Mindfulness-Based Professional Development Programs for Teachers

A Research Brief

According to a recent national survey, K-12 teachers today report the highest levels of daily stress of any occupational group. Research shows that such high stress negatively impacts teachers’ physical and mental health, reduces their capacity to cultivate effective learning environments, and measurably diminishes their students’ mental and physical health and academic achievement.

Notably, teacher training programs rarely address the topic of stress or how to manage it; however, researchers are now exploring whether and how mindfulness-based programs might better support teachers by reducing their experiences of stress and enhancing their classroom performance. A number of mindfulness-based teacher training programs have been developed, and initial studies of them have offered optimistic results.

Certain mindfulness trainings for teachers appear to significantly reduce stress and burnout. Teachers who complete mindfulness trainings also appear to cultivate greater social and emotional competence and enjoy enhanced physical and mental wellbeing. Early results also suggest an indirect positive impact on students—they tend to demonstrate greater classroom engagement as well as improved classroom behavior after their teachers complete certain mindfulness-based training programs.

Preliminary research suggests that mindfulness trainings may be less effective, however, in reducing the symptoms of more significant mental health issues that teachers may experience, such as anxiety and depression. Early data also reveals that benefits to teachers’ classroom performances as a result of mindfulness training are limited. Thus, it may be best to view mindfulness training as an important complement to other professional development efforts rather than a panacea for the many challenges that teachers face.

Many of today’s teachers experience high levels of stress and burnout—the highest rates of any occupational group according to a recent Gallup poll.¹ The implications of this phenomenon are extensive. Stress and burnout impact teachers’ physical and mental health, as well as their capacity to foster positive classroom environments and engage in effective instruction. Students’ own mental and physical health, as well as their academic achievement, are also negatively affected. Consider, for example, a few key findings on teacher stress:

• The first school-based study of the physical impacts of workplace stress found that teachers who experience chronic stress as well as high levels of exhaustion have higher allostatic load (AL) scores than their peers. AL scores reflect both the short-term physiological tolls of chronic stress as well as the potential long-term effects of stress on the body. Higher AL scores are hypothesized to indicate a greater risk for disease later in life.²
• Teachers’ stress is also correlated with diminished mental health among students. University of Maryland scholars researched the impact of classroom environments on students’ mental health. They examined a nationally representative sample of 10,700 first graders and found that students experienced increased internalizing and externalizing disorders in classrooms where teachers reported high levels of stress.³
• Researchers at the University of British Columbia tracked the stress hormones of 400 students as they moved between classes. Students’ cortisol levels, a biological indicator of stress, were higher in classes where teachers reported increased symptoms of burnout. In fact, the levels of teacher burnout significantly predicted variability in students’ cortisol levels. This study extended research on emotional contagion to K-12 classrooms, suggesting that classroom stress can be “contagious.”⁴
• Teacher stress is also negatively correlated with student learning. Teachers who experience high levels of stress display fewer effective teaching strategies than peers who report lower stress levels. Specifically, stressed-out teachers show diminished capacities for clear instruction and effective classroom management.⁵ Students taught by stressed and burned-out teachers have more behavior problems, lower levels of social adjustment, and reduced academic performance.⁶
• Research also suggests that teachers who experience high levels of stress are less capable of creating a positive classroom climate for their students.⁷ Positive classroom environments appear to be linked intimately with teacher wellbeing: a study of 730 kindergarten classrooms found that teachers’ psychological variables had more impact on classroom climate than their levels of education or experience.⁸

Teachers’ wellbeing is a fundamental component of student success. In fact, although teachers have been taught to primarily focus on what they are teaching, psychologist Louis Cozolino argues that “evolutionary history and current neuroscience suggest that it is who they are and the emotional environment in the classroom they are able to create that are the fundamental regulators of their students’ learning.”⁹

Notably, unlike other human-service professions, very few teacher-education or professional development programs teach educators the skills they need to navigate common occupational stressors.¹⁰ Recently, researchers have explored whether mindfulness trainings can serve as a useful supplement to traditional teacher development programs, examining whether increased mindfulness can help teachers reduce their experiences of stress and burnout, increase their overall wellbeing, and help them perform well in the classroom.

