Dechö	Place
sde chos skal mon yul	Dechö Kelmön Yül	Place
sde chos skal mon lung pa	Dechö Kelmön Lungpa	Place
sde chos dgon pa	Dechö Gönpa	Place
sde chos chu	Dechö Chu	River
sde dpon	depön	Term
sde rog	Derok	Place
sde rog gtsang po	Derok Tsangpo	River
sde lebs	Delep	Place
sde gsar	Desar	Place
sdod yod	Döyö	Place
sdod sa	dösa	Term
sdom ra	Domra	Place
sdom ra	Domra	Mountain deity
sdom ra rdzong	Domra Dzong	Place
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Na
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
na mkha’ ma rdo ring	Nakhama Doring	Place
na mgo	Nago	Place
na chen	Nachen	Place
na ma lung rdo ring	Namalung Doring	Place
na ma lung mon khang	Namalung Mönkhang	Place
na mar che	Namarché	Place
na mar che mtsho	Namarché Tso	Lake
na ro bon chung	Naro Bönchung	Person
nag khung rdo ring	Nakkhung Doring	Place
nag gu	Nakgu	Place
nag gyam	Nakgyam	Place
nag chu	Nakchu	Place
nag chu sa gnas srid gros lo rgyus rig gnas dpyad gzhi’i rgyu cha rtsom sgrig khang	Nakchu Sané Sitrö Logyü Rikné Chezhi Gyucha Tsomtrikkhang	Publisher
nag chung gong ma	Nakchung Gongma	Place
nag chung phug	Nakchung Puk	Place
nag gdong	Nakdong	Place
nag po rdo ring	Nakpo Doring	Place
nag phyogs	nakchok	Term
nag mer mtsho	Nakmer Tso	Lake
nag gtsug mkhar	Naktsuk Khar	Place
nag gtsug mtshams khang	Naktsuk Tsamkhang	Place
nag tshang	Naktsang	Place
nag tshang dpon stod	Naktsang Pöntö	Place
nag tshang rong dmar	Naktsang Rongmar	Place
nag tshogs rdo ring	Naktsok Doring	Place
nag ra	Nakra	Place
nag ra brag seng	Nakradrak	Place
nag ra brag seng mon dur	Nakra Drakseng Möndur	Place
nag ra brag seng mon ra	Nakra Drakseng Mönra	Place
nag ra brag seng rdzong	Nakra Drakseng Dzong	Place
nag ra mon dur	Nakra Möndur	Place
nag ra rdzong	Nakra Dzong	Place
nag lhas	Naklhé	Place
nag lhas rdo ring	Naklhé Doring	Place
nang chu rdo ring	Nangchu Doring	Place
nang chu la	Nangchula	Place
nang stong	Nangtong	Place
nang do	Nangdo	Place
nang ra	nangra	Term
nam mkha’ khyung rdzong	Namkha Khyungdzong	Place
nam mkha’ blo gros	Namkha Lodrö	Person
nam mkha’ blo ldan	Namkha Loden	Person
nam ra	Namra	Mountain deity
ne ri bul mtsho	Neri Bültso	Lake
ne le	Nelé	Term
ne le brag	Nelé Drak	Place
ne’u gtsang po	Neutsangpo	River
nor gyi rgyal po	Norgyi Gyelpo	Person
gnam gyi ka ba	Namgyi Kawa	Place
gnam lcags dbang rgyal	Namchak Wanggyel	Person
gnam thel dkar po	Namtel Karpo	Non-buddhist deity
gnam mtsho	Namtso	Lake
gnam mtsho kha ral	Namtso Kharel	Place
gnam mtsho phyug mo che	Namtso Chukmo Ché	Water deity
gnam mtsho’i gnas bshad dad pa’i rgyun	Namtso Neshé Depé Gyün	Text
gnam rdzong	Namdzong	Place
gnam g.yang phug	Namyang Puk	Place
gnam ra	Namra	Place
gnam ra’i dpon lha khang	Namré Pön Lhakhang	Place
gnam ru	Namru	Place
gnam ru dpon	Namrupön	Place
gnam la	Namla	Place
gna’ bo lung	Nawolung	Place
gna’ gser thang	Naser Tang	Place
gnas	Né	Term
gnas kun bzang	Nékün Zang	Place
gnas chen	nechen	Term
gnas brtan	neten	Term
gnas sde	Nedé	Place
gnas mo sna gnyis	Nemona Nyi	Mountain
gnas ri mtsho sngon	Neri Tsongön	Lake
gnas bshad	neshé	Term
gnon pa	nönpa	Term
mna’ ma	nama	Term
rnam rgyal lde	Namgyel Dé	Person
rnam rgyal lha rtse	Namgyel Lhatsé	Monastery
rnil rang	nilrang	Term
rnil rwang	nilrang	Term
rno ba g.yang rdo	Nowa Yangdo	Place
sna nag po	Na Nakpo	Place
sna ra mon dur	Nara Möndur	Place
sna ro	naro	Term
sna leb	Nalep	Place
snang bzher lod po	Nangzher Löpo	Person
snil rang	nilrang	Term
snil rwang	nilrang	Term
snu	Nu	Place
snub	Nup	Place
sne mo lung	Nemo Lung	Place
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Pa
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
pa tra	patra	Term
pa snam	Panam	Place
pags mthug	Paktuk	Place
pang rim	pangrim	Term
pad ma mkhar	Pema Khar	Place
pad ma rgyas pa’i lha khang	Pema Gyepé Lhakang	Monastery
pad ma sgrub phug	Pema Druppuk	Place
pad ma chos ’phel	Pema Chömpel	Person
pad ma bde rgyal	Pema Degyel	Person
pad ma nag yol	Pema Nakyöl	Place
pad ma phug	Pema Puk	Place
pad ma lhun lding	Pema Lhünding	Place
pu rang	Purang	Place
pu hrang	Purang	Place
pe gya rdo ring	Pegya Doring	Place
po rog	porok	Term
pre ta pu ri	Pretapuri	Place
dpa’ ngar gzhung	Pangar Zhung	Place
dpa’ ngar gzhung khang gog	Pangar Zhungkhang Gok	Place
dpa’ ngar gzhung mkhar gog	Pangar Zhung Khargok	Place
dpa’ bo	pawo	Term
dpa’ mo	pamo	Term
dpa’ mo ’dre ’khyer	Pamo Drenkhyer	Place
dpa’ mo ’dre ’khyer	Pamo Drenkhyer	Place
dpal	Pel	Buddhist deity
dpal mgon	Pelgön	Place
dpal mgon	Pelgön	Place
dpal ldan ye shes	Penden Yeshé	Person
dpal ldan lha mo	Penden Lhamo	Buddhist deity
dpal phu	Pelpu	Mountain
dpal mo	Pelmo	Buddhist deity
dpal mo ’thag phur	Pelmo Takpur	Place
dpal mo rdo phur	Pelmo Dopur	Place
dpal mo rdo ring	Pelmo Doring	Place
dpal gzhung	Pelzhung	Place
dpal gzim phug	Pel Zimpuk	Place
dpal gzims phug	Pel Zimpuk	Monastery
dpal gzims phug dgon pa	Pel Zimpuk Gönpa	Monastery
dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling	Pel Zimpuk Orgyen Chöling	Text
dpal gzims phug o rgyan chos gling gi byung ba brjod pa skal bzang gyi dga’ ston	Pel Zimpuk Orgyen Chölinggi Jungwa Jöpa Kalzanggi Gatön	Text
dpal ri ba blo bzang bkra shis	Pel Riwa Lozang Trashi	Person
pi phi	pipi	Term
dpon skya pho bo lha dbang	Pönkya Powo Lhawang	Person
dpon po	pönpo	Term
dpon mo	pönmo	Term
dpon mo lha khang	Pönmo Lhakhang	Place
spa ston	Patön	Person
spa ston bstan rgyal bzang po	Patön Tengyel Zangpo	Person
spang	Pang	Place
spang bkra	Pangtra	Place
spang bkra chu	Pangtra Chu	River
spang bkra rdzong dkar	Pangtra Dzong Kar	Place
spang gong mtsho	Panggongtso	Place
spang dmar gzhung khang gog	Pangmar Zhungkhang Gok	Place
spi’u	Piu	Buddhist deity
spu gling	Puling	Term
spu gling chu	Puling Chu	Place
spu gling chung ma	Puling Chungma	Place
spu gling yul stong	Puling Yültong	Place
spu rgya	pugya	Dynasty
spu rgyal	Pugyel	Dynasty
spu stod gtsang po	Putö Tsangpo	River
spu rang	Purang	Place
spu rang ’khyol	Purang Khyöl	Place
spu rang stod	Purang Tö	Place
spu rang smad	Purang Mé	Place
spu rog mkhar	Purok Khar	Place
spu gsum	Pusum	Place
spu hrang	Purang	Place
spe mo che	Pemoché	Place
spen ba tshe ring	Penwa Tsering	Person
spo che	Poché	Place
spo ba	Powa	Place
spo sa mkhar gog	Posa Khargok	Place
spos do gong ma	Podo Gongma	Place
spos do shar ma	Podo Sharma	Place
spos ri	Pöri	Mountain
spos ri ngad ldan	Pori Ngeden	Mountain
spos ri mon dur	Pöri Möndur	Place
spyang tshang	Changtsang	Place
spyan ras gzigs	Chenrezik	Buddhist deity
spyil bu dgon pa	Chilbu Gönpa	Place
spyog po rdo ring	Chokpo Doring	Place
spre mo mkhar	Tremo Khar	Place
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Pha
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
pha bong ’khar rnga	Pabongkharnga	Place
phags ’gram	Pandram	Lake
phan che	Penché	Place
phi’a mkhar	Pia Khar	Place
phu ba	Puwa	Place
phu ’bri gtsang po	Pundri Tsangpo	River
phu lung	Pulung	Place
phug mkhar	Pukkhar	Place
phug dgu bcu gsum	Chukgu Chusum	Place
phug dgu chu sum	Pukgu Chusum	Place
phug chen	Pukchen	Place
phug ti	Pukti	Place
phug pa dgon	Pukpa Gön	Place
phug pa smug gdong	Pukpa Mukdong	Place
phug mo	Pukmo	Place
phug rong	Pukrong	Place
phun tshogs lde	Püntsok Dé	Person
phur ’debs	pundep	Term
phur pa	Purpa	Buddhist deity
phur bu	Purbu	Person
phur bu gyang dmar	Purbu Gyangmar	Place
phe lung rdo ring	Pelung Doring	Place
pho brang	podrang	Term
pho lha	Polha	Term
pho lha ge khod gangs dkar	Polha Gekhö Gangkhar	Place
pho lha dbang thang dkar po	Polha Wangtang Karpo	Place
pho lha shel rgyung	Polha Shelgyung	Mountain
phyag na rdo rje	Chakna Dorjé	Buddhist deity
phyi gling	Chiling Tso	Place
phyi stong	Chitong	Place
phyi dbang	Chiwang	Place
phyi dbang chu	Chiwang Chu	River
phyi dbang rnam rgyal	Chiwang Namgyel	Place
phying lung	Chinglung	Place
phying ser po	Ching Serpo	Place
phyug tsho grog po dgon pa	Chuktso Drokpo Gönpo	Place
phyug tsho grog po rdzong	Chuktso Drokpo Dzong	Place
phye ri thal rdzong	Cheri Teldzong	Place
phyod ser	Chöser	Place
phyod ser mon dur	Chöser Möndur	Place
phru gu dbyar ka	Trugu Yarka	Place
phru gu dbyar kha	Trugu Yarkha	Place
’phags pa spyan ras gzigs	Pakpa Chenrezik	Buddhist deity
’phong chen	Pongchen	Place
’phrang lam	Pranglam	Place
’phrin las rgya mtsho	Trinlé Gyatso	Person
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Ba
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
ba ma	bama	Term
ba dan	baden	Term
ba tshang	batsang	Mountain
ba lu	balu	Term
ba lu mkhar	Balu Khar	Place
ba le	Balé	Person
bag rdo	Bakdo	Place
bang khung	Wangkhung	Term
bang khur mtsho	Bangkhur Tso	Lake
bang so	bangso	Term
ba’am	bam	Term
ba’am	bam	Place
ba’am khang khrog	Bam Khang Trok	Place
ba’am dgon ltag	Bam Göntak	Place
ba’o lhas	Baolé	Place
bab	bap	Term
bar	Bar	Place
bar ga	Barga	Place
bar gyi mkhar	Bargyi Khar	Place
bar tha	Barta	Place
bar thel khra bo	Bartel Trawo	Mountain deity
bar do	bardo	Term
bar mon mkhar	Bar Mönkhar	Place
bar rdzong	Bardzong	Place
bar yangs	Baryang	Place
bar lha khang	Bar Lhakhang	Place
bal mo	Belmo	Place
bal mo mon dur	Belmo Möndur	Place
bal tshwa gyang khrog	Beltsa Gyangtrok	Place
bal tshwa gyang khrog	Beltsa Gyangdrok	Place
bal tshwa gyang khrog rdo ring	Beltsa Gyangtrok Doring	Place
bal la	Bella	Place
bes sbug mtsho	Bebuktso	Place
bis rdza	bidza	Term
bis rdza dmag ’thab sa	Bidza Maktapsa	Place
bu sti	Buti	Person
bu mo lha khang	Bumo Lhakhang	Place
bu ri mkhar	Burikhar	Place
bum pa	bumpa	Term
bul dkar mtsho	Bülkar Tso	Lake
bul tog gtsang po	Bültok Tsangpo	Place
bul thang rdo ring	Bültang Doring	Place
bulbul	bülbül	Term
bul mtsho	Bültso	Lake
bong chen	Bongchen	Place
bod	Bö	Ethnicity
bod kyi bon dgon do lan ji	Bökyi Böngön Dolenji	Publisher
bod ljongs mnga’ ris sa khul sman rtsis khang	Böjong Ngari Sakhül Mentsikhang	Publisher
bod ljongs nag chu sa khul gyi lo rgyus rig gnas	Böjong Nakchu Sakhülgyi Logyü Rikné	Journal
bod ljongs nang bstan	Böjong Nangten	Journal
bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang	Böjong Böyik Penying Petrünkhang	Publisher
bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang	Böjong Mimang Petrünkhang	Publisher
bod ljongs shin hwa	Böjong Shinhwa	Publisher
bod yi ge	bö yige	Term
bod yul gnas kyi lam yig gsal ba’i dmig bu	Böyül Nekyi Lamyik Selwé Mikbu	Text
bon	Bön	Organization
bon po	Bönpo	Term
bon khams chen	Bön Khamchen	Textual Group
bon mkhyen	bön khyen	Term
bon po phug	Bönpo Puk	Place
bon po phug	Bönpo puk	Term
bon ma gyon	Bön ma gyön	Term
bya skyibs brag	Jakyip Drak	Place
bya khyung	jakhyung	Place
bya gtor	jator	Term
bya do	Jado	Place
bya ri gtsug ldan	Jari Tsukden	Place
bya ru can	jaru chen	Term
bya shang shang	Jashang Shang	Place
byang	Jang	Place
byang dgon	Janggön	Place
byang chub ’bum	Jangchup Bum	Person
byang gter	Jangter	Term
byang stang	Jangtang	Place
byang stang mkhar	Jangtang Khar	Place
byang stod	Jangtö	Place
byang thang	Jangtang	Place
byang sde rdo ring	Jangdé Doring	Place
byang sdong gong kha	Jangdong Gongkha	Place
byang pa	Jangpa	Place
byang ba ha shes	Jangwa Hashé	Clan
byang ma	Jangma	Place
byang ma glang sha	Jangma Langsha	Place
byang btsan	Jangtsen	Buddhist deity
byang ru sdings	Jangru Ding	Place
byams pa	Jampa	Buddhist deity
byams ma bsod nams	Jamma Sönam	Person
byams ri rdo ring	Jamri Doring	Place
byi sbug	Jibuk	Place
byi ri sbug	Jiri Buk	Place
byi’u	Jiu	Place
byi’u	Jiu	Place
byi’u	jiu	Term
byi’u kye	Jiu Kyé	Place
byi’u mkhar	Jiu Khar	Place
byi’u dgon pa	Jiu Gönpa	Monastery
byi’u pad ma’i mkhar	Jiu Padmé Khar	Monastery
byi’u mon dur	Jiu Möndur	Place
byi’u mon rdo	Jiu Möndo	Place
byi’u zam bzo mkhar	Jiu Zamzo Khar	Monastery
byi’u sing pa’i mkhar	Jiu Singpé Khar	Place
byu ru nor rdzong	Juru Nordzong	Place
bye dkar	Jekar	Place
bye dkar mkhar gog	Jekar Khargok	Place
bra gu	tragu	Term
bra gu rta ra	Dragu Tara	Place
bra bu’i ngo ngan	Drabü Ngongen	Person
brag dkar mkhar	Drakkar Khar	Place
brag dkar nag sdings	Drak Karnak Ding	Place
brag dkar rtse rdzong	Drakkartsé Dzong	Place
brag khung mdzes po	Drakkhung Dzepo	Place
brag ’khor sgang	Drak Khorgang	Place
brag gu gsal sgron	Drakgu Seldrön	Place
brag gyam	Drakgyam	Place
brag mgo bzhag	Drakgozhak	Place
brag sgam rdzong	Drakgam Dzong	Place
brag sgo	Drakgo	Place
brag sgo rdo ring	Drakgo Doring	Place
brag chag khong kha	Drakchak Khongkha	Place
brag chung dbu rtse	Dragchungwu Tsé	Place
brag mthu bo che	Drak Tuwoché	Place
brag gdong	Drakdong	Place
brag gdong dkar po	Drakdong Karpo	Mountain
brag gdong dbu rtse rdzong	Drak Dongwu Tsé Dzong	Place
brag nag po	Drak Nakpo	Place
brag po	Drakpo	Place
brag po mtsho	Drakpo Tso	Lake
dbang brag phug	Wang Drakpuk	Place
brag bu chung	Drak Buchung	Place
brag sbug rdo ring	Drakbuk Doring	Place
brag dmar ro	Drakmarro	Place
brag gtsang po	Drak Tsangpo	Place
brag gtsug	Draktsuk	Place
brag btsan	Draktsen	Place
brag rtsa	draktsa	Clan
brag ra thar	Drakratar	Place
brag ra thar mon dur	Drakratar Möndur	Place
brag ral lcog	Drakrel Chok	Place
brag la rdzong	Drakla Dzong	Place
brag lung na ba dmar ldeng	Draklung Nawa Mardeng	Place
brag lung nub ma	Draklung Nubma	Place
brag lung lho ma	Draklung Lhoma	Place
brang khog mtsho	Drangkhok Tso	Lake
bral	Drel	Place
bral gdong po	Drel Dongpo	Place
bral gdong po dgon pa byang ma	Drel Dongpo Gönpa Jangma	Place
bral gdong po dgon pa lho ma	Drel Dongpo Gönpa Lhoma	Place
brub ba	Drupwa	Buddhist deity
bla nyung	Lanyung	Place
bla brang	ladrang	Term
bla brang	Ladrang	Place
bla ma	lama	Term
bla ma chos bdag	Lama Chödak	Person
bla mtsho	Latso	Term
bla yi rten	layi ten	Term
bla ri	Lari	Term
blug	Luk	Place
blo gros mtha’ yas	Lodrö Tayé	Person
blo bzang grags pa	Lozang Drakpa	Person
blo bzang bstan pa	Lozang Tenpa	Person
blo bzang bde rgyas gling	Lozang Degyé Ling	Place
blon po gangs ri	Lönpo Gangri	Mountain
blon po rdo ring	Lonpo Doring	Place
bha ta hor	Bhatahor	Place
dbang khang phug	Wangkhang Puk	Place
dbang chu	Wangchu	River
dbang phyug mgon po	Wangchuk Gonpo	Person
dbang phyug mgon po mkhar	Wangchuk Gönpo Khar	Place
dbang phyug rdo rje	Wangchuk Dorjé	Person
dbang brag phug	Wangdrak Puk	Place
dbal chen ge khod gsang ba drag chen gyi bka’ nyan nag mo thugs kyi gsang bsgrub	Welchen Gekhö Sangwa Drakchengyi Kanyen Nagmo Tukkyi Sangdrup	Text
dbu can	Wuchen	Term
dbu sti dgon	Wuti Gön	Monastery
dbu sti dgon pa	Wuti Gönpa	Monastery
dbu rdo	wudo	Term
dbu med	umé	Term
dbu rtse	Wutsé	Place
dbu rtse mkhar	Wutsé Khar	Place
dbu zhwa	wuzha	Term
dbyar sa	yarsa	Term
dbyi lung	Yilung	Place
’ben dkar rde'u	Benkar Deu	Place
’bum gtor mchog mon dur	Bumtor Chok Möndur	Place
’bum pa	bumpa	Term
’bum mtsho	Bumtso	Lake
’bur dkar	Burkar	Place
’bur dkar gzhung	Burkar Zhung	Place
’bur rtse dog	Burtsé Dok	Place
’bur mo	Burmo	Place
’bog gtsang po	Bok Tsangpo	River
byams pa	Jampa	Buddhist deity
byams pa lte lugs	Jampa Teluk	Monastery
’byor khog	Jorkhok	Place
’brang	drang	Term
’bri gung pa	Drigungpa	Organization
’bri gung spyan snga shes rab ’byung gnas	Drigung Chennga Sherap Jungné	Person
’bri byi’u	Dri Jiu	Place
’bri lam	Drilam	Place
’brug pa bka’ brgyud	Drukpa Kagyü	Organization
’brug mo	Drukmo	Person
’brug mo	drukmo	Term
’brug mo’i rdo ring	Drukmö Doring	Place
’brug mo’i sbra yas	Drukmö Trayé	Place
’brug mo’i tshang	Drukmö Tsang	Place
’brug mo’i lu mgo	Drukmö Lugo	Place
’brug gtsang po	Druk Tsangpo	River
’brog pa	drokpa	Term
’brog sa	droksa	Term
’brog lhas	droklhé	Term
’brong	drong	Term
’brong pa	Drongpa	Place
’brong pa dpon gyang shig	Drongpa Pöngyang Shik	Place
’brong pa tsho dgu	Drongpa Tsogu	Place
’bron chung mon dur	Drönchung Möndur	Place
sba kha a ra	Bakha Ara	Place
sba lu	balu	Term
sba lu mkhar	Balu Khar	Place
sbal pa mkhar	Belpa Khar	Place
sbal pa g.yu gdong	Belpa Yudong	Place
sbal ro gtsang po	Belro Tsangpo	Place
sbu ta	Buta	Place
sbug	Buk	Place
sbub stod	Buptö	Place
sbub gzhung gtsang po	Bupzhung Tsangpo	River
sbe ra phug	Bera Puk	Place
sbe ro rtse mtsho	Bero Tsetso	Place
byin brlabs	jinlap	Term
sbyin sreg	jinrek	Term
sbra ’khor rdo	Drankhor Do	Place
sbra nag	dranak	Term
sbrang sne mtsho	Drangné Tso	Lake
sbril khul rde’u po	Drilkhul Deupo	Place
sbrul rgyal	Drülgyel	Person
sbrul chang	Trülchang	Person
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Ma
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
ma	ma	Term
ma ga gtsang po	Maga Tsangpo	River
ma gyung	Magyung	Mountain deity
ma rgyud	magyü	Term
ma ting ting mo	Mating Tingmo	Buddhist deity
ma tri	matri	Term
ma nam	Manam	River
ma nam mkhar	Manam Khar	Place
ma nams	Manam	River
ma ṇi	mani	Term
ma ṇi ’khor lo	mani khorlo	Term
ma ṇi thang mkhar	Mani Tang Khar	Place
ma ṇi lha khang	Mani Lhakhang	Monastery
ma pang	Mapang	Lake
ma pang spos mo mkhar	Mapang Pömo Khar	Place
ma pang spos mo mkhar	Mapang Pömo Khar	Place
ma pham g.yu mtsho	Mapam Yutso	Lake
ma ’byang rdo ring	Manjang Doring	Place
ma mig	Mamik	Place
ma mig brag dkar	Mamik Drak Kar	Place
ma mo rgya lhas rdo ring	Mamogya Doring	Place
ma g.yo	Mayo	Place
ma g.yo rdo ring	Mayo Doring	Place
ma lung mkhar	Malung Khar	Place
ma lhas	Malhé	Place
mang brag	Mangdrak	Place
mang bzhug dgon pa	Mangzhuk Gönpa	Monastery
mang yul	Mangyül	Place
mang yul gung thang	Mangyül Gungtang	Place
mang yul stag mo rdzong	Mangyül Takmo Dzong	Place
mar dkar byu ru mkhar	Markar Juru Khar	Place
mar rked	marké	Term
mar mchod	Marchö	Place
mar mchod	marchö	Term
mar mchod rdo ring	Marchö Doring	Place
mar me	Marmé	Term
mar tshang gtsang po	Martsang Tsangpo	River
mar g.yang	Maryang	Place
mar lung	Marlung	Place
mar lung pa rnam thar	Marlungpa Namtar	Text
mi mgon chos nyid	Migön Chönyi	Place
mi nyag	Minyak	Ethnicity
mi nyag kha che	Minyak Khaché	Person
mi nyag pad ma dbang rgyal	Minyak Pema Wanggyel	Person
mi nyag pad ma dbang rgyal rin po che	Minyak Pema Wanggyel Rinpoché	Person
mi bong	Mibong	Person
mi ro khyu	Miro Kyu	Place
mi la	Mila	Place
mi la ras pa	Milarepa	Person
mi lam khyi lam	Milam Khyilam	Place
mi lhas ’khor mdo	Milhé Khordo	Place
mig sprin	Miktrin	Place
mig sprin gtsang po	Miktrin Tsangpo	River
mig dmar mtsho	Mikmartso	Place
mu ti rong	Muti Rong	Place
mu ting tsa med	Muting Tsamé	Non-buddhist deity
mu ne btsan po	Muné Tsenpo	Person
mu mar thog rgod	Mumar Tokgö	Person
mu tsa med	Mutsamé	Non-buddhist deity
mug gu	mukgu	Term
mug gyam gyi kha la ma	Mukgyamgi Khalama	Buddhist deity
mug gyum	Mukgyum	Place
mur ti	Murti	Place
me sga	Mega	Place
me tog	Metok	Place
me tog gling	Metok Ling	Place
me ’bar rdo ring	Membar Doring	Place
me ri	Meri	Mountain deity
me long mon mkhar	Melong Mön Khar	Place
men thang	Mentang	Place
men thang thang kha	Mentang Tangkha	Place
mer btum pis ma rdo ring	Mertum Pima Doring	Place
mer btum phyug mo	Mertum Chukmo	Place
mer btum phyug mo rdo ring	Mertum Chukmo Doring	Place
mer rtsa tshe thob	Mertsa Tsetop	Person
mes	mé	Term
mes dgra ’dul	Mé Drandül	Person
mes do lha btsan	Medo Lhatsen	Water deity
mes pha bong	Mé Pabong	Buddhist deity
mes tshe dbang	Metsé Wang	Person
mes tshe dbang bstan ’dzin	Mé Tsewang Tendzin	Person
mo	Mo	Buddhist deity
mo kyog rdo ring	Mokyok Doring	Place
mon	Mön	Place
mon	Mön	Ethnicity
mon khang	mönkhang	Term
mon mkhar ser nag	Mönkhar Sernak	Place
mon gyi mkhar	möngyi khar	Term
mon dur	möndur	Term
mon dur lhas	Möndur Lhé	Place
mon rdo	möndo	Term
mon rdo ra	möndo ra	Term
mon nag po	Mön Nakpo	Ethnicity
mon nag rdzong	Mönnak Dzong	Place
mon pa	mönpa	Ethnicity
mon pa nag po	Mönpa Nakpo	Place
mon pa’i dur khung	Mönpé Durkhung	Place
mon pa’i dur khung	mönpé durkhung	Term
mon pa’i rdo ring	Mönpé Doring	Place
mon bu	Mönbu	Place
mon bu rdo ring	Mönbu Doring	Place
mon ’tsher	Möntser	Place
mon ra	Mönra	Place
mon ra	mönra	Term
mon ra yar rked	Mönra Yarké	Place
mon ra yar gan	Mönra Yargen	Place
mon ra’i rdo ring	Mönré Doring	Place
mon lha khang	Mön Lhakhang	Place
myang po ri rdzong	Nyangpo Ri Dzong	Place
dmag dpon	Makpön	Non-buddhist deity
dmag zor rgyal mo	Makzor Gyelpo	Buddhist deity
dmag ra	makra	Term