Mindfulness trainings often use a series of structured practices (e.g., breath meditation, body scans) to teach participants skills for dealing with stress and uncertainty.¹¹ This is primarily achieved by cultivating a sense of acceptance and positive regard toward whatever arises in the present moment. A growing body of research reveals that when implemented regularly these practices affect the neural structures of the brain and may lead to long-term benefits for practitioners.¹²

Mindfulness is perhaps most commonly defined as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment.”¹³ Mindful awareness focuses on the cultivation of sustained attention and is evidenced by an individual’s capacity to “exercise volitional control over [his or her] physical and mental activity.’’¹⁴ When a person is experiencing mindful awareness, he or she is “fully present to what is happening in the here and now, rather than dwelling on the past or the future.”¹⁵

Mindfulness is not simply a sustained form of concentration, however. Mindfulness is, in large part, defined by the quality of awareness that emerges through the practice of mindful attention. This awareness is marked by “an internal stance of positive regard and openness to things as they are.”¹⁶ Mindfulness, therefore, also includes “‘heartfulness’ in that it promotes both an open-minded and open-hearted apperception of the world.”¹⁷ From this perspective, “mindfulness is a way of being in the world with kindness and compassion toward oneself and others.”¹⁸

Research into the potential benefits of mindfulness trainings for teachers is still in its preliminary stages; however, the empirical data and qualitative information collected thus far are encouraging.

Studies of both primary and secondary school teachers confirm that mindfulness is a capacity that can be taught and grown. At least 12 empirically measured studies focusing on PreK-12 teachers found that mindfulness training led to enhanced mindfulness among participants. Indeed, the results were nearly universal; only one study found no significant shift.¹⁹

Preliminary research also indicates that mindfulness training may reduce teachers’ psychological distress.²⁰ Specifically, early studies suggest that teachers experience significant reductions in stress²¹ and burnout²² as a result of their participation in mindfulness interventions.

Research also indicates that mindfulness-based training is associated with decreased rumination²³among participants, as well as reductions in hostility, paranoid ideation, phobic anxiety, and psychosis.²⁴

Thus far, however, studies examining whether mindfulness training can reduce teachers’ experiences of anxiety,²⁵ depression,²⁶somatization²⁷or negative affect²⁸ have been inconclusive, with some showing significant effects and others not.

Preliminary research suggests that mindfulness training may improve teachers’ physical health. Specifically, early research indicates that mindfulness-based training for teachers is associated with improved sleep²⁹as well as reductions in teachers’ blood pressure³⁰ and cortisol levels.³¹ In several studies, teachers also reported reductions in their symptoms of physical distress.³² Mindfulness training does not appear to impact teachers’ resting heart rates.³³

Studies indicate that mindfulness-based training significantly increased teachers’ affective self-regulation.³⁴ Studies also report that mindfulness training enhances teachers’ interpersonal skills, leading to heightened interpersonal sensitivity,³⁵empathic concern,³⁶compassion,³⁷prosocial responding,³⁸and workplace inclusiveness,³⁹ as well as teachers’ dispositional forgiveness, situational forgiveness, and efficacy for forgiving students.⁴⁰

Preliminary findings indicate that mindfulness training is associated with an enhanced sense of inner calm and balance⁴¹ as well as significant increases in teachers’ self-compassion.⁴²

The benefits of mindfulness may also extend beyond the classroom. In one study teachers reported experiencing greater satisfaction with family life,⁴³ while another found that mindfulness training was associated with personal growth.⁴⁴

The research is less conclusive on the association between mindfulness training and positive affect.⁴⁵

The impact of mindfulness training on teachers’ classroom performance is mixed, but studies suggest that students may benefit indirectly.

Research indicates that mindfulness training positively impacts teachers’ orientation to student motivation, leading them to adopt an autonomy-supportive motivational style.⁴⁶ Another study found that both teachers and students engage in greater classroom productivity as a result of mindfulness training.⁴⁷

On the other hand studies examining teachers’ classroom management skills⁴⁸ and self-efficacy⁴⁹ in the classroom have been mixed. Mindfulness-training also does not appear to increase teachers’ engagement,⁵⁰ creativity,⁵¹ or job satisfaction.⁵²

Research indicates that mindfulness training for teachers may have indirect benefits for students. Preliminary results suggest that when teachers participate in mindfulness training, students’ classroom engagement increases⁵³ and their classroom behavior improves.⁵⁴

In interviews with researchers, teachers have reported that practicing mindfulness positively impacts their mental health. Specifically, teachers have reported that mindfulness training enables them to more effectively manage stress⁵⁵ and develop greater self-knowledge.⁵⁶

Teachers have also reported experiencing physical benefits from mindfulness training, specifically increased awareness of their bodies⁵⁷ and the physical impacts of stress.⁵⁸

Additionally, teachers have identified ways in which mindfulness training helped them develop greater social and emotional competence. Specifically, they have reported that learning mindfulness helped them become less emotionally reactive⁵⁹ and gain perspective in emotionally difficult situations⁶⁰ and enhanced their problem-solving capacities.⁶¹

Teachers have indicated enhanced wellbeing as a result of mindfulness training. They have reported feeling more calm and relaxed as a result of mindfulness practices⁶² and observing improvements in their personal lives, particularly in their interpersonal relationships.⁶³

Finally, when asked to reflect on how practicing mindfulness impacts their experiences in the classroom, teachers have described an increased capacity to regulate their attention⁶⁴ and an enhanced ability to prioritize the most important parts of their curricula.⁶⁵ Teachers have also reported that practicing mindfulness has helped them improve their relationships with their students, enabling them to be more compassionate,⁶⁶ respond more effectively to behavioral issues,⁶⁷ and build greater classroom rapport.⁶⁸

The following list provides a brief overview of the most prominent, empirically-supported

mindfulness programs available and their associated impacts on teachers in seven domains: (1) Mindfulness; (2) Mental Health; (3) Burnout; (4) Physical Health; (5) Social and Emotional Competence; (6) Wellbeing; and (7) Classroom Performance/Effectiveness.           

CARE is a year-long program designed to reduce teachers’ stress and support the development of teachers’ social and emotional competencies. The core of the program consists of four, day-long professional development experiences that typically are spread out throughout the school year, though they can be taught in one week prior to the start of school. In addition to the day-long professional development experiences, participants receive a program workbook as well as recorded mindfulness practices to support them in developing home practices. Coaches are also available to work with teachers one-on-one, conducting personalized phone calls in between the day-long sessions. The total training is 32 hours.

CARE was developed with support from the Garrison Institute by Patricia Jennings, a professor of curriculum and instruction at the University of Virginia; Christa Turksma, a clinical psychologist with an expertise in child development; and Richard C. Brown, a professor of contemplative education at Naropa University. The program is available from CREATE for Education, an educational consulting group that focuses on social and emotional learning.

CARE for Teachers has been evaluated in four empirical studies and two qualitative

studies. Findings indicate the following impacts:

CALM is a 16-week program that offers 20-minute morning mindfulness and yoga sessions four days per week. The sessions are offered on site by a certified yoga teacher. They are designed as group practices to encourage teachers to cultivate a shared commitment to self-care and wellbeing, thereby fostering a positive work climate for both faculty and staff. The sessions focus on gentle yoga and are accessible to participants of all fitness levels. Adaptations enable participants to practice poses on a mat or in a chair and in work clothes. A typical 20-minute session includes centering exercises, breathing practices, movement, meditation, and intention setting.               

Participants are encouraged to attend at least two sessions a week and to integrate the practices throughout the day. Teachers are given weekly practice cards that offer examples of the practices outside of the sessions to help teachers reduce their experiences of stress and enhance their wellbeing. The total training is roughly 21 hours.