dmar khug bkra shis stobs rgyal	Markhuk Trashi Topgyel	Person
dmar gyam	Margyam	Place
dmar ldebs	Mardep	Place
dmar ldebs nub ma	Mandep Nupma	Place
dmar po dam phyog	Marpo Damchok	Mountain
dmar sbug rdo ring	Marbuk Doring	Place
dmar mo	Marmo	Place
dmar rong	Marrong	Place
dmu	mu	Term
dmu mkhar	mukhar	Term
dmu tsha gyer med	Mutsa Gyermé	Person
dmu shod kram	Mushö Tram	Person
dmu shod tram chen	Mushö Tramchen	Person
rma ston shes rab seng ge	Matön Sherap Senggé	Person
rma bya kha ’babs	Maja Khabap	River
rma bya gtsang po	Maja Tsangpo	River
rmigs pa mkhar ru	Mikpa Kharru	Place
rmo khyu mtsho	Mokyu Tso	Lake
smad pa	Mepa	Place
smad pa gtsang po	Mepa Tsangpo	River
sman	men	Term
sman gyi rgyal mo stag ri rong	Mengyi Gyelmo Takri Rong	Place
sman lcam dkar mo	Mencham Karmo	Place
sman chu	Menchu	Place
sman bla	Menla	Person
sman bla pho brang	Menla Podrang	Place
sman dha ra	Mendhara	Place
sman rtsis	Mentsi	Place
sman ri	Menri	Monastery
sman ri khri 'dzin dpon gsas bla ma	Menri Tridzin Ponsé Lama	Person
sman ri sprul sku	Menri Trülku	Person
smar ca la can	Marcha Lachen	Place
smar ca’a	Marcha	Place
smu	mu	Term
smu kyu gtsang po	Mukyu Tsangpo	River
smu skyu mtsho	Mukyu Tso	Lake
smu mkhar	Mukhar	Place
smug dkar	Mukkar	Mountain
smug dkar gangs ri	Mukkar Gangri	Mountain
smon lam rdo ring	Mönlam Doring	Place
smon lam rdzong	Mönlam Dzong	Place
smyug ri	Nyukri	Place
smyon pa lhas	Nyönpa Lhé	Place
smyon pa lhas rdo ring	Nyönpa Lhé Doring	Place
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Tsa
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
tsa tsa med	Tsatsa Mé	Non-buddhist deity
tsan rag	Tsenrak	Place
gtsang	Tsang	Place
gtsang lha phu dar	Tsanglha Pudar	Mountain
gtsug gi mon dur	Tsukgi Möndur	Place
gtsug phud tshul khrims	Tsukpü Tsültrim	Person
gtsug lag khang	Tsuklakkhang	Term
gtsug ser ra	Tsuk Serra	Place
gtso rde’u mgo	Tso Deugo	Place
btsag tig	Tsaktik	Place
btsag tig rkyang khra	Tsaktik Kyangtra	Mountain deity
btsan	tsen	Term
btsan khang	tsenkhang	Term
btsan sgo	Tsengo	Place
btsan sgo rdo ring	Tsengo Doring	Place
btsan rdo	Tsendo	Place
btsan po	tsenpo	Term
btsan ri	Tsenri	Place
btsan lha’i mkhar	Tsenlhé Khar	Place
btsun mo bka’ thang	Tsünmo Katang	Text
btsog gi mon dur	Tsokgi Möndur	Place
rtsa chu	Tsachu	Place
rtsa mda’	Tsamda	Place
rtsa ma	Tsama	Place
rtsa rang	Tsarang	Place
rtsan la	Tsen La	Place
rtsa’i bla ma mkhyen	tsawé lama khyen	Term
rtsi rtsid	tsitsi	Term
rtsi rtsid mon ra’i thang kha	Tsitsi Mönré Tangka	Place
rtsid ra mon dur	Tsira Möndur	Place
rtse mda’	Tsemda	Place
rtse sprul thub bstan rgyal mtshan	Tsetrül Thupten Gyeltsen	Author
rtse bla	Tsela	Non-buddhist deity
rtswa med god sa mon dur	Tsamé Gösa Möndur	Place
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Tsha
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
tsha gnyer dmar ’bur mon khang	Tsanyer Marmbur Mönkhang	Place
tsha tsha	tsa tsa	Term
tsham tid	Tsamti	Place
tshar skam byang ma rdo ring	Tsarkam Jangma Doring	Place
tshe dpag med	Tsepakmé	Buddhist deity
tshe ring chos ’phel	Tsering Chömpel	Person
tshe ring lhun grub	Tsering	Person
tsho pa	tsopa	Term
tshogs gsum	Tsoksum	Place
tshogs gsum rdo ring	Tsoksum Doring	Place
tshul ’od	Tsül Ö	Person
tshwa skam	Tsakam	Place
tshwa kha	Tsakha	Place
tshwa kha mon khang	Tsakha Mönkhang	Place
tshwa kha tshwa mtsho	Tsakha Tsatso	Lake
tshwa khang	Tsakhang	Place
tshwa chu	Tsachu	River
tshwa po rde’u ’bur	Tsapo Deumbur	Place
tshwa tshwa	Tsatsa	Term
tshwa tshwa kha	Tsatsa Kha	Lake
tshwa tshwa khang	tsa tsa khang	Term
tshwa ri lung	Tsari Lung	Place
tshwa ri lung mon dur	Tsari Lung Möndur	Place
mtshams pa kun dga’ rdo rje	Tsampa Künga Dorjé	Person
mtshe lung	Tselung	Place
mtsher	Tser	Place
mtsher mo rong	Tsermo Rong	Place
mtsher lung mkhar nag	Tserlung Kharnak	Place
mtsho ka ba	Tso Kawa	Lake
mtsho skor	tsokor	Term
mtsho gling gi do	Tsolinggi Do	Place
mtsho sngon mo	Tso Ngonmo	Lake
mtsho chen	Tsochen	Lake
mtsho gnyis	Tsonyi	Lake
mtsho do	Tsodo	Place
mtsho do mon dur	Tsodo Möndur	Place
mtsho sdad spal	Tso Depel	Lake
mtsho byang	Tsojang	Place
mtsho ma pang	Tso Mapang	Lake
mtsho ma pham	Tso Mapam	Lake
mtsho mo ngang la ring mtsho	Tsomo Ngangla Ringtso	Lake
mtsho lho	Tsolho	Place
’tsher lung	Tserlung	Place
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Dza
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
dzam bha la	Dzambhala	Buddhist deity
dza’u	Dzau	Place
mdzo mo ru rdzong	Dzomo Rudzong	Place
mdzo mo lung	Dzomo Lung	Place
mdzo mo lung ra khra bo	Dzomo Lungra Trawo	Place
’dzam gling gangs rgyal ti se’i dkar chag tshangs dbyangs yid phrog	Dzamling Ganggyel Tisé Karchak Tsangyang Yitrok	Article
’dzi bon dbang grub	Dzibön Wangdrup	Person
’dzeng dkar	dzengkar	Term
’dzog gdong	Dzokdong	Place
rdza dkar	Dzakar	Place
rdza tshogs	Dzatsok	Place
rdza tshogs rdo ring	Dzatsok Doring	Place
rdza ra dkar gyam mon rdo	Dzara Kargyam Möndo	Place
rdza ri sgo	Dzari Go	Place
rdza ri rag pa	Dzari Rakpa	Place
rdzing	dzing	Term
rdzing rul	Dzingrül	Place
rdzu ’phrul	Dzuntrül	Place
rdzu ’phrul phug	Dzuntrül Puk	Place
rdzu ’phrul ye shes	Dzuntrül Yeshé	Person
rdzogs chen	dzokchen	Term
rdzogs pa chen po yang rtse klong chen	Dzokpa Chenpo Yangtsé Longchen	Text
rdzogs pa chen po yang rtse klong chen gyi sngon ’gro’i gsol ’debs	Dzokpa Chenpo Yangtsé Longchengyi Ngöndrö Söldep	Text
rdzong	dzong	Term
rdzong dkar	Dzongkar	Place
rdzong dkar po	Dzong Karpo	Place
rdzong chu	Dzong Chu	River
rdzong chen	Dzongchen	Place
rdzong nag	Dzongnak	Place
rdzong pi phi	Dzong Pipi	Place
rdzong dpon	dzongpön	Term
rdzong dmar	Dzongmar	Place
rdzong ri	Dzongri	Place
rdzong lung	Dzonglung	Place
rdzong ser	Dzongser	Place
brdzi gdan	Dziden	Place
brdzi gdan chung ba	Dziden Chungwa	Place
brdzi gdan chung ba mon dur	Dziden Chungwa Möndur	Place
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Zha
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
zha sgo	Zhago	Place
zha ye mkhar	Zhayé Khar	Place
zha lung	Zhalung	Place
zha lung rdo ring	Zhalung Doring	Place
zhags pa	zhakpa	Term
zhang zhung	Zhang Zhung	Place
zhang zhung snyan rgyud	Zhang Zhung Nyengyü	Term
zhang zhung snyan rgyud bla ma’i rnam thar	Zhang Zhung Nyengyü Lamé Namtar	Text
zhang zhung pa	Zhang Zhungpa	Ethnicity
zhang zhung me ri	Zhang Zhung Meri	Text
zhang zhung me ri’i gsas mkhar khro bo bskyed mi dgos pa’i gzhung	Zhang Zhung Meri Sekhar Trowo Kyé Mi Göpé Zhung	Text
zhang zhung rig gnas	Zhang Zhung Rikné	Text
zhabs dkar	Zhapkar	Person
zhabs dkar sgrub phug	Zhapkar Druppuk	Place
zhabs dkar mchod rten	Zhapkar Chöten	Place
zhabs dkar dur khrod	Zhapkar Durtrö	Place
zhabs dkar po tshogs drug rang grol	Zhapkar Tsokdruk Rangdröl	Person
zhabs rjes	Zhapjé	Place
zhabs rjes	zhapjé	Term
zhabs phyi	zhapchi	Term
zhi khro	zhitro	Term
zhi bde	Zhidé	Place
zhing ka gong	Zhing Khagong	Place
zhing mkhar mkhar gog	Zhingkhar Khargok	Place
zhing chen mon mkhar	Zhingchen Mönkhar	Place
zhing chen mon rdo	Zhingchen Möndo	Place
zhing ra	Zhingra	Place
zhing ra	zhingra	Term
zhing lung rdo ring	Zhinglung Doring	Place
zhing sa	Zhingsa	Place
zhing sa	zhingsa	Term
zhing sa rdo ring	Zhingsa Doring	Place
zhun ma’i mdo	Zhunmé Do	Place
zhol	Zhöl	Place
gzhi ma	zhima	Term
gzhis ka rtse	Zhikatsé	Place
gzhis ma byang ma	Zhima Jangma	Place
gzhis ma lho ma	Zhima Loma	Place
gzhung chu	Zhungchu	Place
gzhung pa	Zhungpa	Place
gzhung pa ma mtshan	Zhungpa Matsen	Place
gzhung smad	Zhungmé	Place
gzhung sa	Zhungsa	Place
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Za
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
za za	Zaza	Place
za rang	Zarang	Place
za rang mkhar rtse	Zarang Khartsé	Place
za rang gtsang po	Zarang Tsangpo	River
zang pi pi	Zang Pipi	Person
zang pei pei	Zang Peipei	Person
zang zang	Zangzang	Place
zang zang lha brag	Zangzang Lhadrang	Place
zangs gdong	Zangdong	Place
zangs gdong mon rdo	Zangdong Möndo	Place
zi cha nub ma	Zicha Nupma	Mountain
zi cha mon khang	Zicha Mönkhang	Place
zi leng mtsho	Zileng Tso	Lake
zla ba mtsho	Dawa Tso	Lake
zla tshes	datsé	Term
zla gzhung	Dazhung	Place
zlum zlum mchod rten	Dumdum Chöten	Place
gzan	zen	Term
gzi	zi	Term
gzig rong	Zikrong	Place
gzims phug	Zimpuk	Place
gzims phug mtsho	Zimpuk Tso	Lake
bzang po	Zangpo	Person
bza’	Za	Clan
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’a
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
’a ’go rdo ring	Ango Doring	Place
’a ser chung rdo ring	A Serchung Doring	Place
’a lhas mon dur	Alhé Möndur	Place
’u ru mtsho	Uru Tso	Place
’ug pa lung	Ukpa Lung	Place
’ug pa lung rdo ring	Ukpa Lung Doring	Place
’ur stod	Urtö	Place
’ur smad	Urmé	Place
’o ma	Oma	Place
’o ma dkar chung	Oma Karchung	Place
’o ma rdo ring	Oma Doring	Place
’o ma tshe	Oma Tsé	Place
’o ma tshe rdo ring	Omatsé Doring	Place
’o ma mtsho	Oma Tso	Lake
’o bzang gro gdong	Ozang Drodong	Person
’og khang	okkhang	Term
’od srung	Ö Sung	Person
’od gsal phug	Ösel Puk	Place
’om bu	Ombu	Term
’om bu	Ombu	Place
’om bu thang bzang	Ombu Tangzang	Place
’om bu rdzong	Ombu Dzong	Place
’om bu zhang zhung	Ombu Zhang Zhung	Monastery
’om bu zhang zhung dgon pa	Ombu Zhang Zhung Gönpa	Place
’om bu ’og khang	Ombu Ogkhang	Place
’om mo	Ommo	Place
’om lung	Omlung	Place
’om long	Omlong	Place
’or mo sgang	Ormo Gang	Place
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Ya
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
ya ngal	Yangel	Clan
ya ngal yang ston chen po shes rab rgyal mtshan	Yangel Yangtön Chenpo Sherap Gyeltsen	Person
ya la	Yala	Place
yag ra	Yakra	Place
yang ston shes rab rgyal mtshan	Yangtön Sherap Gyeltsen	Person
yar rked	yarké	Term
yar kha la	Yarkhala	Place
yar lang	Yarlang	Place
yar lung	Yarlung	Dynasty
yar lung gtsang po	Yarlung Tsangpo	River
yid rtse mkhar	Yitsé Khar	Place
yid rtse mkhar rdo ring	Yitsé Khar Doring	Place
yu kham bu	Yukhambu	Place
yul kham bu	Yül Khambu	Place
yul stod	Yültö	Place
yul smad	Yülmé	Place
yul lung	Yüllung	Place
yul lha	yüllha	Term
ye shes khyung ri	Yeshé Khyungri	Place
ye shes tshul khrims	Yeshé Tsültrim	Person
ye shes mtsho rgyal phug	Yeshé Tsogyel	Place
yen rtse mkhar	Yentsé Khar	Place
yor chu	Yorchu	Place
g.yag pa	Yakpa	Place
g.yag tshang	Yaktsang	Place
g.yang rdo	yangdo	Term
g.yang sde	Yangdé	Place
g.yang lung rdo ring	Yanglung Doring	Place
g.ya’ kyi ma	yakyima	Term
g.ya’ bcud	Yachü	Place
g.ya’ bcud rdo ring	Yachü Doring	Place
g.ya’ bcud brag phug	Yachü Drakpuk	Place
g.ya’ bcud mtshams khang	Yachü Tsamkhang	Place
g.ya’ sbra khrigs	Yadra Trik	Place
g.ya’ ma mchod rten	Yama Chöten	Place
g.yu kha	Yukha	Person
g.yu bun	Yubün	Monastery
g.yu bun sprul sku	Yubün Trülku	Person
g.yu ’brug	Yundruk	Place
g.yu ’brug btsan rdzong	Yumdruk Tsen Dzong	Place
g.yu sbug tshwa kha	Yubuk Tsakha	Place
g.yu mtsho	Yutso	Place
g.yung drung bkod pa	Yungdrung Köpa	Place
g.yung drung ’khyil ba	Yungdrung Khyilwa	Place
g.yung drung mchog steng	Yungdrung Chokteng	Monastery
g.yung drung brag rtse	Yungdrung Draktsé	Place
g.yung drung bstan 'dzin	Yungdrung Tendzin	Person
g.yung drung brtsegs pa	Yungdrung Tsekpa	Monastery
g.yung drung tshul khrims	Yungdrung Tsültrim	Person
g.yung drung lha rtse	Yungdrung Lhatsé	Place
g.yen dmar khams	Yenmar Kham	Place
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Ra
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
ra kha	Rakha	Place
ra kha shag mon gyi mkhar	Ra Khashak Möngyi Khar	Place
ra gra	ratra	Place
ra gra ’khor rdo	Radra Khordo	Place
ra gra ’khor rdo mon dur	Radra Khordo Möndur	Place
ra gra ’khor rdo mon dur	Radra Khordo Möndur	Place
ra chen	Rachen	Place
ra bang	Rawang	Place
ra ma	Rama	Place
ra ma gyam	Rama Gyam	Place
ra ma do	Rama Do	Place
ra mo rgya mo	Ramo Gyamo	Buddhist deity
ra mo che	Ramoché	Place
ra ru gtsug	Raru Tsuk	Place
ra la mkhar	Rala Khar	Place
ra la mkhar dmar	Rala Kharmar	Place
ra ser khog rdo ring	Ra Serkhok Doring	Place
rag kha shag	Rakkhashak	Place
rag kha shag mon gyi mkhar	Rakkhashak Möngyi Khar	Place
rag sder	Rakder	Place
rag gtsug	Raktsuk	Place
rang	rang	Term
rang byung rdo rje	Rangjung Dorjé	Person
rang byon	rangjön	Term
rab	Rap	Person
rab rgyas gling	Rapgyé Ling	Monastery
rab byung	rapjung	Term
ras chung pa	Rechungpa	Person
ras chung pa phug	Rechungpa Puk	Place
ras chung ba rdo rje grags	Rechungpa Dorjé Drak	Person
ras chen phug	Rechen Puk	Place
ri	ri	Term
ri skor	Rikor	Term
ri gong	Rigong	Place
ri rgyal	Rigyel	Place
ri rgyal mon dur	Rigyel Möndur	Place
ri jo ba	Ri Jowa	Term
ri jo ba khang pa	Ri Jowa Khangpa	Place
ri lti	Riti	Place
ri lti sgang	Riti Gang	Place
ri lti sgang mkhar	Riti Gangkhar	Place
ri sti gang	Riti Gang	Place
ri mthil gtsug	Ritil Tsuk	Mountain
ri mthil gtsug mon dur	Ritil Tsuk Möndur	Place
ri sde	Ridé	Place
ri ba	Riwa	Place
ri ba chu	Riwa Chu	River
ri ba mon mkhar	Riwa Mönkhar	Place
ri bo bkra bzang	Riwo Trazang	Mountain
ri bong mkhar ru	Ribong Kharru	Place
ri dmar	Rimar	Place
ri rtse rgyab	Ritsé Gyap	Place
ri rtse rgyab mkhar	Ritsé Gyapkhar	Place
ri ’dzin mon dur	Rindzin Möndur	Place
ri ra ser mon dur	Ri Raser Möndur	Place
ri rung	Rirung	Place
ri rung mon dur	Rirung Möndur	Place
ri shi	Rishi	Place
ri gsum	Risum	Place
ri lhun po	Ri Lhunpo	Place
rig ’dzin rgod ldem ’phru	Rindzin Gödem Tru	Person
rig ’dzin chos ’phel	Rindzin Chömpel	Person
rig ’dzin chos ’phel	Rindzin Chömpel	Author
rig ’dzin rdo rje	Rindzin Dorjé	Person
rig ’dzin rig pa’i thugs rgyud	Rindzin Rikpé Thukgyü	Text
rig ’dzin pad ma ’gyur med	Rindzin Pema Gyurmé	Person
rigs lnga do	Riknga Do	Place
rigs gsum mgon po	Riksum Gönpo	Buddhist deity
ring	ring	Term
ring pa	Ringpa	Place
rin chen chu ’ded rdo ring	Rinchen Chundé Doring	Place
ri’u gyam chung	Riu Gyamchung	Place
ri’u dgon pa	Riu Gönpa	Place
ri’u gdon pa	Riu Gönpa	Place
ri’u tshang	riu tsang	Term
ri’u am chung dgon pa	Riu Amchung Gönpa	Monastery
ru	ru	Term
ru kyu	Rukyu	Place
ru skyog	Rukyok	Place
ru skyog gtsang po	Rukyok Tsangpo	River
ru skyog	Rukyok	Place
ru skyog gtsang po	Rukyok Tsangpo	River
ru thog	Rutok	Place
ru thog khyung rdzong dkar po	Rutok Khyungdzong Karpo	Place
ru thog rnying pa	Rutok Nyingpa	Place
ru thog gnam rdzong	Rutok Namdzong	Place
ru thog rdzong	Rutok Dzong	Monastery
ru thog rdzong ri	Rutok Dzongri	Place
ru thog bshan pa’i mkhar	Rutok Shanpé Khar	Place
ru thog seng ge rdzong	Rutok Senggé Dzong	Place
ru ’thor	Runtor	Place
ru bzhi	ruzhi	Term
ru la	Rula	Place
ru la mkhar	Rula Khar	Place
ru la mkhar gog po	Rulakhar Gokpo	Place
ru gsum	Rusum	Place
rug	ruk	Term
rus sbal smug po	Rübel Mukpo	Place
re co	Reco	Place
ro khung	Rokhung	Place
ro bas sa	Rowesa	Place
ro lang	rolang	Term
rog gsum	Roksum	Place
rong	Rong	Place
rong	rong	Term
rong mgo	Ronggo	Place
rong mgo mon dur	Ronggo Möndur	Place
rong rgyud	Ronggyü	Place
rong chung	Rongchung	Place
rong rde’u dkar po	Rongdeu Karpo	Place
rong pa	Rongpa	Place
rong pa	Rongpa	Ethnicity
rong dmar	Rongmar	Place
rong lung	Ronglung	Place
rong lha rgyal mtshan	Ronglha Gyeltsen	Place
rong lha rgyal mtshan mon khang	Ronglha Gyeltsen Mönkhang	Place
rwa skye brag	Rakye Drak	Place
rwa ’brog ’phrang	Randrok Trang	Place
rwa ’brog ’phrang sgo	Randrok Pranggo	Place
rwa ’brog mtsho	Randrok Tso	Lake
rlung rta	lungta	Term
Back to the Top
La
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
la rgan mdo	Lagen Do	Place
la ngag mtsho	Langak Tso	Lake
la lnga mtsho	Langa Tso	Lake
la snga mtsho	Langa Tso	Lake
la stod	Latö	Place
la stod lho ma	Latö Lhoma	Place
la dwags	Ladak	Place
la dwags rgyal rabs	Ladak Gyelrap	Text
la dwags pa	Ladakpa	Ethnicity
la na mo	la namo	Term
la btsas	latsé	Term
la rtse	Latsé	Place
lag skor mtsho	Lakkor Tso	Lake
lag tshang rdo ring	Laktsang Doring	Place
lan tsha	lentsa	Term
lam lung	lamlung	Place
lam lung rdo ring	Lamlung Doring	Place
las dkar nag	Lékarnak	Place
las yor	Leyor	Place
lig mi rgya	Likmi Gya	Person
lig mi(g) rgya	Likmi(k) Gya	Person
lig mi(g) rhya	Likmi(k) Hya	Person
lu sngon	Lungön	Place
lu ma dkar mo	Luma Karmo	Place
lu ma brag dkar	Luma Drakkar	Place
lu ma brag mon dur	Luma Drak Möndur	Place
lu ma ar chung rdo ring	Luma Archung Doring	Place
lug thug ’phrang	Luktuk Prang	Place
lug do	Lukdo	Place
lug rdo	Lukdo	Place
lug rdo spungs lhas	Lukdo Punglé	Place
lug rdo mon dur khung	Lukdo Möndur Khung	Place
lu ring sna kha	Luring Nakha	Place
lug lag	Luklak	Mountain
lung dkar	Lungkar	Place
lung ngag	Lung Ngak	Place
lung bstan phug	Lungten Puk	Place
lung pa rag pa mkhar	Lungpa Rakpa Khar	Place
lung phug	Lung Puk	Place
lung smad	Lungmé	Place
lung gsum	Lungsum	Place
legs bshad mdzod	Lekshé Dzö	Text
lo chen rin chen bzang po	Lochen Rinchen Zangpo	Person
lo bo	Lowo	Place
lo bo bde chen	Lowo Dechen	Monastery
lo tsa ba rin chen bzang po	Lotsawa Rinchen Zangpo	Person
lo ro rdo ring	Loro Doring	Place
lor phug	Lorpuk	Place
glog phug mtsho	Lokpuktso	Place
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Sha
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
sha khog la	Shakhokla	Place
sha do	Sha Do	Place
sha phag rdo ring	Shapak Doring	Place
sha ba gdong lha khang	Shawa Dong Lhakhang	Place
sha ba brag	Shawa Drak	Place
sha ma la	Shamala	Place
sha ri gnam rdzong	Shari Namdzong	Mountain
sha ro mon dur	Sharo Möndur	Place
sha sha dpal khang	Shasha Pelkhang	Place
shag gang mtho po rdo ring	Shakgang Topo Doring	Place
shag gang mtho po rdo ring	Shakgang Topo Doring	Place
shag sde	Shakdé	Place
shag sde mon dur	Shakdé Möndur	Place
shang	Shang	Place
shang klu’i pho brang mon mkhar	Shanglü Podrang Mönkhar	Place
shang dgon pa	Shang Gönpa	Place
shang rdo ring	Shang Doring	Place
shang pa	Shangpa	Place
shang pa mgon po	Shangpa Gönpo	Person
shang rtse	Shangtsé	Place
shang rtse mkhar	Shangtsé Khar	Place
shang rtse bon mkhar	Shangtsé Bönkhar	Place
shang rab brtan byams pa gling	Shangrap Tenjampa Ling	Monastery
shangs rin po che	Shang Rinpoché	Person
shan	Shen	Place
shanti pa rnam thar	Shantipa Namtar	Text
shan rtsa	Shentsa	Place
sha’u la	Shau La	Place
shar ’khor ba	Shankhorwa	Place
shar sna	Shankhorwa	Place
shar ma	Sharma	Place
shar ma rdo ring	Sharma Doring	Place
shar rtse	Shartsé	Mountain
shar lang	Sharlang	Place
shar lang mkhar	Sharlang Khar	Place
shar sha rdo ring	Sharsha Doring	Place
shi ri mon mkhar	Shiri Mönkhar	Place
shis bzhad	Shizhé	Place
shis shed	Shishé	Place
she rang	Sherang	Place
she rang mkhar gog	Sherang Khargok	Place
she rang mkhar lung	Sherang Kharlung	Place
she rang chu	Sherang Chu	Place
she rang sna kha shar ma	Sherang Nekha Sharma	Place
shel gangs lcam	Shel Gangcham	Mountain deity
shel rgyung	Shelgyung	Mountain
shel did	Shedi	Place
shel ’dra	Shendra	Place
shel phug	Shelpuk	Place
shes rab bzang po	Sherap Zangpo	Person
sho kram phug	Shotram Puk	Place
sho khram phug	Shotram Puk	Place
sho lo phug	Sholopuk	Place
shog pa	shokpa	Term
shong	Shong	Place
shong rdo ra	Shongdo Ra	Place
shod kram phug	Shötram Puk	Place
shod tram	Shötram	Person
shod tram phug	Shötram Puk	Place
shol lo phug	Shollo Puk	Place
gshang	shang	Term
gsham gdong brag mkhar	Shamdong Drakkhar	Place
gsham zha rdo ring	Shamzha Doring	Place
gshen	shen	Term
gshen rab	Shenrap	Person
bshag sgom tshul khrims	Shakgom Tsültrim	Person
bshag sgom tshul khrims rgyal mtshan	Shakgom Tsültrim Gyeltsen	Person
bshag bsangs	Shaksang	Place
bshad ’phel gling	Shenpel Ling	Monastery
bshan mdo g.ya’ dmar	Shendo Yamar	Mountain
bshan pa	Shenpa	Person
bshan pa sme ru rtse	Shenpa Merutsé	Person
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Sa
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
sa dkar	sakar	Term
sa bkra rdo ring	Satra Doring	Place
sa skya	Sakya	Organization
sa skya pa	Sakyapa	Organization
sa dga’	Saga	Place
sa nyal rdo ring	Sanyel Doring	Place
sa ti	Sati	Place
sa thel nag po	Satel Nakpo	Mountain deity
sa bdag	sadak	Term
sa sna dmar ri rdo ring	Sana Marri Doring	Place
sa phag	sapak	Term
sa mig mon dur	Samik Möndur	Place
sa yi lha mo	Sayi Lhamo	Buddhist deity
sa rā	Sara	Place