CALM was written by Alexis Harris, an assistant professor of education at the University of Virginia and long-time yoga teacher and practitioner. Like the CARE program, CALM is now available from CREATE for Education.

The CALM program has been examined in one study,⁷⁰ which showed the course increased Mindfulness; improved Mental Health and Wellbeing through increased positive affect; increased Physical Health through reduced cortisol and blood pressure levels; improved Social and Emotional Competency through increased self-regulation; and increased Classroom Effectiveness through improved classroom management. The study did not evaluate effects on Burnout.   

MBSR is one of the most popular and most commonly researched contemplative-based interventions designed to reduce stress. This is primarily achieved through two complementary approaches: the cultivation of one’s attention and the embodiment of nonjudgmental awareness. Specifically, the MBSR program encourages participants to explore how cultivating an open and receptive stance toward the present moment impacts their experiences of life’s challenges. The power of nonjudgmental awareness for participants is that it enables them to circumvent their conditioned coping mechanisms and, in so doing, directly experience the present moment as it unfolds. The MBSR program proceeds from the presumption that the direct experience of life provides the foundation for self-healing.⁷¹

MBSR was developed at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center by Jon Kabat-Zinn, a molecular biologist and professor of medicine. The program is now widely available and is often taught by individuals certified in the program’s instruction by one of several universities in the United States. The MBSR program is also available online for no charge.

MBSR training tends to take place over eight weeks, including weekly sessions lasting two and a half hours and two day-long retreats integrated throughout the program. The program is approximately 36 hours in length. The impact of the MBSR program on teachers has been examined in five studies with results summarized in the following table:

SMART is an adaptation of MBSR, using approximately 60% of the components and practices developed by Kabat-Zinn for that intervention. In addition the SMART program integrates lessons and practices focused on “emotion theory and regulation, forgiveness, kindness and compassion, and the application of mindfulness to teaching.”⁷²

The SMART program includes 11 sessions that span eight weeks. Nine of the 11 sessions are held after school for two and a half hours each. Two day-long retreats are typically held on Saturdays during the program. Sessions usually consist of brief lectures and group discussions, question-and-answer opportunities, and mindfulness-based practices. Teachers are given guided practices to complete at home as well brief homework assignments, which include tasks such as monitoring their own emotional and behavioral responses throughout the day. The complete program is 36 hours in length.

With support from the Impact Foundation, the SMART program was originally authored by Margaret Cullen, a licensed marriage and family therapist and certified MBSR teacher. It’s currently available in the United States from Passageworks Institute and in Canada from the University of British Columbia, Okanagan.

The SMART program has been examined in four empirically based studies and is

associated with the following positive results:

The .b Foundations course is an eight-week program taught by certified mindfulness instructors. It’s an adapted version of the MBSR program designed specifically for educators. Training includes one introductory presentation and eight 75-minute practice sessions and is approximately 12 hours in length. Practices sessions include modules that focus on body awareness, tracking thoughts, and cultivating self-compassion. The program also includes exercises that are explicitly targeted for educators. In addition to participating in the practice sessions, teachers are encouraged to engage in 10-40 minutes of mindfulness practice six days per week. Participants are invited to use the CDs from the book Mindfulness: A Practical Guide to Finding Peace in a Frantic World (Rodale, 2011) to support their home practices. The .b Foundations course is a product of the Mindfulness in Schools Project, a non-profit organization founded by three classroom teachers and mindfulness practitioners: Richard Burnett, Chris Cullen, and Chris O’Neil. The program is taught by certified instructors and has been examined in one empirically assessed study, which showed the course increased Mindfulness, improved Mental Health through reduced stress, and improved teacher Wellbeing through greater self-compassion.⁷³ The other four domains were not examined in this study.