sa lhas	Salhé	Place
sa lung khang ro	Salung Khangro	Mountain
sa lung chu	Salung Chu	River
sa lung mon dur	Salung Möndur	Place
sa le phug	Salé Puk	Place
sag thi rdo ring	Sakti Doring	Place
sag thil	Saktil	Place
sag the	Sakté	Place
sag the rdo ring	Sakte Doring	Place
sangs rgyas sku stong	Sanggyé Kutong	Buddhist deity
sangs rgyas gnyan po	Sanggyé Nyenpo	Person
sangs rgyas sman bla pho brang	Sanggyé Menla Podrang	Mountain
sangs dar chu	Sangdar Chu	River
sangs dar jo	Sangdar Jo	Mountain deity
sad ne ga’u sgrub phug	Sené Gau Druppuk	Place
sa’u gtsang po	Sau Tsangpo	River
sing pa	Singpa	Ethnicity
sing pa a tsa ra	Singpa Atsara	Buddhist deity
su yag	Suyak	Place
sum pa	Sumpa	Place
sum sbug rdo ring	Sumbuk Doring	Place
se chung	Sechung	Place
se mo	Semo	Place
se mo do	Semodo	Place
se mo sman thang	Semo Mentang	Place
se zhig	Sezhik	Place
se ra rje	Sera Jé	Monastery
se rib ’brug mo rdzong	Serip Drukmo Dzong	Place
se ro	Sero	Clan
se le	Selé	Place
se le phug	Selé Puk	Place
seng ’khor byang ma rdo ring	Sengkhor Jangma Doring	Place
seng ge rdo ring	Senggé Doring	Place
seng ge rnam rgyal	Senggé Namgyel	Person
seng ge gtsang po	Senggé Tsangpo	River
seng ge lung	Senggé Lung	Place
seng smad	Sengmé	Place
ser gling mtsho	Serling Tso	Lake
ser sgam mon dur	Sergam Möndur	Place
ser ’bras la	Sendré La	Place
ser do khang chen	Serdo Khangchen	Place
ser tshogs rdo ring	Sertsok Doring	Place
ser mdzod rdzong	Serdzö Dzong	Place
ser ris ris	Ser Riri	Place
ser lung	Serlung	Place
ser leb mon rdo	Serlep Möndo	Place
so khang	sokhang	Term
sog	Sok	Place
sog	Sok	Ethnicity
sog rgyab ri	Sokgyap Ri	Mountain
sog lcam khang	Sokcham Khang	Place
sog po	Sokpo	Place
sog po	Sokpo	Ethnicity
sog po sde bdun	Sokpo Dedün	Clan
sog po rnam sras	Sokpo Namsé	Person
syam	syam	Term
sra brtan mkhar	Saten Khar	Place
sri	Saten Khar	Term
sri khung	sikhung	Term
sri thar tshe ring	Sritar Tsering	Person
srid gsum	sisum	Term
srid pa chags pa’i khang pa	sipa chakpé khangpa	Term
srid pa chags pa’i rdo ring	sipa chakpé doring	Term
srid pa dre ma khod	Sipa Drema Khö	Person
srid pa dre ma khod	Sipa Dremakhö	Author
srid pa gsum	sipa sum	Term
srid pa’i rdo ring	sipé doring	Term
srin	sin	Term
srin po	sinpo	Term
srin po ’khrugs pa’i gling	sinpo drukpé ling	Term
srin po snying chu	Sinpo Nyingchu	Place
srin po’i rdzong	Sinpo Dzong	Place
srin mo	sinmo	Term
srin mo do	Sinmodo	Place
srin mo mdung ’khyer	Sinmo Dunkhyer	Place
srin mo rdzong	Sinmo Dzong	Place
srin ya	Sinya	Place
srib ra	Sipra	Place
srib ra rdo ring	Sipra Doring	Place
srib lung	Siplung	Place
srib lung chu	Siplung Chu	River
srung mdud	sungdü	Term
srung ma	sungma	Term
srung ma dmar nag	Sungma Marnak	Buddhist deity
srog shing	sokshing	Term
slang nga	langnga	Term
sle mi	Lemi	Place
sle dmar byang	Lemar Jang	Place
slob dpon	loppön	Term
slob dpon sgrub phug	Loppön Druppuk	Place
slob dpon bstan ’dzin rnam dag	Loppön Tendzin Namdak	Person
slob dpon phug	Loppön Puk	Place
slob dpon pad ma ’byung gnas	Loppön Pema Jungné	Person
gsang gling me ri dzwa this	Sangling Meri Dzati	Text
gsang sngags gling pa	Sangngak Lingpa	Author
gsang sngags gling pa	Sangngak Lingpa	Person
gsar ma	sarma	Term
gsas	sé	Term
gsas khang	sekhang	Term
gsas mkhar	sekhar	Term
gsas lhas	Selhé	Place
gsas lhas mon khang	Selhé Mönkhang	Place
gsung bum	Sungbum	Text
gser kha	Serkha	Place
gser mkhar grags pa’i gtsug lag khang	Serkhar Drakpé Tsuklakkhang	Place
gser gling mtsho	Serling Tso	Lake
ser sgam	Sergam	Place
ser sgam mkhar	Sergam Khar	Place
ser sgam mon dur	Sergam Möndur	Place
gser nya	Sernya	Place
gser gzhung mkhar gog	Serzhung Khargok	Place
gser gzhung chu	Serzhung Chu	River
gser lung	Serlung	Place
gsol ba	sölwa	Term
bsang khang	sangkhang	Term
bsang mkhar	Sangkhar	Place
bsang mkhar la	Sangkhar La	Place
bsam grub	Samdrup	Person
bsam grub khyung rdzong	Samdrup Khyung Dzong	Place
bsam gtan rin chen	Samten Rinchen	Person
bsam do dmar ri	Samdo Marri	Place
bsam phug	sampuk	Place
bsam rdzong brag dkar	Sem	Place
bsam rdzong brag mkhar	Semdzong Drakkar	Place
bsam yas	Samyé	Monastery
bse	se	Term
bse ’khor lho ma	Sekhor Lhoma	Term
bse khrab	Setrap	Buddhist deity
bse khrab mtshams khang	Setrap Tsamkhang	Place
bse ’khor	Senkhor	Place
bse ’khor byang ma rdo ring	Senkhor Jangma Doring	Place
bso med gtsang po	Somé Tsangpo	River
bsod nams dar rgyas	Sönam Dargyé	Person
bsod nams rdo rje	Sönam Dorjé	Author
bsod nams nor rgyal	Sönam Norgyel	Person
bsle kham pa rdo ring	Lekhampa Doring	Place
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Ha
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
ha la	Hala	Place
ha la mkhar	Hala Khar	Place
ha la rgyal po	Hala Gyelpo	Buddhist deity
ha sag ka	Hasakka	Clan
hang dal rdzong	Hangdel Dzong	Place
har shu	Harshu	Clan
hum	hum	Term
hur	Hur	Place
hor	Hor	Place
hor	Hor	Ethnicity
hor gur ser rgyal po	Hor Gurser Gyelpo	Person
hor chus	Horchu	Place
hor dug rdo ring	Horduk Doring	Place
hor pa	Horpa	Place
hor pa	Horpa	Ethnicity
hor yul	Horyül	Place
hri pa gyer med	Hripa Gyermé	Person
hru gyu	Hugyu	Place
hrom po dpal	Rompo Pel	Mountain
lha	lha	Term
lha dkar	Lhakar	Place
lha khang	lhakhang	Term
lha khang dkar po	Lhakhang Karpo	Place
lha khang gog po	Lhakhang Gokpo	Place
lha khang brgya rtsa	Lhakhang Gyatsa	Place
lha khang dmar chag	Lhakhang Marchak	Place
lha khang dmar po	Lhakhang Marpo	Place
lha khang rtse	Lhakhang Tsé	Place
lha rgod	Lhagö	Buddhist deity
lha lcam ’phrul dgu sgyur ma	Lhacham Trülgu Gyurma	Person
lha chu	Lhachu	River
lha rten	lhaten	Term
lha tho	lhato	Term
lha ’dre	Lhandré	Term
lha ’dre phug	Lhandré Puk	Place
lha sde	lhadé	Term
lha pa	lhapa	Term
lha mo 'brug mo	Lhamo Drukmo	Person
lha mo ’brug mo’i khang	Lhamo Drukmö Khang	Place
lha mo rdzong	Lhamo Dzong	Place
lha sman	lhamen	Term
lha gtsug	lhatsuk	Term
lha rtse	Lhatsé	Place
lha ri	lhari	Term
lha ri brag dkar	Lhari Drakkar	Mountain
lha ris sgrub phug	Lhari Druppuk	Place
lha lung	Lhalung	Place
lha lung chu	Lhalung Chu	River
lha lung dgon pa	Lhalung Gönpa	Place
lha lung sgrub phug	Lhalung Druppuk	Place
lha lung rdo ring	Lhalung Doring	Place
lha lung brag dkar	Lhalung Drak Kar	Place
lha lung brag dkar gsang ba’i gnas	Lhalung Drakkar Sangwé Né	Place
lha shing	lhashing	Term
lha sa	Lhasa	Place
lha gsol	lhasöl	Term
lhag mthong pa	Lhaktongpa	Place
lhag tshang	Lhaktsang	Place
lhag tshang rdo ring	Lhaktsang Doring	Place
lhas kha	lhakha	Term
lhas ra	lhera	Term
lhas ra byang ma	Lhera jangma	Place
lhas ra lho ma	Lhera Lhoma	Place
lhun grub chos gling	Lhundrup Chöling	Monastery
lhun grub chos lding	Lhündrup Chöding	Monastery
lhun ’bur rtse	Lhünburtsé	Place
lhun ’bur rtse rdzong	Lhünburtsé Dzong	Place
lho ma	Lhoma	Place
lho smad	Lhomé	Place
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A
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
a	a	Term
a dkar	a kar	Term
a dkar du tri su	akar du trisu	Term
a khu khro thung	Akhu Trotung	Person
a gog mkhar	Agok Khar	Place
a chung	a chung	Term
a chen rdo ring	A Chen Doring	Place
a mchog	Amchok	Place
a chog ser lebs	Achok Serlep	Place
a ti gsang ba g.yung drung phug	Ati Sangwa Yungdrung Puk	Place
a stag	A Tak	Buddhist deity
a stag klu mo	A Tak Lumo	Buddhist deity
a stag dpal mo	A Tak Pelmo	Buddhist deity
a stag lha mo	A Tak Lhamo	Buddhist deity
a thob	A Top	Person
a mdo	Amdo	Place
a ’du	andu	Term
a nu phrag thag	Anu Traktak	Person
a pha ’dre dkar spungs pa mon mkhar	Apa Drekar Pungpa Mönkhar	Place
a phug	Apuk	Place
a bong	Abong	Person
a dbang	Awang	Place
a dbang chu	Awang Chu	Place
a ma sman rtsis	Ama Mentsi	Mountain deity
a ma smar mdzes	Ama Mardzé	Buddhist deity
a dmar rol pa rkya bdun	A Mar Rolpa Kyadün	Mountain deity
a dmar rol pa skya bdun	A Mar Rolpa Kyadün	Mountain deity
a btse mgon po	Atsé Gönpo	Buddhist deity
a brtsan	Atsen	Place
a wang	Awang	Place
a zha	Azha	Ethnicity
a zur	A Zur	Place
a ’ong rdo ring	A Ong Doring	Place
a ’ong gtsang po	A Ong Tsangpo	River
a ’ong mtsho	A Ongtso	Place
a ’ong mtsho rdo ring	A Ongtso Doring	Place
a yang oṃ ’du	ayang omdu	Term
a yi la	Ayi La	Mountain
a g.yag	Ayak	Place
a ru gangs	Arugang	Place
a ru mtsho	Aru Tso	Lake
a ru la rgyab	Arula Gyap	Place
a ru la rgyab chu	Arula Gyap Chu	River
a rus sman bla	Arus Menla	Person
a rong	Arong	Place
a rong mon mkhar	Arong Mönkhar	Place
a li thang kha	Ali Tangkha	Place
a ser chung rdo ring	A Serchung Doring	Place
a a dkar	a akar	Term
a a dkar sa le ’od	a a karsa lenö	Term
a oṃ hum	a om hum	Term
a oṃ hum gyer spungs dran pa mu la nye le yo[d] hum ’du	a om hum gyer pung drenpa mula nyelé yo hum du	Term
a oṃ hum ram dza	a om hum ram dza	Term
a hum	a hum	Term
an ’bri rtse	Endritsé	Mountain deity
an ’bri rtse mon dur	Endritsé Möndur	Place
an ’bri rdzi mon dur	Endridzi Möndur	Place
am chung	amchung	Term
am nag	Amnak	Place
am nag kha	Am Nakkha	Place
ṃthong grol brag	Tongdröl Drak	Place
a’	A	Term
ar ka	arka	Term
ar rgyung	Argyung	Mountain deity
ar jag mkhar	Arjak Khar	Place
ar po rdzong	Arpo Dzong	Place
i	i	Term
i phi don gsal	Ipi Dönsel	Person
i phi dbyangs ’dzoms	Ipi Yangdzom	Person
i phi tshe ring dpal sgron	Ipi Tsering Peldrön	Person
i phi ser gyu	Ipi Sergyu	Buddhist deity
i phi lha mo	Ipi Lhamo	Buddhist deity
uṃ ti	Umti	Place
eṇta	enta	Term
o rgyan mgon po	Orgyen Gönpa	Person
o byang	O Jang	Place
o rtsal phug	Otsel Puk	Place
o rog	orok	Term
o rog gangs ri	Orok Gangri	Mountain deity
o rog stag btsan	Orok Taktsen	Mountain deity
oṃ	om	Term
oṃ ma ṇi	om mani	Term
oṃ a smi sde wa’ hra	Om A Smi Sde WA Hra	Term
oṃ a hum	Om A Hum	Term
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Sanskrit
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
		Term
		Buddhist deity
		Term
		Term
		Buddhist deity
		Buddhist deity
		Term
		Doxographical Category
Back to the Top
Chinese
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
		Term
Back to the Top
Other
Extended Wylie	Phonetics	Type
		Place
		Person
		Clan
		Clan
		Place
		Place
		Place