This popular social and emotional learning and mindfulness program from the Goldie Hawn Foundation is primarily designed for students in grades K-8, but it includes curriculum-based training for teachers interested in using the program in their own classrooms. One study found that the training had some effect on teachers’ mindfulness and wellbeing levels, but positive impacts were mostly minimal. The researchers concluded that the “results suggest the need for the application of a specific program for teachers designed to boost the development of their socioemotional skills and their mindfulness.”⁷⁴

Mindful Schools also offers very popular teacher training programs, but to date no research has been conducted to empirically assess the impact of its training programs for teachers.

Studies of mindfulness-based teacher training programs so far have shown promising positive results; however, a stronger and more reliable research base is needed to draw substantive conclusions. Future studies should include large-scale randomized-controlled trials and include long-term follow-up assessments. Researchers also should focus on developing more universal measures to assess the impact of mindfulness-based interventions. A range of psychometric scales currently are used in the existing literature, which makes it difficult to compare the studies and to aggregate the data through meta-analyses.

Additionally, future researchers must clarify the mechanisms of change that lie at the heart of these interventions. More data is needed to assess whether different styles of practice are associated with unique benefits. Eventually, researchers should compare the existing programs and their outcomes.

Program improvements

Many of the current mindfulness-based intervention programs for educators place a great deal of emphasis on intrapersonal practices and processes. In the development of future programs for teachers, closer attention should be placed on interpersonal dynamics, especially as they arise in the classroom. Particular attention should be paid to mindfulness-based pedagogical practices as well as classroom-appropriate de-escalation strategies. Classroom-based support could be offered in the form of classroom observations and individual coaching.

Similarly, program developers should spend additional time integrating programs for teachers, students, families, and administrators so that school-wide shifts might be achieved. The developers of the existing empirically validated programs could spend time assessing how their efforts might be combined to create programs for entire school communities and how these programs can be made available in accessible, cost-effective, and culturally-sensitive ways.

It is also important to ensure that implementing mindfulness-based supports for teachers does not eclipse efforts to reduce the stressors imposed on educators and their students in the first place. Researchers should spend time assessing the limits of mindfulness-based programs and consider how they might use the available data to advocate for systemic changes needed to better support school communities.

Research on the impact of teacher mindfulness training is in its earliest stages; however, many of the initial studies offer optimistic results. Specifically, mindfulness training for teachers appears helpful in reducing teachers’ experiences of stress and burnout, growing their social and emotional competence, and enhancing their physical health and wellbeing. These benefits appear to positively impact students as well by increasing students’ classroom engagement and improving their classroom behavior.

Mindfulness training appears less effective in supporting teachers who face more significant mental health challenges like anxiety and depression. The data also reveals limited impact on teachers’ classroom performance. Thus, it may be best to embed mindfulness-based teacher training within larger professional development programs rather than relying on it as a cure-all for the many challenges that teachers face.

Notably, the interventions included here take on a variety of forms, including, for example, daily 20-minute yoga sessions before school, eight-week intensive courses, and day-long professional development experiences spread throughout the school year. Additional research is needed to determine the benefits and drawbacks of each approach. As researchers continue to explore the nuances of mindfulness-based training for teachers, it may be worth considering how these efforts could be combined to create school-wide interventions. Teachers could, for example, engage in intensive courses and then expand upon that learning in daily yoga sessions and subsequent professional development experiences. Considering how the current evidence-based approaches complement one another could lead to more robust and impactful support for teachers.

Megan Downey is the contemplative schools coordinator at the Contemplative Sciences Center.