Notes

[168] For background information on the clans and territorial divisions of old Zhungpa, see John Vincent Bellezza. Zhang Zhung: Foundations of Civilization in Tibet. A Historical and Ethnoarchaeological Study of the Monuments, Rock Art, Texts and Oral Tradition of the Ancient Tibetan Upland. (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2008), 265.

[169] This lake and basin is not to be confused with the much better known and larger Tsakha Tsatso located near the Tsakha township headquarters. In Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, I treat Naklhé Doring Northeast as a discrete type II.1a site (C-17). The 2007 survey of the site, however, revealed that it is rather a type II.1b monument, albeit highly aberrant in form.

[170] A local territorial deity is Ama Mentsi (sp.?), whose home is a mountain to the west. The Risum township official who accompanied the survey team to the site did not know whether this is the deity propitiated at the archaeological site.

[171] There are also outlying funerary structures at Pamo Drenkhyer (C-141), a pillar array in Rutok. The existence of these structures is not noted in a description of the site (John Vincent Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet: Archaeological Discoveries on the High Plateau. [Delhi: Adroit, 2001], 178). Several tens of meters east of the pillar array there are at least three highly fragmentary funerary enclosures at Pamo Drenkhyer. There are also at least three funerary enclosures situated north of this array of pillars. Most of the stones have been extracted from these structures, perhaps to use in the construction of nearby corrals. Eroded depressions in the middle of some of the enclosures suggest that they were excavated at one time.

[172] This name was assigned to the site because is does not have a local appellation.

[173] At the head of the Doring valley there is the sacred mountain Doring Purgyung/Gyung. Doring Purgyung is considered to be the younger brother of Argyung, a large snow mountain in Saga. Along with the widely known Shelgyung in the Rukyok area of Saga, these three mountains are collectively called Tökyi Gyungpo Pünsum by the region’s inhabitants.

[174] For information on these important sacred mountains see John. Vincent Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet: An Inventory of Pre-Buddhist Archaeological Sites on the High Plateau (Delhi: Adroit, 2002), 334–338.

[175] The other example is the enclosure of Mertum Pima Doring. The last several meters of its west end are wider than the bulk of this enclosure. For a description of this site see Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 225–227.

[176] The Dzatsok basin covers many square kilometers and contains mud sloughs. During the survey a 10 km roundtrip was made across this basin. The Dzatsok basin was traversed on foot in the dry season with difficulty but without danger. Local drokpa report that livestock have been sucked down into the mud. A middle-aged resident is also said to have perished in it.

[177] For cultural lore about this mountain see John Vincent Bellezza, Calling Down the Gods: Spirit-Mediums, Sacred Mountains and Related Bon Textual Traditions in Upper Tibet. Tibetan Studies Library no. 8 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 80, 298.

[178] The most important source for information on the oral traditions of Khangmar Dzashak and nearby Ronggo Möndur (D-73) was Karma Tsültrim (born Iron Dragon Year, circa 1940), the steward (gönnyer) of Lowo Dechen monastery. This Karma Kagyü monastery is located in the Gertsé portion of Jangma (formerly part of Drongpa Tsogu). Rather than the commonly held belief that Khangmar Dzashak and other archaic cultural sites of this region were built by the ancient Mön, Karma Tsültrim subscribes to the view that they were constructed by the Zhang Zhungpa, the most prominent ancient tribe in the region. Karma Tsültrim explains that according to the oral traditions of Jangma and Gertsé, there were two ancient groups in the region: the Mön and the Jangwa Hashé (not to be confused with the Hasakka, the Kazaks, best known in the region for their raids of the 1930s and 1940s). In the local oral tradition, the Mön and Jangwa Hashé are thought to have been closely related to one another, and to have long disappeared before the Tibetan drokpa of the region arrived. Given their northern designation and the orthography of the second word of the ethnonym, the Jangwa Hashé are probably of north Inner Asian origin. A correlation with the ample archaeological and textual evidence demonstrating that Upper Tibet had manifold links with north Inner Asia in the prehistoric epoch (see Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.) may well be indicated.

[179] Foot bones extracted from the FS2 tomb have yielded a radiocarbon age of circa 800 BCE. Tomb FS2: AMS analysis, sample no. Beta-187501; Conventional radiocarbon age: 2740 +/- 40 BP; 2 Sigma calibrated result (95 percent probability): Cal 2920 to 2760 BP; intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve Cal 2840 BP; 1 Sigma calibrated result (68 percent probability): 2870 to 2780 BP. FS2 is interjacent to the east and central complexes, giving the impression that it was a constituent part of the necropolis. The relative location of the dated tomb remains suggests that the stelae and accompanying temple-tombs were an integral part of the same umbrella of funerary traditions. If so, it demonstrates that the Upper Tibetans were raising pillars contemporaneously with the Scythic tribes of north Inner Asia. This relatively early date (early Iron Age) may also suggest that the arrays of pillars appended to edifices were built and maintained over many centuries. More chronometric data from such sites is needed in order to refine our understanding of their origins, development and demise.

[180] This tale about the magical she goat was collected from Lozang Tenpa (born in Fire Tiger Year, circa 1926), a former chief representative of the Namrudzongpön (district head) under the old Lhasa government and a member of the Nakchu Political Consultative Committee under the Chinese Communists. The same story (with minor differences) was also related by the late Pönkya Powo Lhawang (1935–2005) the great spirit-medium (lhapa) of Ringpa.

[181] Ngoring was discovered by the Roerich Central Asian Expedition (RCAE) on March 23, 1928. George Roerich reports that three menhirs were found with stone slabs arranged around them in a square (George N. Roerich, Trails to Inmost Asia: Five Years of Exploration with the Roerich Central Asian Expedition. reprint edition, (Delhi: Book Faith India, 1996), 416, 417). He notes that no traces of libations were found at the site, and he concludes that this “sanctuary” was probably abandoned a long time ago. Roerich characterized the menhirs discovered on the RCAE as pre-Buddhistic sites, belonging to a phase in Tibetan history dominated by “primitive Bön” (Roerich. Trails to Inmost Asia. 355). After discovering the menhirs, Roerich tells us that the RCAE camped at a location called Ratri, 22 miles southwest of Do-ring (see C-162), and from there around the north side of Gomang Tso the next day. Ratri is described by Roerich as a locale with granite slopes. Ratri can be no other than ratra (sp.?) (31° 19.1΄ N. long. / 89° 15.1΄ E. long. / 4680 m), a location a little downstream of Ngoring (this general area is dominated by granite formations). Inquiries with local drokpa revealed that there is no other place in the Gomang Tso basin with a name that, in the Hor dialect, is phonetically similar to “Ratri.” Furthermore, in his account, Roerich notes that Ratri is located 22 miles south of the megalithic site of Do-ring. Roerich’s Do-ring has been identified as Doring South (31° 22.7 N. lat. / 89° 26.0 E. long.), situated 22 km (as the crow flies) northeast of Ngoring (see C-162) and 25 km northeast of ratra. For more details about Roerich’s archaeological discoveries near ratra, see entry D-86.

[182] Northern Gertsé is populated by members of the Ngoro Korché tribe of Khampa origins. There is also a small admixture of Horpa blood in the local population, as well as that from the adjoining regions of Naktsang and possibly Senkhor. As the present-day population migrated to the northern Jangtang only over the last three hundred years, oral traditions concerning archaic archaeological sites in the region tend to be weak.

[183] Just two days before the survey (October 11, 2002), local drokpa report that two men of the Hui ethnic nationality asked them if they could dig at the site. These men told the drokpa that there were many valuables to be found under the ground at Kyiser. To their credit, the drokpa did not allow the excavation of the site. The same drokpa report that in the late 1980s, Hui men excavated a tomb at Kyiser. They are said to have found a copper vessel full of objects. During the survey a small spoon-like disc of worked copper was found discarded among the array of pillars. It has a short tang with two small perforations. This object may have come from the illicit excavation.

[184] Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.

[185] For a survey of Khyunglung Ngül Khar see Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 37–43; John Vincent Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang-zhung Paleocultural Entity: A Comparative Analysis of Archaeological Evidence and Popular Bon Literary Sources.” Paper prepared for the International Association of Tibetan Studies Conference X, Oxford, 2003. Currently in press. I was first informed about Chunak by the late Tendzin Wangdrak (who was the seniormost Bön lama in Ngari) and other monks of Guru Gyam monastery some years before the actual survey took place. Members of my survey team passed on information about Chunak to Hui Wei and Li Yongxian, archaeologists at Sichuan University, who conducted a detailed survey of the site in 2005. Their findings were presented at the 11th International Association of Tibetan Studies conference in Bonn.

[186] Takri Trawo is the old Bön name for Nemona Nyi, the huge 7728 m high massif in Purang. The use of this name for a much smaller and less significant mountain in the region may possibly be an example of toponymic transference, whereby ancient names were preserved by relegating them to more minor cultural roles. In the process of Buddhacization Nemona Nyi, a mountain associated with the Indian goddess of learning, SarasvatI, may have been viewed as too important to be permitted to retain its earlier cultural mantle.

[187] Perhaps the Dowa Sumpa pillars acted as inspiration for the creation of the famous tabular stele in Zhidé. This stele has a lovely bas relief image of Pakpa Chenrezik on one of its broad sides, and on its two narrow sides there are inscriptions celebrating the cult of this deity. This stele was probably made in the 10th century CE as part of the definitive conversion of the region to Buddhism.

[188] The geographic and cultural parameters associated with Zhang Zhung are discussed at length in Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.

[189] For a photograph of the site, see Roerich, Trails to Inmost Asia, 416 ff. In an entry dated March 22, George Roerich wrote (Roerich, Trails to Inmost Asia, 415, 416): After a sixteen-mile march we camped in a narrow valley sheltered by undulating, grassy hills. The place was called Do-ring or “The Long Stone” because of curious megalithic monuments found in its vicinity. These monuments were the first of that kind discovered in Tibet…The megalithic monuments of Do-ring, situated some thirty miles south of the great salt lake of Pang-gong tsho-cha, date back to the pre-Buddhistic period of Tibetan history. They consist of important alinements of eighteen rows of erect stone slabs. Each of these alignments were drawn from east to west, having at its western extremity a cromlech or stone circle consisting of several menhirs arranged more or less in a circle. The menhirs are vertically placed with a crude stone table or altar in front of them. It was evidently a sanctuary of some primitive cult. But what was its age and use? If one compares the famous megalithic monuments of Carnac in Brittany, to the discovered megaliths of Tibet, he is at once struck by the remarkable similarity of the two sets of monuments. The Carnac alinements are situated from east to west and have at their western extremity a cromlech or circle of stones. The Do-ring monuments have precisely the same arrangement. The sacerdotal use of the Carnac monuments remains unknown to the present day, although numerous explanatory theories are advanced. It seems to me that we possess a clue to the explanation of the megalithic structures of northern Tibet. The megalithic monuments of Do-ring have a large figure in the shape of an arrow laid out with stone slabs, and situated at the eastern extremity of the alinement with its point towards the alinement. The arrow is an important symbol in the ancient nature cult of Tibet, and is connected to the cult of the sun and heavenly fire in the form of lightning, which it symbolizes… The presence of the arrow figure at the eastern extremity of the Do-ring monuments indicates that the whole structure was dedicated to some nature cult and very possibly to that of the sun, of which the arrow is a symbol. This is an important conclusion, since up to now no megalithic monuments could be satisfactorily explained. Although Roerich’s description of Doring (South) is generally sound, there are several mischaracterizations that have crept into it. These, at least in part, can be attributed to the difficulties of coming across an ancient monument for the very first time in tough environmental conditions. Another problem is that Roerich was intent on comparing Doring (South) with Carnac, a continent away, a monument which, in fact, has only limited morphological similarity to the one in Tibet. In the eastern half of the highly degraded pillar and slab array, Roerich visualized an arrow structure made of stone slabs, for which there is no empirical evidence (no stone arrow has been found at any of the arrays of pillars surveyed to date). This detracts from Roerich’s assertion that the symbolism of the arrow should be taken as the prime instrument for interpreting the function of the site. This does not necessarily mean, however, that the arrow and its symbolism did not figure into the ceremonial exercises carried out at the site, for as Roerich rightly notes, the arrow is an ancient Tibetan ritual object. The reported existence of a cromlech or ring of stones on the west end of the site also does not bear well with the empirical evidence. In fact, the walls referred to form a quadrate enclosure. The crude stone table or altar Roerich describes no longer exists. This structure was probably a ritual cairn (latsé or lhato) of later origins, which was used by local drokpa to propitiate personal, household and/or territorial deities. Many such structures were destroyed in the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Finally, it should be noted that Doring (South) is located 20 miles (as the crow flies), not 30 miles, south of the alkaline lake and flats known as Drangkhok Tso and 20 miles southwest of the giant salt lake Serling Tso (either one of which is Roerich’s Pang-gong tsho-cha). In John Vincent Bellezza, “Doring Revisited.” Himal8, no. 3 (1995), 29-32, I describe my 1994 exploration of a site known as Chöten Gyawa located a few kilometers northwest of Bülkar Tso (White Soda Lake), in old Namru district. This site features ten rows of cairns with ten cairns in each row, which are said to have been erected by Guru Rinpoché in order to stem floodwaters arising from Bülkar Tso. I provisionally identified this site as Roerich’s Do-ring, believing that it had been architecturally modified in order to bring it within the remit of Tibetan Buddhism. It is now clear, however, that Do-ring is no other than Doring (South). It must be noted that similar rows of cairns are found at the eponymous funerary site of Chöten Gyawa (D-6) in Shentsa. The precise archaeological composition of the Bülkar TsoChöten Gyawa site, however, has yet to be determined.

[190] Roerich, Trails to Inmost Asia.

[191] Roerich, Trails to Inmost Asia, 416 ff.

[192] The border of Tibet (Bö) and Zhang Zhung is discussed using textual and archaeological data in Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang-zhung Paleocultural Entity.”

[193] In this particular case, the pared down survey team was on horseback and had to cross back to our camps on the north side of the frozen Yarlung Tsangpo before nightfall.

[194] For an analysis of the Slab Grave culture and its affinities to the Upper Tibetan paleocultural complexion see Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 123–126.

[195] In the pre-Communist period this locale was part of the Jangma district (tsopa) of Drongpa Tsogu, not Gertsé.

[196] According to Nyingchak Gyel (in personal communication), a researcher at the Tibetan Autonomous Region Museum, who was on the 2001 Chinese archaeological expedition to Dingdum, the name of the site is Tingtong (Brown Bear).

[197] It is in close proximity to the west bench that Mark Aldenderfer and his Chinese colleagues carried out important archaeological excavations in 2001 (31° 40.20΄ N. lat. / 79° 49.14΄ E. long.). They refer to this site phonetically as “Dindun.” In unearthed residential structures, dated 550 to 100 BCE, this team discovered domestic pillars and other artifacts. See Aldenderfer, Mark. “A New Class of Standing Stone from the Tibetan Plateau.” The Tibet Journal28, nos. 1-2 (2003): 3-20; Mark Aldenderfer, and Holley Moyes, “Excavations at Dindun, a Pre-Buddhist Village Site in Far Western Tibet,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Tibetan Archaeology and Art, ed. Huo Wei and Li Yongxian (Chengdu: Center for Tibetan Studies, Sichuan Union University, 2004).

[198] These excavations at Dingdum were carried out by Huo Wei, Mark Aldenderfer and their various colleagues in 2001. Ten of the 27 tombs charted at the site (60,000 m²) were excavated. A radiometric assay of a sample (type not specified in text) from Dingdum M6 furnished a date of 2370 +/- 80 BP. See Chinese Institute of Tibetology, Sichuan University, “Trial Excavation of Ancient Tombs on the Piyang-Donggar Site in Zanda County, Tibet,” Kaogu6 (2001): 14-31. The scant chronometric evidence assembled suggests that the tombs of Dingdum belong to the Iron Age. In the present survey, 23 funerary structures (including the 10 specimens that were excavated) have been documented. The locations of the other four specimens noted in the above study are not clear.

[199] The measured maximum depth of the grave pits in this inventory may be at variance with their original depth, as a few instances of infilling (since the time the excavations were carried out) were observed.

[200] The main territorial god (yüllha) of Trashi Gang is Lhagö, whose residence is a rocky mountain on the opposite side of the Senggé Tsangpo valley.

[201] Vitali, Roberto. Records of Tho.ling: A Literary and Visual Reconstruction of the “Mother” Monastery in Gu.ge (Dharamsala: High Asia, Amnye Machen Institute, 1999), 48.

[202] For detailed information on Trashi Gang Gönpa, see Gugé Tsering Gyelpo. Ngari Chömjung Gangjong Dzegyen (Lha sa: Bö Jong Mimang Petrün Khang, 2006), 78–92.

[203] Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.

[204] Some kilometers further down the main valley, the entire valley floor was mined for gold. Around a 5 km length of the valley was completely destroyed. Needless to say, in this delicate high-altitude environment it will take centuries before the ecological integrity and pastoral value of the mined area is fully restored. This is one of dozens of open pit gold mines observed during the survey work. These mining operations were mainly carried out between 1998 and 2006. The open pit mines have decimated river valleys and pasturelands in areas as large as 30 km².

[205] Among the most notable informants in Barta were Minyak Khaché (born in Pig Year, circa 1935), Ngawang Karma (born in Water Bird Year, circa 1933), Markhuk Trashi Topgyel (born circa 1920), Sritar Tsering (born in Dog Year, circa 1934) and Godzi Tobé (born in Iron Dragon Year, circa 1939).

[206] Little attempt was made to record the height of the forward flank in specimens FS148 to FS187. Refer to General site charcteristics for the height ranges of the various sized funerary structures.

[207] For information about these two sacred mountains, see Bellezza, Calling Down the Gods.

[208] Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang zhung Paleocultural Entity.”; Bellezza, Zhang Zhung.

[209] Sangkhar was discovered by the Roerich Central Asian Expedition (RCAE) on March 23, 1928. George Roerich (Roerich, Trails to Inmost Asia, 416, 417) reports that his father Nicholas found several graves near their camp, which was in a side glen known as Ratri. These graves are described as being enclosed by stones arranged in a square. The graves are said to be laid out east-west. The Roerich account also states that a large boulder stood on the eastern extremity of these graves. He hypothesized that the heads of the corpse pointed east. Roerich believed that these graves probably date to the Neolithic, and that they were chronologically related to the megalithic monuments of the region. Ratri is stated to be 22 miles southwest of the megalithic site of Do-ring. On March 24, the RCAE traveled around the north side of Gomang Tso (Roerich, Trails to Inmost Asia, 418). Ratri is described by Roerich as a locale with granite slopes. Ratri can be confidentially identified with ratra (sp.?) (31° 19.1΄ N. long. / 89° 15.1΄ E. long. / 4680 m), a location approximately 2 km downstream of Sangkhar (this general area is dominated by granite formations). Inquiries with local drokpa revealed that there is no other place in the Gomang Tso basin with a name that is phonetically similar to “Ratri.” It was also determined that there were no funerary structures in ratra proper. Roerich’s Do-ring has been pinpointed as Doring South (31° 22.7 N. lat. / 89° 26.0 E. long.), situated 25 km (as the crow flies) northeast of ratra (see C-162). It should be noted that the distance given by Roerich between these two points represents the ground covered by the RCAE overland through rugged mountainous terrain. While the funerary structures (they also could have ritual functions aside from burial) of ratra do not securely date to the Neolithic, they do certainly belong to the archaic cultural horizon of Upper Tibet. It should also be observed that only FS1 possibly has a large headstone on the east side of the structure. For more details about Roerich’s archaeological discoveries, see C-37.

[210] This site may also be called Tsukgi Möndur (Mön Tombs of the [Rocky] Crown).