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14. ^ Mind and Life Education Research Network (MLERN). (2012). Contemplative practices and mental training: Prospects for American education. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 147.
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17. ^ Jennings, 2015.
18. ^ Siegel et al., 2016.
19. ^ On increases in teachers’ mindfulness, see: Beshai, S., McAlpine, L., Weare, K., & Kuyken, W. (2015). A non-randomised feasibility trial assessing the efficacy of a mindfulness-based intervention for teachers to reduce stress and improve well-being. Mindfulness. 7(1), 198-208.doi: 10.1007/s12671-015-0436-1; Crain, T. L., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., & Roeser, R. W. ( 2016). Cultivating teacher mindfulness: Effects of a randomized controlled trial on work, home, and sleep outcomes. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(2), 138-152. doi: 10.1037/ocp0000043; Frank, J. L., Reibel, D., Broderick, P., Cantrell, T., & Metz, S. (2014). The effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on educator stress and well-being: Results from a pilot study. Mindfulness. 6(2), 208-216. doi: 10.1007/s12671-013-0246-2; Flook, L., Goldberg, S. B., Pinger, L., Bonus, K., & Davidson, R. J. (2013). Mindfulness for teachers: A pilot study to assess effects on stress, burnout, and teaching efficacy. Mind, Brain, and Education, 7(3), 182-195. doi: 10.1111/mbe.12026; Gold, E., Smith, A., Hopper, I., Herne, D., Tansey, G., & Hulland, C. (2010). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) for primary school teachers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 184-189. doi: 10.1007/s10826-009-9344-0; Harris, A. R., Jennings, P. A., Katz, D. A., Abenavoli, R. M., & Greenberg, M. T. (2015). Promoting stress management and wellbeing in educators: Feasibility and efficacy of a school-based yoga and mindfulness intervention. Mindfulness, 7(1), 143-154. doi: 10.1007/s12671-015-0451-2; Jennings, P. A., Brown, J. L., Frank, J. L., Doyle, S., Oh, Y., Davis, R., . . . Cham, H. ( 2017). Impacts of the CARE for Teachers program on teachers social and emotional competence and classroom interactions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 1010-1028. doi: 10.1037/edu0000187; Jennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013). Improving classroom learning environments by Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE): Results of a randomized controlled trial. School Psychology Quarterly, 28(4), 374-390. doi: 10.1037/spq0000035; Jennings, P. A., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2011). Improving classroom learning environments by Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE): Results of two pilot studies. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 46(1), 37-48.; Roeser, R. W., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Jha, A., Cullen, M., Wallace, L., Wilensky, R., . . . Harrison, J. (2013). Mindfulness training and reductions in teacher stress and burnout: Results from two randomized, waitlist-control field trials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 787-804. doi:10.1037/A0032093; Rupprecht, S. P., Peter|Walach, Harald. ( 2017). Mind the teachers! The impact of mindfulness training on self-regulation and classroom performance in a sample of German school teachers. European Journal of Educational Research, 6(4), 565-581. doi: 10.12973/eu-jer.6.4.565; Taylor, C., Harrison, J., Haimovitz, K., Oberle, E., Thomson, K., Schonert-Reichl, K., & Roeser, R. W. (2015). Examining ways that a mindfulness-based intervention reduces stress in public school teachers: a mixed-methods study. Mindfulness, 7(1), 115-129. doi: 10.1007/s12671-015-0425-4; Kemeny, M.E., Foltz C., Cavanagh J.F., Cullen, M., Giese-Davis J., Jennings, P.,…Ekman, P. (2012). Contemplative/emotion training reduces negative emotional behavior and promotes prosocial responses. Emotion, 12(2), 338–350. doi 10.1037/a0026118; Reiser, J.E. & McCarthy, C.J. (2018). Preliminary investigation on a stress prevention and mindfulness group for teachers. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 43(1) 2-34., .doi 10.1080/01933922.2017.1338811. For the study that found no significant shift in teachers’ mindfulness, see: Jennings et al., 2011.