[211] Some of the arable land of Omlong (named for its tamarisk trees) was brought back into cultivation in the Chinese Cultural Revolution and is still farmed. The most extensive farmlands still tilled in Reco are found in the Rama valley. The viable barley fields of Rama are but a small fraction of the area once under cultivation. The other branch valleys of Reco, Dzakar, Nyadrak, Lungkar, Gokra (sp.?), Pang, Ngakkhang (sp.?) and an unnamed valley, are reported not to have defunct arable lands.

[212] According to this individual, his clan lineage is derived from the Sokpo Dedün, traditionally seven leading households of Damzhung, which are of Mongol origins. This clan grouping has control of a local protective deity known as Sungma Marnak.

[213] Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 127, 128.

[214] Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 162.

[215] Due to time limitations and a raging sandstorm, the survey of Chepu Möndora was kept fairly cursory.

[216] See Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 478, 479, 518, 519.

[217] Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 98. After Helmut Hoffmann, The Religions of Tibet, (New York: MacMillian, 1961).

[218] Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 34; Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 98-99.

[219] Bellezza, Zhang zhung.

[220] The skull fragment from Endritsé site (FS3) underwent AMS analysis: sample no. Beta-200756; Conventional Radiocarbon age: 180 +/-40 BP. The recent age of the assayed specimen may possibly be explained by its deposition through happenstance or as part of an adventitious burial that relied on the pre-existing tomb. It is also possible that the exposed bone fragment was subject to infiltration by foreign organic substances biasing the test results. The chronology of the mountaintop cubic tomb typology is problematic and is discussed in Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 139, 141.

[221] orok is the word for crow (porok) in the local dialect.

[222] FS5: AMS analysis, sample no. Beta-200757; conventional radiocarbon age: 940 +/-50 BP; 2 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 950 to 740 BP; intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve: Cal 910 BP; 1 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 930 to 780 BP.

[223] Oma Tso is so named because its opaque waters resemble milk.

[224] FS7: AMS analysis, sample no. Beta-187502; conventional radiocarbon age: 220 +/-40 BP.

[225] This site may also be called Tsukgi Möndur (Mön Tombs of the [Rocky] Crown).

[226] S. W. Bushell, “The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 12 (1880): 527 n. 9.

[227] Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet.

[228] Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet; Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet; Bellezza, Zhang zhung.

[229] Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 182-184.

[230] These timbers are found in a cavity that formed through damage to the structure. The three tamarisk rounds act as internal support for the southwest wall. The removal of a full cross-section from two of the three timbers revealed remarkably intact heartwood (thanks to the frigid, high elevation sterile environment). Tamarisk still grows nearby in the lower Shang valley. Given the availability of this species of wood in the locale, the fairly small girth of the members, and the exclusive nature of the site, it seems likely that the tamarisk rounds were specially cut for use in the Khyinak Rong building project. An assay of the Khyinak Rong samples yielded the following results: radiometric, sample no. Beta-212490; conventional radiocarbon age: 1690 +/-50 BP; 2 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 1710 to 1510 BP; Intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve: Cal 1570 BP; 1 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 1690 to 1660 BP and 1630 to 1540 BP. Radiometric, sample no. Beta-212491; Conventional radiocarbon age: 1660 +/-60 BP; 2 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 1710 to 1410 BP; intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve: Cal 1550 BP; 1 Sigma calibrated result: Cal 1610 to 1520 BP.

[231] For a description of Bön monuments known as to, see Bellezza, Zhang Zhung, 492–495.

[232] For the 1999 survey of this site, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 88-89.

[233] For historical references taken from both primary and secondary sources and earlier survey information concerning Dangra Khyung Dzong, see John Vincent Bellezza. Divine Dyads: Ancient Civilization in Tibet (Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 1997), 385-387, 412-414; Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 92-93; Bellezza, “Territorial Characteristics of the Archaic Zhang-zhung.”

[234] Dzokpa Chenpo Yangtsé Longchen, 107; Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 117.

[235] Kyisum is home to Kyisum Ladrang (established circa 1100 CE), a Zhang Zhung Nyengyü facility that managed to escape complete destruction during the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

[236] For the 2000 survey of this site, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 76, 77.

[237] For the 1999 CCE survey of this site, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 169, 170.

[238] For details of the 1997 survey, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 227.

[239] For the 2000 survey of this site, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 107, 108.

[240] This region is traditionally known as Naktsang Pöntö.

[241] For the 2000 survey of this site, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 110.

[242] For a description of Doring Chakra, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 110, 111.

[243] For details of the 2000 survey, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 119, 120.

[244] For more information on this mountain god see Bellezza, Calling Down the Gods, 18, 101, 145, 287, 295–298.

[245] For the 1999 survey of this site, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 131, 132.

[246] For details of the 1999 survey, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 189.

[247] For details of the 1999 survey, see Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, 156-157.

[248] The word ngang pa (goose) refers to the color orange in horses.

[249] The initial survey of this site is recorded in Bellezza, Divine Dyads, 262-263.

[250] I have suggested that the fantastic pyramids or cones of dried earth that the so-called pundit Kishen Singh discovered at Jador (Jado) (also on the north shore of Namtso actually refer to the pyramidal rock formations of Tamchok Ngangpa Do. In the account of Kishen Singh’s 1872 journey to the region, compiled by Lt. Colonel T. G. Montgomery, it notes that one of the supposed pyramids had an opening in the center, which was used by an ancient saint upon his death to ascend to heaven. The central passageway so described and the conical or pyramidal form of the structure certainly recalls the “horse’s ears” of Tamchok Ngangpa Do. See Bellezza, Divine Dyads, 251-252,262. What is clear from the present author’s acquaintance with the Namtso region (spanning more than two decades) is that there are no giant manmade pyramids to be found there.

[251] This phonetic and semantic convergence is discussed in Bellezza, Divine Dyads, 284 (n. 32).

[252] The inscriptions and pictographs of Tamchok Ngangpa Do (J-21) will be treated in a forthcoming inventory of Upper Tibetan rock art sites.

[253] The classification of individual sites is made according to the most prominent type of monument found at each location. A good number of sites, nevertheless, have more than one kind of archaeological remains.

[254] Due to the extreme degradation of certain sites, their precise residential architectural composition could not be determined.

[255] Question marks in this column denote that the subtype noted is uncertain.

[256] Dra/drama is a woody shrub that grows in certain parts of Upper Tibet.

[257] This appears to be the best spelling, reflecting the etymological basis of the site designation. See Bellezza, Calling Down the Gods, 406 (n. 222).

[258] In Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, I refer to this site as Pangmar Zhungkhang Gok (Marshy Red Pasture Ruined Habitations). I have now determined that this is a corrupted designation of the site.

[259] The name of an important Bön tutelary god.

[260] The name of a popular Tibetan goddess.

[261] Ti appears to be a spelling for the Zhang Zhung word for water. It is also sometimes rendered: ti/ti.

[262] Due to the extreme degradation of certain sites, their precise residential architectural composition could not be determined.

[263] I have recorded this name as Gopo Nam Sum (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet), but this is a less desirable rendering than I provide here.

[264] This site also appears to be called Pukmo (Grotto).

[265] In Bellezza, “A Preliminary Archaeological Survey of Da rog mtsho,” 56-90, I refer to this headland as dogi puk, information I received from a local resident pointing to the site from afar. In actuality, Dokyilbuk (sic) is the name of the third and smallest island in Daroktso.

[266] Setrap is the name of an important Nyingma protector deity.

[267] A Nyingma lama of the 19th century CE.

[268] A kind of man-eating demon.

[269] As pertains to the Dangra and Tago region, Kelzang Sichö writes: “At the place known as Khyak Dorang there are the ruins of an ancient castle. In the oral tradition, it is said that this was the palace of the Zhang Zhung king Tridem (=Dem), holder of the bird horns.” (Kelsang Sichö. “Khakgi Logyü Raktsam” in bod ljongs nag chu sa khul gyi lo rgyus rig gnas 4 (1992): 111-146: 113.). This dorang (colloquial spelling) appears to be the one and same place as Doring.

[270] Bongchen (Large Boulder) is the correct name for what I formerly designated Pongchen (Great Archery) (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet).

[271] In Bellezza, Antiquities of Upper Tibet, 78, I record the name of this site as mchod rten gong bzang can, the appellation that local inhabitants (gang riwa) now use. Nevertheless, Dzamling Ganggyel Tisé Karchak, by Karru Drupwang Tendzin Rinchen (born 1801 CE), records the name of this Bön site as Chöten Khongseng Chen.

[272] A generic term for Indian and other western invaders of Ngari.

[273] According to popular legend, an aboriginal tribe of Ngari.

[274] This site is comprised of what I formerly presented as Sené Gau Druppuk (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet).

[275] According to Mimi Church and Mariette Wiebenga (in personal communication), this site is actually Shawa Dong Lhakhang. They visited here on a pilgrimage and study tour in 2005. In 1998, I identified another site at Daroktso as Shawa Dong Lhakhang (B-103). Further inquiry is needed to verify these identifications.

[276] Named for the imperial period (?) Bön practitioner Mushö Tram.

[277] In many of the dialects of Nakchu and Naktsang, ring (“long”) is pronounced rang. I have sometimes used this phonetic rendering in my publications, but in this work I have opted for the standard orthography.

[278] I have presented the name of this site as Mönra Yargen (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet), a less desirable spelling. Yarké and marké are common drokpa geographical terms referring to above and below the “waist” (base), respectively, of hills and mountains.

[279] This is the local name for what was formerly called Oma Doring (named for the old camp or township) (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet). In the local Tö dialect, the jampo (“smooth”) part of the site’s name denotes terrain that is free of rocks and other obstructions.

[280] Named after A Tak Pelmo/A Tak Lumo, a prominent goddess in the Gesar epic.

[281] The wife of the Tibetan epic hero, Ling Gesar.

[282] A type of fierce martial spirit.

[283] A type of powerful elemental spirit.

[284] A type of elemental spirit.

[285] In Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, I employ the standard word for “bride” (nama), but the site is actually known by an epithet for bride in the local töké dialect (pamo).

[286] In Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, I mistakenly call this site “Yukhambu.” This was the result of a faulty transcription of orally derived information.

[287] In Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, I furnish a less desirable rendering of this site name.

[288] I had originally classified Sipra as habitational in pursuance to local folklore (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet). Subsequent analysis based on data from archaic cultural horizon archaeological sites throughout Upper Tibet, however, suggests that this site should be reclassified as funerary in nature. The morphological characteristics of the site warrant such a reordering of its typology.

[289] Sernya (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet) is probably funerary in nature, rather than representative of residential ruins, despite the folklore to the contrary.

[290] Amchok (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet) has also been reclassified as a funerary site. It is comprised of terraced superstructures, the most common type of ancient cemetery in the eastern Jangtang.

[291] There appear to be various funerary structures at this site, although structures with other types of functions may also be represented. Kyelung and Lungsum was first surveyed in Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet, and then revisited in 2004.

[292] This site, with its six small superficial structures (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet), is also best reclassified as funerary in function.

[293] While the 121 cairns at this site may have been built to conceal or reconfigure an array of pillars (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet), the various superficial structures (Mönra) should be classified as having a funerary and not domiciliary function.

[294] Lukdo (Bellezza. Divine Dyads) may actually be predominantly ceremonial and/or burial in nature rather than residential, thus its reclassification.

[295] This site is located in an area known as Nyizhuk, which is closely associated with the old Bönpo enclave of Ngamö (classical spelling) and Ngamong (vernacular spelling). The last Bönpo of Nyizhuk were converted to Buddhism (Karma Kagyü) in the 1980s.

[296] The morphological characteristics of Domri Nakha are generally in keeping with funerary monuments. I originally classified this site in a miscellaneous category (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet).

[297] A subsequent survey of Milhé Khordo has determined that it is funerary in nature. I originally classified this site in a miscellaneous category (Bellezza, Antiquities of Northern Tibet).

[298] In Bellezza. Antiquities of Upper Tibet, I refer to this site as thar lcang, a less desirable rendering.

[299] A Vajrayāna tutelary god.

[300] Named after an evil uncle in the Gesar epic.

[301] Cave in local folklore associated with the Vajrayāna master Loppön Pema Jungné.

[302] Elemental spirits of the dichotomous universe.

Volume II: Archaic Ceremonial Monuments (Antiquities of Zhang Zhung)

II. Archaic Ceremonial Monuments

Volume II: Archaic Ceremonial Monuments (Antiquities of Zhang Zhung)

Collection	Antiquities of Zhang Zhung
Visibility	Public - accessible to all site users
Author	John Vincent Bellezza
UID	mandala-texts-15256
DOI

Volume II: Archaic Ceremonial Monuments (Antiquities of Zhang Zhung)

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Mandala Collections Texts

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Enclosure

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Enclosure

Pillars

Affiliated sites

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring East

Enclosure

Pillars

Jangdé DoringByang sde rdo ring West

Enclosure

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Affiliated sites

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

West row of pillars

East row of pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site Elements

Enclosure

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Enclosure

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

South complex

Enclosure

Pillars

North complex

Pillars

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Site elements

Pillar complex

Funerary superstructures

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Basic site data

General site characteristics

Oral tradition

Basic site data

General site characteristics