20. ^ Franco, C., Mañas, I., Cangas, A. J., & Moreno, E. (2010). Reducing teachers’ psychological distress through a mindfulness training program. The Spanish Journal of Psychology. 13(2), 655-666. doi: 10.1017/S1138741600002328; Flook et al., 2013.
21. ^ Beshai et al., 2015; Benn, R., Akiva, T., Arel, S., & Roeser, R. W. (2012). Mindfulness training effects for parents and educators of children with special needs. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1476-1487. doi: 10.1037/a0027537; Gold et al., 2010; Roeser, R. W., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Jha, A., Cullen, M., Wallace, L., Wilensky, R., . . . Harrison, J. (2013). Mindfulness training and reductions in teacher stress and burnout: Results from two randomized, waitlist-control field trials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 787-804. doi:10.1037/A0032093; Taylor et al., 2015; Rupprecht et al., 2017; Anderson, V.L., Gevinson, E.M., Barker, W., & Kiewra, K.R. (1999). The effects of meditation on teachers’ perceived occupational stress, state and trait anxiety, and burnout. School Psychology Quarterly, 14(1), 3-25. doi 10.1037/h0088995.
22. ^ Flook et al., 2013; Jennings et al., 2017; Jennings et al., 2013; Roeser et al., 2013; Anderson et al., 1999.
23. ^ Crain et al., 2016.
24. ^ Franco et al., 2010.
25. ^ For significant reductions in teachers’ experiences of anxiety, see: Benn et al., 2012; Franco et al., 2010; Kemeny et al., 2012; Anderson et al., 1999. For insignificant effects on teachers’ experiences of anxiety, see: Gold et al., 2010; Frank et al., 2014; Gouda, S., Luong, M. T., Schmidt, S., & Bauer, J. ( 2016). Students and teachers benefit from Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction in a school-embedded pilot study. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(590). doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00590; Jennings et al., 2017.
26. ^ For significant reductions in teachers’ experiences of depression, see: Benn et al., 2012; Franco et al., 2010; Gold et al., 2010; Roeser et al., 2013. For insignificant effects on teachers’ experiences of depression, see: Frank et al., 2014; Jennings et al., 2011; Jennings et al., 2013; Jennings et al., 2017.
27. ^ For significant reductions in teachers’ experiences of somatization, see: Franco et al., 2010; Kemeny et al., 2012. For insignificant effects on teachers’ experiences of somatization, see: Frank et al., 2014.
28. ^ For significant reductions in teachers’ experiences of negative affect, see: Benn et al., 2012; Crain et al., 2016; Rupprecht et al., 2017; Taylor et al., 2015; Kemeny et al., 2012. For insignificant effects on teachers’ experiences of negative affect, see: Jennings et al., 2011; Jennings et al., 2013; Jennings et al., 2017; Harris et al., 2015.
29. ^ Crain et al., 2016; Frank et al., 2014; Jennings et al., 2017.
30. ^ Roeser et al., 2013; Harris et al., 2015.
31. ^ Roeser et al., 2013; Harris et al., 2015.
32. ^ Jennings et al., 2017; Harris et al., 2015.
33. ^ Roeser et al., 2013.
34. ^ Benn et al., 2012; Frank et al., 2014; Harris et al., 2015; Taylor et al., 2015; Rupprecht et al., 2017.
35. ^ Franco et al., 2010.
36. ^ Benn et al., 2012.
37. ^ Kemeny et al., 2012.
38. ^ Taylor et al., 2015; Kemeny et al., 2012.
39. ^ Ramsey, A. T., & Jones, E. E. (2015). Minding the interpersonal gap: Mindfulness-based interventions in the prevention of ostracism. Consciousness and Cognition, 31, 24-34. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2014.10.003.
40. ^ Taylor et al., 2015.
41. ^ Rupprecht et al., 2017.
42. ^ Beshai et al., 2015; Benn et al., 2012; Frank et al., 2014; Flook et al., 2013; Roeser et al., 2013.
43. ^ Crain et al., 2016
44. ^ Benn et al., 2012.
45. ^ For significant increases in teachers’ experiences of positive affect, see: Benn et al., 2012; Harris et al., 2015; Kemeny et al., 2012. For insignificant effects on teachers’ experiences of positive affect, see: Jennings et al., 2011; Jennings et al., 2013.
46. ^ Jennings et al., 2011.
47. ^ Jennings et al., 2017.
48. ^ For significant improvements in teachers’ classroom management skills, see: Harris et al., 2015. For insignificant effects on teachers’ classroom management skills, see: Jennings et al., 2011.
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52. ^ Reiser et al., 2018.
53. ^ Jennings et al., 2013
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